Foreign relations of the United Kingdom

The diplomatic foreign relations of the United Kingdom are conducted by the Foreign and Commonwealth Office, headed by the Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs. The Prime Minister and numerous other agencies play a role in setting policy, and many institutions and businesses have a voice and a role.

The United Kingdom was the world's foremost power during the 19th and early 20th centuries, most notably during the so-called "Pax Britannica"—a period of totally unrivaled supremacy and unprecedented international peace during the mid-to-late 1800s. The country continued to be widely considered a superpower until the Suez crisis of 1956, and this embarrassing incident coupled with the loss of the empire left the UK's dominant role in global affairs to be gradually diminished. Nevertheless, the United Kingdom remains a great power and a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council, a founding member of the G7, G8, G20, NATO, OECD, WTO, Council of Europe, OSCE, and the Commonwealth of Nations, the latter being a legacy of the British Empire. The UK had been a member state of the European Union (and a member of its predecessors) since 1973. However, due to the outcome of a 2016 membership referendum, proceedings to withdraw from the EU began in 2017 and concluded when the UK formally left the EU on 31 January 2020. Since the vote, policymakers have begun pursuing new trade agreements with other global partners.

History

Main article: History of the foreign relations of the United Kingdom

Further information: Timeline of British diplomatic history and History of the United Kingdom

The Peninsular War battle between the French and the British armies in 1813

British foreign relations were largely carried over from the Kingdom of England's place in the world. British foreign policy initially focused on achieving a balance of power within Europe, with no one country achieving dominance over the affairs of the continent. This was a major reason behind the British wars against Napoleon, the involvement in the First and Second World Wars.

The chief enemy of the British, from the Hundred Years' War until the defeat of Napoleon (1337-1815) was France, a much larger country with a more powerful army. The British were generally successful in their many wars. The notable exception was the American War of Independence (1775–1783), when Britain, without any major allies, was defeated by the colonials who had the support of France, the Netherlands and Spain. A favoured diplomatic strategy was subsidising the armies of continental allies, such as Prussia, thereby turning London's enormous financial power to military advantage. Britain relied heavily on its Royal Navy for security, seeking to keep it the most powerful fleet afloat with a full complement of bases across the globe. British dominance of the seas was vital to the formation of the British Empire, which was achieved through the maintenance of a Navy larger than the next two largest Navies combined for the majority of the 19th and early 20th centuries, prior to the entry of the United States into the Second World War.

1814–1914

Main article: History of the foreign relations of the United Kingdom § 1814-1914

Further information: International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919)

Map of the British Empire (as of 1910). At its height, it was the largest empire in history.

First World War

Main article: History of the foreign relations of the United Kingdom § First World War

Further information: Causes of World War I and Treaty of Versailles

1920s

Main article: History of the foreign relations of the United Kingdom § 1920s

Britain was a "troubled giant" that was less of a dominant diplomatic force in the 1920s than before. It often had to give way to the United States, which frequently exercised its financial superiority.[1] The main themes of British foreign policy include a role at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, where Lloyd George worked hard to moderate French demands for revenge.[2] He was partly successful, but Britain soon had to moderate French policy toward Germany, as in the Locarno Treaties.[3][4] Britain was an active member of the new League of Nations, but its list of major achievements was slight.[5][6]

Disarmament was high on the agenda, and Britain played a major role following the United States in the Washington Naval Conference of 1921 in working toward naval disarmament of the major powers. By 1933 disarmament had collapsed and the issue became rearming for a war against Germany.[7] Britain was much less successful in negotiating with United States regarding the large loans. Britain was obliged to repay. Britain supported the American solution through the Dawes Plan and the Young Plan, whereby Germany paid its reparations using money borrowed from New York banks.[8] The Great Depression starting in 1929 put enormous pressure on the British economy. Britain move toward imperial preference, which meant low tariffs among the Commonwealth of Nations, and higher barriers toward trade with outside countries. The flow of money from New York dried up, and the system of reparations and payment of debt died in 1931.

In domestic British politics, the emerging Labour Party had a distinctive and suspicious foreign policy based on pacifism. Its leaders believed that peace was impossible because of capitalism, secret diplomacy, and the trade in armaments. That is it stressed material factors that ignored the psychological memories of the Great War, and the highly emotional tensions regarding nationalism and the boundaries of the countries. Nevertheless, party leader Ramsay MacDonald spent much of his attention on European policies.[9]

1930s

Main article: History of the foreign relations of the United Kingdom § 1930s

Further information: Appeasement and Neville Chamberlain's European Policy

Chamberlain, Daladier, Hitler, and Mussolini pictured before signing the Munich Agreement, which gave the Sudetenland to Nazi Germany.

Vivid memories of the horrors and deaths of the World War inclined many Britons—and their leaders in all parties—to pacifism in the interwar era. This led directly to the appeasement of dictators in order to avoid their threats of war.[10]

The challenge came from dictators, first Benito Mussolini of Italy, then Adolf Hitler of a much more powerful Nazi Germany. The League of Nations proved disappointing to its supporters; it was unable to resolve any of the threats posed by the dictators. British policy was to "appease" them in the hopes they would be satiated. By 1938 it was clear that war was looming, and that Germany had the world's most powerful military. The final act of appeasement came when Britain and France sacrificed Czechoslovakia to Hitler's demands at the Munich Agreement of 1938.[11] Instead of satiation Hitler menaced Poland, and at last Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain dropped appeasement and stood firm in promising to defend Poland. Hitler however cut a deal with Joseph Stalin to divide Eastern Europe; when Germany did invade Poland in September 1939, Britain and France declared war; the British Commonwealth followed London's lead.[12]

Second World War

Further information: Causes of World War II and Diplomatic history of World War II

Since 1945

Further information: Political history of the United Kingdom (1945–present) and Cold War

Overseas military bases in 2016 (blue) and military interventions since 2000 (red).

Economically in dire straits in 1945 (saddled with debt and facing up to widespread destruction of its infrastructure), Britain systematically reduced its overseas commitments. It pursued an alternate role as an active participant in the Cold War against communism, especially as a founding member of NATO.[13]

The British had built up a very large worldwide Empire, which peaked in size in 1922, after more than half a century of unchallenged global supremacy. The cumulative costs of fighting two world wars, however, placed a heavy burden upon the home economy, and after 1945 the British Empire rapidly began to disintegrate, with all the major colonies gaining independence. By the mid-to-late 1950s, the UK's status as a superpower was gone in the face of the United States and the Soviet Union. Most former colonies joined the "Commonwealth of Nations", an organisation of fully independent nations now with equal status to the UK. However it attempted no major collective policies.[14][15] The last major colony, Hong Kong, was handed over to China in 1997.[16] Fourteen British Overseas Territories maintain a constitutional link to the UK, but are not part of the country per se.[17]

Britain slashed its involvements in the Middle East after the humiliating Suez Crisis of 1956. However Britain did forge close military ties with the United States, France, and Germany, through the NATO military alliance. After years of debate (and rebuffs), Britain joined the Common Market in 1973; which is now the European Union.[18] However it did not merge financially, and kept the pound separate from the Euro, which partly isolated it from the EU financial crisis of 2011.[19] As of 23 June 2016, the UK has voted to leave the EU.[20][21]

The UK is currently establishing air and naval facilities in the Persian Gulf, located in the United Arab Emirates and Bahrain.[22][23][24] A presence in Oman is also being considered.[25]

21st century

British Prime Minister Boris Johnson and U.S. President Donald Trump at the 45th G7 in Biarritz, August 2019.

Foreign policy initiatives of UK governments since the 1990s have included military intervention in conflicts and for peacekeeping, humanitarian assistance programmes and increased aid spending, support for establishment of the International Criminal Court, debt relief for developing countries, prioritisation of initiatives to address climate change, and promotion of free trade.[26] The British approach has been described as "spread the right norms and sustain NATO".[27]

Lunn et al. (2008) argue:[28]

Three key motifs of Tony Blair’s 10-year premiership were an activist philosophy of 'interventionism', maintaining a strong alliance with the US and a commitment to placing Britain at the heart of Europe. While the 'special relationship' and the question of Britain’s role in Europe have been central to British foreign policy since the Second World War...interventionism was a genuinely new element.

In 2013, the government of David Cameron described its approach to foreign policy by saying:[29]

For any given foreign policy issue, the UK potentially has a range of options for delivering impact in our national interest. ... [W]e have a complex network of alliances and partnerships through which we can work.... These include – besides the EU – the UN and groupings within it, such as the five permanent members of the Security Council (the “P5”); NATO; the Commonwealth; the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development; the G8 and G20 groups of leading industrialised nations; and so on.

The Strategic Defence and Security Review 2015 highlighted a range of foreign policy initiatives of the UK government.[30][31] Edward Longinotti notes how current British defence policy is grappling with how to accommodate two major commitments, to Europe and to an ‘east of Suez’ global military strategy, within a modest defence budget that can only fund one. He points out that Britain's December 2014 agreement to open a permanent naval base in Bahrain underlines its gradual re-commitment east of Suez.[32]

At the end of January 2020, the United Kingdom left the European Union.

Major international disputes since 1945

• 1946–1949 – involved in Greek Civil War
• 1945–1948 – administration of the Mandate for Palestine, ending with the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948. British forces often faced conflict with Arab nationalists and Jewish Zionist militia, including those who in 1946 blew up the King David Hotel, which was British administrative and military HQ, killing 91 people.
• 1947–1991 – Cold War with Soviet Union
• 1948–1949 – Berlin Blockade – dispute with USSR over access to West Berlin and general Soviet expansionism in Eastern Europe[33]
• 1948–1960 – Malayan Emergency – armed conflict against the politically isolated Communist forces of the Malayan National Liberation Army
• 1950–1953 – Korean War – war with North Korea
• 1951–1954 – Abadan Crisis – dispute with Iran over expropriated oil assets
• 1956–1957 – Suez Crisis – armed conflict with Egypt over its seizure of the Suez Canal Zone, and dispute with most of international community
• 1958 – First Cod War – fishing dispute with Iceland
• 1962–1966 – Konfrontasi – war with Indonesia
  

  British street patrol in Aden in 1967
• 1972–1973 – Second Cod War – fishing dispute with Iceland
• 1975–1976 – Third Cod War – fishing dispute with Iceland[34]
• 1982 – Falklands War – war with Argentina over the Falkland Islands and other British South Atlantic territory.
• 1983 – Condemnation of the United States over its invasion of Grenada.[35]
• 1984 – dispute with Libya after a policewoman is shot dead in London by a gunman from within the Libyan embassy and considerable Libyan support for the IRA in Northern Ireland.
• 1988 – further dispute with Libya over the 1988 bombing of a Pan Am flight over the Scottish town of Lockerbie[36]
• 1991 – Gulf War with Iraq[37]
• 1995 – under UN mandate, military involvement in Yugoslavia (specifically Bosnia)
• 1997 – Hong Kong handover to Chinese rule. Britain secures guarantees for a "special status" that would continue capitalism and protect existing British property.[38]
• 1999 – involvement in NATO bombing campaign against Yugoslavia over Kosovo
• 2000 – British action in saving the UN peacekeeping force from collapse and defeating the anti-government rebellion during the Sierra Leone Civil War
• 2001 – UN-sponsored war against, and subsequent occupation of, Afghanistan
  

  A Lynx Helicopter of the British Army Air Corps ready to touch down on a desert road south of Basra Airport, November 2003
• 2003 – Collaborate with US and others in war and occupation of, Iraq Over 46,000 British troops subsequently occupy Basra and Southern Iraq
• 2007 – (ongoing) diplomatic dispute with Russia over the death of Alexander Litvinenko[39] Additional matters have strained British-Russian relations; continued espionage, Russian human rights violations and support of regimes hostile to the west (Syria, Iran)
• 2009 – (ongoing) Dispute with Iran over its alleged nuclear weapons programme, including sanctions and Iranian condemnation of the British government culminating in a 2011 attack on the British Embassy in Iran.
• 2011 – under UN mandate, UK Armed Forces participated in enforcing the Libyan No-Fly Zone as part of Operation Ellamy
• 2013 – support to French forces in the Malian civil war, including training and equipment to African peacekeeping and Malian government forces.
• 2015 – support to US-led coalition against the Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant.
• 2016 – P5+1 and EU implement a deal with Iran intended to prevent the country gaining access to nuclear weapons.[40]
• 2018 – Sanctions on Russia following the poisoning of Sergei Skripal using a nerve agent in Salisbury, England included the expulsions of 23 diplomats, the largest ever since the Cold War, an act that was retaliated by Russia. A further war of words entailed and relations are deteriorating.

Sovereignty disputes

Gibraltar National Day celebrations in 2013

• Spain claims the British overseas territory of Gibraltar.[41]
• Mauritius and the Maldives claims the entire Chagos Archipelago in the British Indian Ocean Territory, including the island of Diego Garcia used as a joint UK/US military base since the 1970s when the inhabitants were forcibly removed, Blenheim Reef, Speakers Bank and all the other features.[42][43]
• Conflicting claims over the Falkland Islands and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, controlled by the United Kingdom but claimed by Argentina. The dispute escalated into the Falklands War in 1982 over the islands' sovereignty, in which Argentina was defeated.
• There is a territorial claim in Antarctica, the British Antarctic Territory, which overlaps with areas claimed by Chile and Argentina.[44]
• Dispute over territorial waters and continental shelf rights around Rockall.[45]

Commonwealth of Nations

Members of the Commonwealth of Nations.

The UK has varied relationships with the countries that make up the Commonwealth of Nations which originated from the British Empire. Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom is Head of the Commonwealth and is Queen of 16 of its 53 member states. Those that retain the Queen as head of state are called Commonwealth realms. Over time several countries have been suspended from the Commonwealth for various reasons. Zimbabwe was suspended because of the authoritarian rule of its President[46] and so too was Pakistan, but it has since returned. Countries which become republics are still eligible for membership of the Commonwealth so long as they are deemed democratic. Commonwealth nations such as Malaysia enjoyed no export duties in trade with the UK before the UK concentrated its economic relationship with EU member states.

The UK was once a dominant colonial power in many countries on the continent of Africa and its multinationals remain large investors in sub-Saharan Africa. Nowadays the UK, as a leading member of the Commonwealth of Nations, seeks to influence Africa through its foreign policies. Current UK disputes are with Zimbabwe over human rights violations. Tony Blair set up the Africa Commission and urged rich countries to cease demanding developing countries repay their large debts. Relationships with developed (often former dominion) nations are strong with numerous cultural, social and political links, mass inter-migration trade links as well as calls for Commonwealth free trade.

From 2016–2018, the Windrush scandal occurred, where the UK deported a number British Citizens with Commonwealth heritage back to their Commonwealth country on claims they were "illegal immigrants".

Africa

Country	Formal Relations Began	Notes
Algeria	1962	See Foreign relations of Algeria
Angola	1975	See Foreign relations of Angola United Kingdom has an embassy in Luanda. Angola has an embassy in London.
Benin	1962	See Foreign relations of Benin
Botswana	1966	See Foreign relations of Botswana United Kingdom has a high commission in Gaborone. Botswana has a high commission in London.
Burkina Faso	1962	See Foreign relations of Burkina Faso
Burundi	1962	See Foreign relations of Burundi
Cameroon	1960	See Foreign relations of Cameroon
Cape Verde	1975	See Foreign relations of Cape Verde
Central African Republic	1960	See Foreign relations of the Central African Republic
Chad	1962	See Foreign relations of Chad
Comoros	1975	See Foreign relations of Comoros
Democratic Republic of the Congo	1960	See Democratic Republic of the Congo–United Kingdom relations
Republic of the Congo	1960	See Foreign relations of the Republic of the Congo
Djibouti		See Foreign relations of Djibouti
Egypt	1922	See Egypt–United Kingdom relations
Equatorial Guinea	1968	See Foreign relations of Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea	1993	See Foreign relations of Eritrea
Eswatini	1968	See Foreign relations of Eswatini
Ethiopia	1897	See Foreign relations of Ethiopia
Gabon	1960	See Foreign relations of Gabon
Gambia	1965	See Foreign relations of Gambia
Ghana	1957	See Foreign relations of Ghana
Guinea	1958	See Foreign relations of Guinea
Guinea-Bissau		See Foreign relations of Guinea-Bissau
Ivory Coast	1960	See Foreign relations of Ivory Coast
Kenya	1960	See Foreign relations of Kenya
Lesotho	1966	See Foreign relations of Lesotho
Liberia	1847	See Foreign relations of Liberia
Libya		See Libya–United Kingdom relations
Madagascar		See Foreign relations of Madagascar
Malawi	1964	See Malawi–United Kingdom relations
Mali		See Foreign relations of Mali
Mauritania	1960	See Foreign relations of Mauritania
Mauritius		See Foreign relations of Mauritius
Morocco	1956	See Morocco–United Kingdom relations According to some accounts, in the beginning of the 13th century King John of England (1167–1216) sent an embassy to the Almohad Sultan Muhammad al-Nasir (1199–1213), requesting military support and an alliance against France.[47] At home, King John was faced with a dire situation, in which his Barons revolted against him, he had been excommunicated by the Pope, and France was threatening to invade. The embassy of three was led by Bishop Roger, and King John supposedly offered to convert to Islam and pay a tribute to al-Nasir in exchange for his help. Al-Nasir apparently dismissed the proposal.[48]
Mozambique	1975	See Foreign relations of Mozambique
Namibia	1990	See Namibia–United Kingdom relations
Niger	1960	See Foreign relations of Niger
Nigeria	1960	See Nigeria–United Kingdom relations Nigeria, formerly a colony, gained independence from Britain in 1960.[49] Large numbers of Nigerians have since emigrated to Britain. The British government played an important role in resolving the Nigerian Civil War. Trade and investment between the two countries are strong, many British multinational companies are active in Nigeria, especially Shell in oil and gas production.
Rwanda	1962	See Foreign relations of Rwanda
São Tomé and Príncipe	1975	See Foreign relations of São Tomé and Príncipe
Senegal	1960	See Foreign relations of Senegal
Seychelles	1976	See Foreign relations of Seychelles
Sierra Leone	1961	See Foreign relations of Sierra Leone
Somalia	1960	See Somalia – United Kingdom relations
South Africa	1927	See South Africa–United Kingdom relations
South Sudan	2011	See Foreign relations of South Sudan
Sudan	1959	See Sudan–United Kingdom relations Sudan has an embassy in London whilst the United Kingdom has an embassy in Khartoum.
Tanzania	1964	See Foreign relations of Tanzania
Togo		See Foreign relations of Togo
Tunisia	1956	See Foreign relations of Tunisia
Uganda	1962	See Foreign relations of Uganda
Zambia	1960	See Foreign relations of Zambia
Zimbabwe	1980	See United Kingdom–Zimbabwe relations

Americas

Country	Formal Relations Began	Notes
Antigua and Barbuda	1981	See Foreign relations of Antigua and Barbuda
Argentina	1823-12-15	See Argentina–United Kingdom relations Diplomatic relations were cut off before the Falklands War, they were reinstated only in 1990, after the departure of Margaret Thatcher from the post of Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. Argentina has an embassy in London[50] The United Kingdom has an embassy in Buenos Aires.[51] List of Treaties ruling the relations Argentina and United Kingdom (Argentine Foreign Ministry, in Spanish)
Bahamas	1973	See Foreign relations of the Bahamas
Barbados	1966	See Barbados–United Kingdom relations The two countries are related through common history beginning in the 1620s, the Commonwealth of Nations and their sharing of the same Head of State, Queen Elizabeth II as their Monarch. As one of the first English colonies, the initial permanent European settlement took place in the early seventeenth century by English settlers. Barbados thereafter remained as a territory until it negotiated independence in 1966. In recent years, increasing numbers of British nationals have purchased secondary homes in Barbados,[52] and the islands ranked as the Caribbean regions' fourth largest export market of the United Kingdom.[53] The British High Commission was established in Bridgetown, Barbados in 1966. There is a Barbadian High Commission in London.
Belize	1981	See Belize–United Kingdom relations Belize has a high commission in London. United Kingdom has a high commission in Belmopan.
Bolivia	1837	See Foreign relations of Bolivia Bolivia has an embassy in London. United Kingdom has an embassy in La Paz.
Brazil	1826	See Brazil–United Kingdom relations Brazil has an embassy in London. United Kingdom has an embassy in Brasília.
Canada	1880	See Canada–United Kingdom relations Both nations enjoy a cooperative and intimate contact; the two countries are related through history, the Commonwealth of Nations, and their sharing of the same Head of State and monarch.[54] Both countries fought together in both World Wars, the Korean War, and more recently cooperate in the coalition in the War in Afghanistan. Both are founding members of NATO, and also belong to the G7 (and the G8). Winston Churchill said Canada was the "linchpin of the English-speaking world", as it connects two other anglophone countries: the US and the UK. These three countries were the first to share the knowledge of the atom bomb with each other, as all three worked on the Manhattan Project together. Despite this shared history, the UK and Canada have grown apart economically. The UK was Canada's largest trade partner in the 19th and early 20th centuries, but is now well down the list. The two nations now find themselves in separate trade blocs, the EU for the UK and NAFTA for Canada. However relations are still strong, with large migration between the two countries, as well as Canada having the highest favourable public opinion of the UK in the world.
Chile	1844	See Chile–United Kingdom relations Chile provided some assistance to Britain during the Falklands War since it was itself at risk of possible war with Argentina regarding the boundary between the two nations in the Beagle Channel.[55] The United Kingdom has embassies in Valparaíso, Puerto Montt, Punta Arenas and Santiago. Chile has an embassy in London.
Colombia	1825-04-18	See Colombia–United Kingdom relations Colombia has an embassy in London.[56] The United Kingdom has an embassy in Bogotá and two consulates in Cali and Cartagena.[57] The United Kingdom helped Colombia to gain independence from Spain. Colombia, as well as the United States and Chile, declared Argentina to be the aggressor of the Falklands War. See also Colombians in the United Kingdom. British Foreign and Commonwealth Office about the relation with Colombia
Costa Rica	1849	See Foreign relations of Costa Rica
Cuba	1902	See Cuba–United Kingdom relations
Dominica	1978	See Foreign relations of Dominica
Dominican Republic	1871	See Foreign relations of the Dominican Republic
Ecuador	1935	See Foreign relations of Ecuador In 2012, relations came under strain when Julian Assange, founder of the WikiLeaks website, entered the Ecuadorian embassy in London and sought asylum; Assange had recently lost a legal case against his extradition to Sweden on charges of sexual assault and rape, but when within the embassy he was on diplomatic territory and beyond the reach of the British police.[58] The United Kingdom Foreign and Commonwealth Office delivered a note to the Ecuadorian government in Quito reminding them of the provisions of the Diplomatic and Consular Premises Act 1987 which allow the British government to withdraw recognition of diplomatic protection from embassies; the move was interpreted as a hostile act by Ecuador, with Foreign Minister Ricardo Patiño stating that this "explicit threat" would be met with "appropriate responses in accordance with international law".[59] Assange was granted diplomatic asylum on 16 August 2012, with Foreign Minister Patiño stating that Assange's fears of political persecution were "legitimate".[60]
El Salvador	1834	See Foreign relations of El Salvador
Grenada	1974	See Grenada–United Kingdom relations
Guatemala	1834	See Foreign relations of Guatemala
Guyana	1966	See Foreign relations of Guyana
Haiti	1859	See Foreign relations of Haiti
Honduras	1834	See Foreign relations of Honduras
Jamaica	1962	See Foreign relations of Jamaica
Mexico	27 June 1824	See Mexico–United Kingdom relations The United Kingdom was the first country in Europe to recognize Mexico's Independence.[61] The relationship between the two nations began after the Pastry War when the United Kingdom aided Mexico against France. Also, relations improved when Mexico joined the British alongside the Allies to fight the Japanese forces in the Pacific War. Mexico has an embassy in London.[62] United Kingdom has an embassy in Mexico City, a consulate-general in Cancún and a consulate in Monterrey.[63]
Nicaragua	1849	See Foreign relations of Nicaragua
Panama	1904	See Foreign relations of Panama The United Kingdom has an embassy in Panama City.[64] Panama has an embassy in London.[65] The UK and Panama have a strong bilateral relationship.
Paraguay	1853-03-04	See Paraguay–United Kingdom relations Diplomatic relations between both countries were established on 4 March 1853, with the signing of a treaty of Friendship, Trade and Navigation. A dominant view in Paraguay and significant in all the Southern Cone is that the interests of the British Empire played a considerable role during the Paraguayan War.[66] The United Kingdom is represented in Paraguay through its embassy in Buenos Aires (Argentina) and an honorary consulate in Asunción. Paraguay has an embassy in London.[67] British Foreign and Commonwealth Office about relations with Paraguay Paraguayan Ministry of Foreign Relations about relations with the United Kingdom
Peru	1827	See Foreign relations of Peru
Saint Kitts and Nevis	1983	See Foreign relations of Saint Kitts and Nevis
Saint Lucia	1979	See Foreign relations of Saint Lucia
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines	1979	See Foreign relations of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Suriname	1975	See Foreign relations of Suriname
Trinidad and Tobago	1962	See Trinidad and Tobago–United Kingdom relations
United States	1785-06-01	See United Kingdom–United States relations United States President Barack Obama talks to British Prime Minister David Cameron on the South Lawn of the White House, 20 July 2010 The United Kingdom and the United States are close military allies. The two countries share cultural similarities, as well as military research and intelligence facilities. The UK has purchased military technology from the USA such as Trident ballistic missiles, and the US has purchased equipment from Britain (e.g. Harrier Jump Jet). The USA also maintains a large number of military personnel in the UK. In recent years, the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and the President of the United States have often been close friends, for example Tony Blair and Bill Clinton (and later Blair and George W. Bush), and the often like-minded Margaret Thatcher and Ronald Reagan. Present British policy is that The United Kingdom's relationship with the United States represents Britain's "most important bilateral relationship".[68]
Uruguay	1825	See United Kingdom–Uruguay relations The UK played an important role in Uruguay's history until the end of World War II, after which the United States played an increasing role. The United Kingdom has an embassy in Montevideo.[69] Uruguay has an embassy in London. British Foreign and Commonwealth Office about the relation with Uruguay
Venezuela	1842	See Venezuela–United Kingdom relations; Venezuelan crisis of 1902–1903

Asia

Country	Formal Relations Began	Notes
Afghanistan	1921	See Afghanistan–United Kingdom relations
Armenia	1992-01-02[70]	See Armenia–United Kingdom relations Armenia has an embassy in London[71] The United Kingdom has an embassy in Yerevan.[72]
Azerbaijan	1992	See Azerbaijan–United Kingdom relations Azerbaijan has an embassy in London.[73] The United Kingdom has an embassy in Baku.[74] Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE).
Bahrain	1971	See Bahrain–United Kingdom relations Bahrain has an embassy in London and the United Kingdom is only one of four European countries to have embassy in Manama. Bahrain gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1971 and has since maintained diplomatic and trade relations.
Bangladesh	1972	See Foreign relations of Bangladesh
Bhutan	No Relations	See Foreign relations of Bhutan
Brunei	1984	See Brunei–United Kingdom relations In 1888, Brunei became a British protectorate, gaining its independence from British rule less than 100 years later in 1984. The UK and Brunei have a long-standing and strong bilateral relationship, particularly on defence co-operation, trade and education. The UK continues to play a strong role in developing Brunei's oil and gas sector, and the Brunei Investment Agency is a significant investor in the UK, with their largest overseas operations in the City of London. The UK remains the destination of choice for Bruneian students, with about 1,220 of them enrolled in higher education in the UK in 2006–07. The United Kingdom has a high commission in Bandar Seri Begawan, and Brunei has a high commission in London. Both countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations.
Cambodia	1953	See Foreign relations of Cambodia
China	1954	See China–United Kingdom relations, Hong Kong–United Kingdom relations, Although on opposing sides of the Cold War, both countries were allies during World War II, and are members of the UN and permanent members of the Security Council. But because of the Cold War, First and Second Opium War, and the status of Hong Kong, and other issues, China-UK relations at some points in history have been complicated, but better at other times. In July 2019, the UN ambassadors from 22 nations, including United Kingdom, signed a joint letter to the UNHRC condemning China's mistreatment of the Uyghurs as well as its mistreatment of other minority groups, urging the Chinese government to close the Xinjiang re-education camps.[75]
East Timor	2002	See Foreign relations of East Timor
Georgia	1992	See Georgia–United Kingdom relations Georgia has an embassy in London.[76] The United Kingdom has an embassy in Tbilisi.[77]
India	1947	See India–United Kingdom relations British India was a former colony of the British Empire. India has a high commission in London and two consulates-general in Birmingham and Edinburgh.[78] The United Kingdom has a high commission in New Delhi and three deputy high commissions in Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata.[79] Although the Sterling Area no longer exists and the Commonwealth is much more an informal forum, India and the UK still have many enduring links. This is in part due to the significant number of people of Indian origin living in the UK. The Asian population in the UK results in steady travel and communication between the two countries. The English language, the railways, the legal and parliamentary systems and cricket have been warmly adopted. Indian cuisines are popular in the UK.[80] The United Kingdom's favourite food is often reported to be Indian cuisine, although no official study reports this.[80] Economically the relationship between Britain and India is also strong. The UK is the second largest investor in India after the US. India is also the fourth[81] largest investor in Britain after the US.[82][83][84]
Indonesia	1949	See Indonesia–United Kingdom relations Indonesia has an embassy in London,[85] the United Kingdom has an embassy in Jakarta.[86]
Iran	1807	See Iran–United Kingdom relations Iran, which was known as Persia before 1935, has had political relations with England since the late Ilkhanate period (13th century) when King Edward I of England sent Geoffrey de Langley to the Ilkhanid court to seek an alliance.[87]
Iraq	1920	See Iraq–United Kingdom relations Sanctions against Iraq from 1990 to 2003 prevented any form of economic relations with the United Kingdom and any other country for thirteen years. Ties between London and Baghdad are slowly progressing.
Israel	1948	See Israel–United Kingdom relations The United Kingdom has an embassy in Tel Aviv and a consul in Eilat.[88] Israel has an embassy and a consulate in London. The UK's closest partner in the Middle East is Israel, and Israel's closest partner in Europe is the UK.[89][90]
Japan	1854-10-14	See Japan–United Kingdom relations Contact began in 1600 with the arrival of William Adams (Adams the Pilot, Miura Anjin) on the shores of Kyūshū at Usuki in Ōita Prefecture. During the Sakoku period (1641–1853) there were no relations. but with the impact of Industrial Revolution, British thread company launched its business in 1907 and thrived. The treaty of 1854 saw the resumption of ties which, despite the hiatus of the Second World War, remain very strong in the present day.
Jordan	1952	See Foreign relations of Jordan
Kazakhstan	1992-01-19	See Kazakhstan–United Kingdom relations The United Kingdom opened an embassy in Kazakhstan in October 1992 and Kazakhstan opened an embassy in Britain in February 1996.[91] Kazakhstan's relations with the West have greatly improved in the last few years as the Government has closely cooperated in the United States-led War on Terror. See also: Counter-terrorism in Kazakhstan Britain is the third-largest foreign investor in Kazakhstan with British companies making up 14% of foreign direct investment. Over 100 British companies do business in Kazakhstan.[92]
Kuwait	1961	See Foreign relations of Kuwait
Kyrgyzstan	1992	See Kyrgyzstan–United Kingdom relations
Laos	1952	See Foreign relations of Laos
Lebanon	1944	See Foreign relations of Lebanon
Malaysia	1957	See Malaysia–United Kingdom relations The Yang di-Pertuan Agong in a carriage with Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom on the state visit to London, 1974. The United Kingdom has a high commission in Kuala Lumpur, and Malaysia has a high commission in London. Both countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations. Both the UK and Malaysia are part of the Five Powers Defence Arrangements. Malaysia is a strong partner of Britain in the Far East. Britain has made numerous military sacrifices in guaranteeing a stable independent Malaysia, for example the Malaysian Emergency and the protection of the country during high tensions with Indonesia-Konfrontasi. The Yang di-Pertuan Agong Sultan Abdul Halim of Kedah paid a state visit to the United Kingdom in July 1974.[93] The Yang di-Pertuan Agong Sultan Azlan Shah of Perak paid a state visit to the United Kingdom in November 1993.[93] HM Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom paid state visits to Malaysia in October 1989, and in September 1998.[94]
Maldives	1965	See Foreign relations of the Maldives
Mongolia	1963-01-23	See Foreign relations of Mongolia
Myanmar	1948	See Foreign relations of Myanmar
Nepal	1816-09-01	See Nepal–United Kingdom relations Relations between the UK and Nepal have historically been friendly and there have been close links between the Royal Families. The UK is highly regarded in Nepal as a result of historical ties, development assistance and long term support in the struggle for democratic peace in Nepal.
North Korea	2000	See North Korea–United Kingdom relations North Korea has an embassy in London. The United Kingdom has an embassy in Pyongyang.
Oman	1971	See Oman–United Kingdom relations The relations between the United Kingdom and Oman are strong and strategic.[95] In April 2010 the government of Oman stated that it wanted to buy Eurofighter Typhoons from the UK.[95] The United Kingdom has an embassy in Mina al Fahal[96] and Oman has an embassy in London.[97]
Pakistan	1947	See Pakistan-United Kingdom relations Pakistan left the Commonwealth of Nations in 1972 in protest of the organisation's recognition of Bangladeshi independence, before rejoining in 1989.
Palestine		See Palestine–United Kingdom relations The United Kingdom maintains a consulate in Jerusalem which handles British relations with the Palestinian Authority.[98] The Foreign and Commonwealth Office states the "Consular district covers Jerusalem (West and East), the West Bank and Gaza. As well as work on the Middle East Peace Process and other political issues, the consulate also promotes trade between the UK and the Occupied Palestinian Territories and manages an extensive programme of aid and development work. The latter is undertaken primarily by the DFID office in Jerusalem.".[98] The Palestinian Authority is represented in London by Manuel Hassassian, the Palestinian General Delegate to the United Kingdom.[98]
Philippines	1946-07-04	See Philippines–United Kingdom relations The United Kingdom and the Philippines have good relations. The Philippines has been one of the UK's major recruitment countries for nurses and over 80,000 Filipino nurses and care-givers work in the UK. The total Philippine community in the UK is estimated to be about 150,000. There are estimated to be some 15,000 British nationals living in the Philippines. About 180,000 British nationals visit the Philippines annually.
Qatar	1971	See Qatar-United Kingdom relations Bilateral relations between the two countries have expanded since the opening of the British embassy in Doha in 1949, marked by the arrival of British Political Officer John Wilton. UK Prime Minister David Cameron visited Qatar in 2011, and the then Emir of Qatar made a 3-day state visit in October 2010. The current Emir of Qatar made a state visit to the UK in October 2014. In March 2013, Prince Charles and his wife the Duchess of Cornwall, arrived in Qatar for a state visit. On 20 September 2019, British Prime Minister Boris Johnson hosted Sheikh Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani at the Downing Street. Johnson pressed over the fact that the UK’s relation with Qatar is going from “strength to strength”.
Saudi Arabia	1927	See Saudi Arabia–United Kingdom relations The UK has an embassy in Riyadh, consulate in Jeddah and trade office in Al Khobar.[99] Saudi Arabia has an embassy and consulate in London.[100]
Singapore	1965	See Singapore–United Kingdom relations Singapore and the United Kingdom share a friendly relationship since Singapore became independent from the United Kingdom in 1959. Singapore retained the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council as the final court of appeal up till 1989 (fully abolished in 1994) due to political reasons.
South Korea	1883-11-26[101]	See South Korea–United Kingdom relations Formal relations between South Korea and the United Kingdom commenced on the 18 January 1949[101] although diplomatic ties go back to 1883.[102] British military participation in the Korean War during the 1950s was significant, but relations between the two countries at the time were described as "tenuous", with relatively little known about each other. Commercial and trade relationships grew rapidly during the 1970s. During the Asian Financial Crisis in the late 1990s, the Queen made a state visit to South Korea which was well received at a time of crisis in the country. Today, there are strong economic and diplomatic links between the two countries.[102] The United Kingdom has a visa scheme through which young South Koreans can live and work in the UK for two years.[103] There is a British embassy in Seoul and a South Korean embassy in London.[104][105]
Sri Lanka	1948	See Sri Lanka–United Kingdom relations President Maithripala Sirisena made an official visit to the United Kingdom in 2015 and met Prime Minister David Cameron and the queen. Prime Minister Ranil Wickramasinghe made an official visit in 2018 to meet Prime Minister Theresa May.
Syria		See Foreign relations of Syria In 2001, positive relations were developed between Prime Minister Tony Blair and the Syrian government, as part of the War on Terror. Since the 2011 civil war, relations have deteriorated, and the UK was one of the first countries to recognise the opposition as the sole legitimate representative of the Syrian people.
Taiwan	No Relations	See Taiwan–United Kingdom relations Due to the One China policy the United Kingdom doesn't recognise the Government of the Republic of China and all diplomatic relations between the two countries take place on an unofficial basis. Taiwan maintains the Taipei Representative Office in the U.K. in London with a branch office in Edinburgh. The United Kingdom maintains the British Office Taipei in Taipei.
Tajikistan	1992	See Foreign relations of Tajikistan
Thailand	1855-04-18	See Thailand–United Kingdom relations Thailand is represented in the United Kingdom through the Royal Thai Embassy in London.[106] British interests in Thailand are represented through the British Embassy on Witthayu Road, Lumphini, Pathum Wan in Bangkok[107]
Turkey	1793	See Turkey–United Kingdom relations Turkey has an embassy and a consulate general in London.[108][109] The United Kingdom has an embassy in Ankara, a consulate general in Istanbul, a vice consulate in Antalya and a consulate in Izmir. The United Kingdom has honorary consulates in Adana, Bodrum, Fethiye and Marmaris.[110][111] The United Kingdom is the second biggest importer of goods from Turkey, after Germany. Turkey exports around 8% of its total goods to the United Kingdom.[112] Around 1,000,000 Britons take holidays in Turkey every year, while 100,000 Turks travel to the UK for business or pleasure.[113] The United Kingdom does not recognise the TRNC. The TRNC is only recognised by Turkey. The UK is also a signatory to a treaty with Greece and Turkey concerning the independence of Cyprus, the Treaty of Guarantee, which maintains that Britain is a "guarantor power" of the island's independence.[114] Both countries are members of NATO.
Turkmenistan	1992	See Foreign relations of Turkmenistan
United Arab Emirates	1971	See United Arab Emirates–United Kingdom relations The UAE has an embassy in London. The UK maintains an embassy in Abu Dhabi and is unique in having another Embassy in Dubai. The UAE-UK relations have been described as a "special relationship". Queen Elizabeth II has visited the UAE 2 times. 100,000 British citizens live in the UAE.
Uzbekistan	1992	See United Kingdom–Uzbekistan relations The United Kingdom maintains an embassy in Tashkent. Uzbekistan maintains an embassy in London.
Vietnam	1973	See Foreign relations of Vietnam Vietnam is represented in the UK by the Embassy of Vietnam in London.[115] The UK entered into a strategic partnership agreement with Vietnam in 2010 to demonstrate the extent of existing cooperation between the countries, as well as showing the two governments ambitions for the future.[116]
Yemen	1970	See Foreign relations of Yemen The United Kingdom has one consulate and embassy based in the centre of Sana'a.

Europe

The UK maintained good relations with Western Europe since 1945, and Eastern Europe since end of the Cold War in 1989. After years of dispute with France it joined the European Economic Community in 1973, which eventually evolved into the European Union through the Maastricht Treaty twenty years later.[117] Unlike the majority of European countries, the UK does not use the Euro as its currency and is not a member of the Eurozone.[118] During the years of its membership of the European Union, the United Kingdom had often been referred to as a "peculiar" member, due to its occasional dispute in policies with the organisation. The United Kingdom regularly opted out of EU legislation and policies. Through differences in geography, culture and history, national opinion polls have found that of the 28 nationalities in the European Union, British people have historically felt the least European.[119][120] On 23 June 2016, the United Kingdom voted to leave the European Union and formally left on 31 January 2020.

Country	Formal Relations Began	Notes
Albania	1920-12	See Albania–United Kingdom relations Albania has an embassy in London.[121] The United Kingdom has an embassy in Tirana.[122] FCO Profile Both countries are members of NATO.
Andorra	1994-03-09[123]	See Foreign relations of Andorra The United Kingdom's consulate-general in Barcelona handles the United Kingdom's consular activities in Andorra.[124]
Belarus	1992	See Foreign relations of Belarus Belarus has an embassy in London.[125] The United Kingdom has an embassy in Minsk.[126]
Bosnia and Herzegovina	1995	See Foreign relations of Bosnia and Herzegovina Bosnia and Herzegovina has an embassy in London.[127] The United Kingdom has an embassy in Sarajevo and an embassy office in Banja Luka.[128]
Iceland	1944	See Iceland–United Kingdom relations Iceland has an embassy in London and 17 honorary consulates in: Aberdeen, Birmingham, Cardiff, Dover, Edinburgh, Fleetwood, Glasgow, Grimsby, Hull, Jersey, Lerwick, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Northern Ireland, and Ormskirk.[129] The United Kingdom has an embassy in Reykjavík and a Honorary Vice-Consulate in Akureyri.[130][131] Both countries are members of NATO.
Kosovo	2008	See Kosovo–United Kingdom relations Kosovo has a Consular Mission in London.[132] The United Kingdom has an embassy in Pristina.[133] When Kosovo declared its independence from Serbia on 17 February 2008, the United Kingdom became one of the first countries to officially announce recognition of sovereign Kosovo on 18 February 2008.[134][135] The United Kingdom has had an embassy in Pristina since 5 March 2008.[136] Kosovo has an embassy in London since 1 October 2008.
Liechtenstein		See Foreign relations of Liechtenstein United Kingdom is accredited to Liechtenstein from its embassy in Bern, Switzerland. Liechtenstein does not have an accreditation to the United Kingdom.
Moldova	1992-01-17[137]	See Foreign relations of Moldova Moldova has an embassy in London.[138] The United Kingdom has an embassy in Chişinău.[139] The number of British and Moldovan citizens in Moldova and the United Kingdom respectively is insignificant. When visiting Moldova no visa obligation exists for British citizens for stays in Moldova less than 90 days, otherwise a visa is required. For Moldovan citizens a visa is required for any border crossing, except for transfer passengers. Embassy of The Republic of Moldova to United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland British Foreign and Commonwealth Office See also: Moldovans in the United Kingdom and Britishs in Moldova
Monaco		Monaco has an embassy in London. United Kingdom is accredited to Monaco from its embassy in Paris, France.
Montenegro	2006-06-13	See Montenegro–United Kingdom relations Montenegro has an embassy in London.[140] The United Kingdom has an embassy in Podgorica.[141] British Foreign and Commonwealth Office Montenegro country profile Both countries are members of NATO.
North Macedonia		See Foreign relations of North Macedonia Both countries are members of NATO.
Norway	1905	See Norway–United Kingdom relations Norway has an embassy in London and consulate general in Edinburgh. Norway also has consulates in Aberdeen, Ardrossan, Barrow-on-Furness, Belfast, Birmingham, Bristol, Cardiff, Douglas, Dundee, Gibraltar, Glasgow, Grimsby, Inverness, Jersey, Kirkwall, Lerwick, Liverpool, London, Manchester, Newcastle, Plymouth, Southampton and Stornoway.[142] The United Kingdom has an embassy in Oslo and consulates in Ålesund, Bergen, Stavanger and Trondheim. The United Kingdom also has honorary consulates in Bodø, Kristiansand and Tromsø.[143] Both countries are members of NATO.
Russia	1553	See Russia–United Kingdom relations Russia has an embassy in London and a consulate in Edinburgh.[144][145] The United Kingdom has an embassy in Moscow and consulate generals in Ekaterinburg and Saint Petersburg.[146][147] Spanning nearly five centuries, the relationship has often switched from a state of alliance to rivalry. Both countries were allies during World War I and II. During the Cold War, both countries participated in intense espionage activity against each other. In the early-21st century, especially following the poisoning of Alexander Litvinenko in 2006, relations became strained again, and since 2014 have grown more unfriendly due to the Ukrainian crisis (2013–) and to activities by Russia such as the suspected 2018 poisoning of Sergei and Yulia Skripal, seen as hostile by the UK and by many in the Western world. In the wake of the poisoning, 28 countries expelled suspected Russian spies acting as diplomats.[148]
San Marino	1899;1961	See San Marino–United Kingdom relations San Marino has a consulate general in London.[149] The United Kingdom has a consulate general to San Marino in Rome.[150]
Serbia	1837	See Serbia–United Kingdom relations Serbia has an embassy in London.[151] The United Kingdom has an embassy in Belgrade.[152] British Foreign and Commonwealth Office about relations with Serbia
Switzerland	1900	See Switzerland–United Kingdom relations Switzerland has an embassy in London and consulate general in Edinburgh. Switzerland also has consulates in Belfast, Cardiff, Cayman Islands, Gibraltar, Hamilton, Manchester and St Peter Port.[153][154] The United Kingdom has an embassy in Bern.[155]
Ukraine	1991	See Ukraine–United Kingdom relations Ukraine opened an embassy in London in October 1992 and a consulate general in Edinburgh in February 2002.[156] The United Kingdom Consulate-General in Kiev opened in November 1991 and became an embassy in January 1992.[157] See also Ukrainian diaspora in the United Kingdom British Foreign and Commonwealth Office about the relations with Ukraine
Vatican City	1982	See Holy See–United Kingdom relations With the English Reformation, diplomatic links between London and the Holy See, which had been established in 1479, were interrupted in 1536 and again, after a brief restoration in 1553, in 1558. Formal diplomatic ties between the United Kingdom and the Holy See were restored in 1914 and raised to ambassadorial level in 1982.[158][159]

European Union

See also: European Union–United Kingdom relations

Country	Formal Relations Began	Notes
Austria	1799	See Austria-United Kingdom relations Austria has an embassy in London and 4 honorary consulates (in Birmingham, Edinburgh, Grand Cayman and Hamilton).[160] The United Kingdom has an embassy in Vienna and 4 honorary consulates in Bergenz, Graz, Innsbruck, and Salzburg.[161][162] Relations between the Austrian Empire and England were established in the Middle Ages. The United Kingdom and Austria continue these relations.
Belgium	1830	See Belgium–United Kingdom relations Belgium has an embassy in London and honorary consulates in Belfast, Birmingham, Edinburgh, Gibraltar, Kingston-upon-Hull, Manchester, Newcastle upon Tyne, Saint Helier and Southampton.[163] The United Kingdom has an embassy and a consulate general in Brussels.[126][164] The two countries have trading links going back to the 10th century, especially wool trade from England to the County of Flanders. Both countries are members of NATO.
Bulgaria	1879-07	See Bulgaria–United Kingdom relations Bulgaria has an embassy in London and an honorary consulate in Dundee.[165] The United Kingdom has an embassy in Sofia,[166] Both countries are members of NATO.
Croatia	1992	See Croatia-United Kingdom relations Croatia has an embassy in London and a consulate in Edinburgh.[167] The United Kingdom has an embassy in Zagreb and consulates in Dubrovnik and Split.[168][169] Both countries are members of NATO.
Cyprus	1960	See Cyprus–United Kingdom relations The UK maintains two sovereign area military bases on the island of Cyprus. The UK is also a signatory to a treaty with Greece and Turkey concerning the independence of Cyprus, the Treaty of Guarantee, which maintains that Britain is a "guarantor power" of the island's independence.[114] Cyprus has a High Commission in London and honorary consulates in Birmingham, Bristol, Dunblane, Glasgow, Northern Ireland and West Yorkshire.[170] The United Kingdom has a High Commission in Nicosia.[171]
Czechia	1993	See Czech Republic–United Kingdom relations Czechia has an embassy in London and honorary consulates in Belfast and Edinburgh.[172][173] The United Kingdom has an embassy in Prague.[174] HM Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom paid a state visit to Czechia in March 1996.[175] Both countries are members of NATO.
Denmark	1654-10-01	See Denmark–United Kingdom relations Denmark has an embassy in London. The United Kingdom has an embassy in Copenhagen. HM Queen Margrethe II of Denmark paid state visits to the United Kingdom in April/May 1974, and in February 2000.[176] HM Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom paid state visits to Denmark in May 1957, and in May 1979.[177] Both countries are members of NATO.
Estonia	1991	See Foreign relations of Estonia Estonia has an embassy in London and honorary consuls in Liverpool, Cheltenham, Paisley and Wales.[178][179] The United Kingdom has an embassy in Tallinn.[180] Both countries are members of NATO.
Finland	1919-05-06[181]	See Foreign relations of Finland Finland has an embassy in London and honorary consulates in Aberdeen, Belfast, Birmingham, Bristol, Cardiff, Dover, Dundee, Edinburgh, Gibraltar, Glasgow, Hamilton, Harwich, Hull, Immingham, Leeds, Lerwick, Liverpool, Manchester, Middlesbrough, Newcastle-Upon-Tyne, Nottingham, Plymouth, Rochester, Sheffield, Southampton and St Helier.[181] The United Kingdom has an embassy in Helsinki and honorary consulates in the Åland Islands, Jyväskylä, Kotka, Kuopio, Oulu, Rovaniemi, Turku, Tampere and Vaasa.[182]
France	1505	See France–United Kingdom relations France has an embassy in London and consulate generals in London and Edinburgh.[183] The United Kingdom has an embassy in Paris and consulates in Bordeaux, Lyon and Marseille.[184] Both countries are members of NATO.
Germany	1680	See Germany–United Kingdom relations Germany has an embassy in London and a consulate general in Edinburgh. German also has honorary consulates in Aberdeen, Barrow on Humber, Belfast, Coventry, Bristol, Cardiff, Dover, Glasgow, Guernsey, Jersey, Kirkwall, Leeds, Lerwick, Liverpool, Middlesbrough, Newcastle upon Tyne, Plymouth and Southampton.[185][186][187] The United Kingdom has an embassy in Berlin and consulate generals in Düsseldorf and Munich. The United Kingdom also has honorary consulates in Bremen, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Hannover, Kiel, Nürnberg and Stuttgart.[188][189][190] The UK maintains military bases in Germany. Both countries are members of NATO.
Greece	1832	See Greece–United Kingdom relations Greece has an embassy in London and honorary consulates in Belfast, Birmingham, Edinburgh, Gibraltar, Glasgow and Leeds.[191] The United Kingdom has an embassy in Athens and a Honorary Vice Consulate in Patras. The United Kingdom also has honorary consulates in Crete, Corfu, Rhodes, Thessaloniki and Zakynthos.[192][193] Both countries are members of NATO.
Hungary	1920	See also: Foreign relations of Hungary [194] Hungary has an embassy in London and honorary consulates in Belfast, Cardiff, Edinburgh, Liverpool and Torquay.[195] The United Kingdom has an embassy in Budapest.[196] Both countries are members of NATO.
Ireland	1921	See Ireland–United Kingdom relations Despite a long history of conflict from English Tudor plantation in Ireland to the Irish War of independence, the UK presently works closely with the government of the Republic of Ireland in areas concerning the peace process in Northern Ireland as well as on many security issues. In 1949 the Irish Houses of Parliament passed the Republic of Ireland Act, making the Republic of Ireland officially fully independent; the country withdrew from the Commonwealth. Under the Ireland Act 1949 Irish citizens are treated as though they are Commonwealth citizens and not aliens for the purposes of law. Until 1998, the Republic of Ireland claimed Northern Ireland, but this was rescinded under the Belfast Agreement through an amendment of the Irish Constitution, which now states an aspiration to peaceful unity. There is an ongoing dispute that also involves Denmark and Iceland, over the status of the ocean floor surrounding Rockall. However, this is for the most part a trivial issue that rarely makes it onto British-Irish meeting agendas.[45] Ireland has confidential agreements with both the United Kingdom and NATO to defend sovereign Irish airspace from intrusions or attacks. Ireland has an embassy in London and a consulate general in Edinburgh.[197] The United Kingdom has an embassy in Dublin.[198] Under the Ireland Act 1949 Irish citizens are treated as though they are Commonwealth citizens and not aliens for the purposes of law. See Commonwealth of Nations & Ireland Section above.
Italy	1861	See Italy–United Kingdom relations Italy has an embassy in London, two consulate generals, in Edinburgh and London, and honorary consulates in Belfast, Glasgow & Liverpool. Italy also has Honorary Vice Consulates in Aberdeen, Birmingham, Cardiff & Nottingham and Honorary Consular Agency in Ashford, Bristol, Chestnut, Dundee, Greenock, Guernsey, Hull, Jersey, Newcastle upon Tyne, Peterborough, Watford & Woking.[199] The United Kingdom has an embassy in Rome, a consulate-general in Milan and a consulate in Rome.[200][201] Between 4 and 5 million British tourists visit Italy every year, while 1 million Italian tourists visit the UK.[202] There are about 19,000 British nationals living in Italy, and 150,000 Italians living in the UK.[203] 'Britalian' - British people of Italian descent. Both countries are members of NATO.
Latvia	1991	See Foreign relations of Latvia Latvia has an embassy in London and honorary consulates in Edinburgh, Northern Ireland, Manchester and Wales.[204] The United Kingdom has embassy in Riga.[205] Both countries are members of NATO.
Lithuania	1991-09-04[206]	See Lithuania–United Kingdom relations The United Kingdom has an embassy in Vilnius and an honorary consulate in Klaipėda.[207][208] Lithuania has an embassy in London and 4 honorary consulates in Northern Ireland, North East England, Wales and the West Midlands.[209] There are around 100,000 Lithuanians living in the United Kingdom. Both countries are members of NATO. In 2006, HM Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom and Prince Philip paid an official state visit to Lithuania.[210][211] British Foreign and Commonwealth Office about relations with Lithuania Lithuanian Ministry of Foreign affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Poland (in Lithuanian only) Both countries are members of NATO.
Luxembourg		See Foreign relations of Luxembourg The United Kingdom has an embassy in Luxembourg City. Luxembourg has an embassy in London. Both countries are members of NATO.
Malta	1964	See Malta–United Kingdom relations In the 1950s and 1960s, serious consideration was given in both countries to the idea of a political union between the United Kingdom and Malta. However, this plan for "Integration with Britain" foundered, and Malta gained its independence from the United Kingdom in 1964. British Monarch Queen Elizabeth II remained Queen of Malta until the country became a Republic in 1974. There is a small Maltese community in the United Kingdom. In addition, the British overseas territory of Gibraltar has been influenced by significant 18th and 19th Century immigration from Malta (see "History of the Maltese in Gibraltar"). Malta has a High Commission in London and consulates in Gibraltar, the Isle of Man, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales.[212][213] The United Kingdom has a High Commission in Valletta.[214] Malta is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations. See Commonwealth of Nations & Ireland Section above.
Netherlands	1603	See Netherlands–United Kingdom relations The Netherlands has an embassy in London and consulates in Aberdeen, Belfast, Birmingham, Cardiff, Edinburgh, Guernsey, Hamilton, Harwich, Hull, Liverpool, Manchester, Plymouth and Southampton. The Netherlands also has a vice consulate in Dover.[215][216] The United Kingdom has an embassy in The Hague and consulates in Amsterdam and Willemstad.[217][218] Both countries are members of NATO.
Poland	1919	See Poland–United Kingdom relations Poland has an embassy in London, a consulate general in Edinburgh and Manchester. Poland also has honorary consulates in Bristol, Gibraltar, Hull, Kidderminster, Newry and St Helier.[219][220][221][222] The United Kingdom has an embassy in Warsaw.[223] Both countries participate in shared defence and security cooperation. Both countries are members of NATO.
Portugal	1373	See Portugal–United Kingdom relations Portugal has an embassy and consulate general in London and consulates in Belfast, Edinburgh, Hamilton, Manchester and St Helier.[224] The United Kingdom has an embassy in Lisbon and consulates in Lisbon and Portimão. The United Kingdom also has honorary consulates in Funchal, Oporto and Ponta Delgada.[225][226] The relationship dates back to the Middle Ages in 1373 with the Anglo-Portuguese Alliance. Both countries are members of NATO.
Romania	1880-02-20	See Romania–United Kingdom relations Romania has an embassy in London and a consulate in Edinburgh. Romania also has honorary consulates in Hirwaun, Leeds, Morpeth-Newcastle and Southampton.[227][228] The United Kingdom has an embassy in Bucharest.[229] See also Romanian migration to the United Kingdom British Foreign and Commonwealth Office about relations with Romania Both countries are members of NATO.
Slovakia	1993	See Slovakia–United Kingdom relations Slovakia has an embassy in London.[230] The United Kingdom has an embassy in Bratislava.[231] British Foreign and Commonwealth Office about the relation with Slovakia Both countries are members of NATO.
Slovenia	1992	See Foreign relations of Slovenia Slovenia has an embassy in London and has consulate generals in Belfast and Edinburgh.[232] The United Kingdom has an embassy in Ljubljana.[233] Both countries are members of NATO.
Spain	1509	See Spain–United Kingdom relations Spain has an embassy in London and consulate generals in Edinburgh and London.[234][235] The United Kingdom has an embassy in Madrid and consulate generals in Barcelona and Madrid. The United Kingdom also has consulates in Bilbao, Ibiza, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Málaga, Palma de Mallorca and Santa Cruz de Tenerife.[236][237] During the Second World War Spain remained neutral, but was perceived to be closely aligned with Nazi Germany. Following the end of the war, frosty relations continued between the two states until the end of the Franco era and the democratisation of Spain. Both countries are members of NATO.
Sweden	1653	See Sweden-United Kingdom relations Sweden has an embassy in London as well as consulate generals in Edinburgh and Gibraltar. Sweden also has consulates in Guernsey and Jersey as well as honorary consulates in Belfast, Birmingham, Brighton, Bristol, Cardiff, Dover, Glasgow, Immingham, Lerwick, Liverpool, Manchester, Newcastle upon Tyne, Southampton and Stornonway.[238] The United Kingdom has an embassy in Stockholm and honorary consulates in Gothenburg and Malmö.[239][240]

Oceania

Country	Formal Relations Began	Notes
Australia	1936	See Australia–United Kingdom relations Australia–United Kingdom relations are close, marked by shared history, culture, institutions and language, extensive people-to-people links, aligned security interests, and vibrant trade and investment cooperation. The long-standing relationship formally began in 1901 when the six British Crown colonies in Australia federated, and the Commonwealth of Australia was formed as a Dominion of the British Empire. Australia fought alongside Britain in World War I, notably at Gallipoli, and again in World War II. Andrew Fisher, Australian prime minister from 1914 to 1916, declared that Australia would defend the United Kingdom "to the last man and the last shilling." Australia's sovereignty, de facto recognised at the end of the First World War, was formalised with the Statute of Westminster of 1931. Until 1949, the United Kingdom and Australia nevertheless shared a common nationality code. The final constitutional ties between United Kingdom and Australia ended in 1986 with the passing of the Australia Act 1986. Currently, more than 4% of the Australian population was born in the UK, giving strong mutual relations. Furthermore, investment and trade between the two countries are still important.
Fiji	1970	See Foreign relations of Fiji
Kiribati	1979	See Foreign relations of Kiribati
Marshall Islands	1991	See Foreign relations of Marshall Islands
Micronesia	1992-08-31	See Foreign relations of Micronesia
Nauru	1968	See Nauru–United Kingdom relations Nauru was part of the British Western Pacific Territories from September 1914 and June 1921.[241] The British Government had ceased to exercise any direct role in the governance of Nauru by 1968, when the island achieved its independence. The Nauruan government maintains an Hon. Consul, Martin W I Weston. The British High Commission in Suva is responsible for the United Kingdom's bilateral relations with Nauru.[242]
New Zealand	1939	See New Zealand–United Kingdom relations Up to about the 1960s, New Zealand also had extremely close economic relations with the United Kingdom, especially considering the distance at which trade took place. As an example, in 1955, Britain took 65.3 percent of New Zealand's exports, and only during the following decades did this dominant position begin to decline as the United Kingdom oriented itself more towards the European Union, with the share of exports going to Britain having fallen to only 6.2 percent in 2000.[243] Historically, some industries, such as dairying, a major economic factor in the former colony, had even more dominant trade links, with 80-100% of all cheese and butter exports going to Britain from around 1890 to 1940.[244] This strong bond also supported the mutual feelings for each other in other areas.
Palau		See Foreign relations of Palau
Papua New Guinea	1975	See Papua New Guinea–United Kingdom relations Papua New Guinea and the United Kingdom share Queen Elizabeth as their head of state. They have had relations since 1975 when Papua New Guinea gained independence from Australia.
Samoa	1962	See Foreign relations of Samoa
Solomon Islands	1978	See Foreign relations of the Solomon Islands
Tonga	1879; 1970	The United Kingdom and the Kingdom of Tonga established formal mutual diplomatic recognition in 1879.[245]. Tonga was then a British protectorate from 1900 to 1970, whereupon diplomatic relations resumed at the level of sovereign states. See Foreign relations of Tonga
Tuvalu	1978	See Foreign relations of Tuvalu
Vanuatu	1980	See Foreign relations of Vanuatu

Overseas Territories

Country	Formal Relations Began	Notes
Ascension Island		See Foreign relations of Ascension Island
Anguilla		See Foreign relations of Anguilla
Bermuda		See Foreign relations of Bermuda
British Indian Ocean Territory		See Foreign relations of British Indian Ocean Territory
British Virgin Islands		See Foreign relations of British Virgin Islands
Cayman Islands		See Foreign relations of the Cayman Islands
Falkland Islands		See Foreign relations of Falkland Islands
Gibraltar		See Foreign relations of Gibraltar
Montserrat		See Foreign relations of Montserrat
Pitcairn Islands		See Foreign relations of the Pitcairn Islands
Saint Helena		See Foreign relations of Saint Helena
South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands		See Foreign relations of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands
Tristan da Cunha		See Foreign relations of Tristan da Cunha
Turks and Caicos Islands		See Foreign relations of Turks and Caicos Islands

International Organizations

See also: United Kingdom and the United Nations

The United Kingdom is a member of the following international organisations:[246]

ADB (nonregional member), AfDB (nonregional member), Arctic Council (observer), Australia Group, BIS, Commonwealth of Nations, CBSS (observer), CDB, Council of Europe, CERN, EAPC, EBRD, EIB, ESA, FAO, FATF, G-20, G-5, G7, G8, G-10, IADB, IAEA, IBRD (also known as the World Bank), ICAO, ICC, ICCt, ICRM, IDA, IEA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, IMSO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, IPU, ISO, ITSO, ITU, ITUC, MIGA, MONUSCO, NATO, NEA, NSG, OAS (observer), OECD, OPCW, OSCE, Paris Club, PCA, PIF (partner), SECI (observer), UN, United Nations Security Council, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNFICYP, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNMIS, UNRWA, UPU, WCO, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO, Zangger Committee

See also

• Timeline of British diplomatic history
• Timeline of European imperialism
• Anglophobia
• History of the United Kingdom
• British military history
• Foreign and Commonwealth Office
• Department for International Development
• Heads of United Kingdom Missions
• List of diplomatic missions of the United Kingdom
• European Union–United Kingdom relations
• Latin America–United Kingdom relations

References

1. F.S. Northedge, The troubled giant: Britain among the great powers, 1916-1939 (1966).
2. Erik Goldstein, Winning the peace: British diplomatic strategy, peace planning, and the Paris Peace Conference, 1916-1920 (1991).
3. Frank Magee, "‘Limited Liability’? Britain and the Treaty of Locarno." Twentieth Century British History 6.1 (1995): 1-22.
4. Andrew Barros, "Disarmament as a weapon: Anglo-French relations and the problems of enforcing German disarmament, 1919–28." Journal of Strategic Studies 29#2 (2006): 301-321.
5. Peter J. Yearwood, Guarantee of Peace: The League of Nations in British Policy 1914-1925 (2009).
6. Susan Pedersen, "Back to the League of Nations." American Historical Review 112.4 (2007): 1091-1117. in JSTOR
7. Raymond G. O'Connor, "The" Yardstick" and Naval Disarmament in the 1920s." Mississippi Valley Historical Review 45.3 (1958): 441-463. in JSTOR
8. Patrick O. Cohrs, The unfinished peace after world war 1: America, Britain and the stabilization of Europe, 1919-1932 (2006).
9. Henry R. Winkler. "The Emergence of a Labor Foreign Policy in Great Britain, 1918-1929." Journal of Modern History 28.3 (1956): 247-258. in JSTOR
10. Patrick Finney, "The romance of decline: The historiography of appeasement and British national identity." Electronic Journal of International History 1 (2000). online
11. David Faber, Munich, 1938: Appeasement and World War II (2010)
12. Donald Cameron Watt, How War Came: Immediate Origins of the Second World War, 1938–39 (1990)
13. F.S. Northedge, Desent From Power British Foreign Policy 1945-1973 (1974) online
14. Lawrence James, The Rise and Fall of the British Empire (2001)
15. Stephen Wall, A Stranger in Europe: Britain and the EU from Thatcher to Blair (2008)
16. "Hong Kong's handover explained". BBC News. 29 June 2017. Retrieved 18 May 2020.
17. "What's left of the British Empire (and how to see it)". The Telegraph. 4 February 2016. ISSN 0307-1235. Retrieved 18 May 2020.
18. Andrew Marr, A History of Modern Britain (2009)
19. Stephen Wall, A Stranger in Europe: Britain and the EU from Thatcher to Blair (Oxford University Press, 2008)
20. Andrew Gamble, "Better Off Out? Britain and Europe." The Political Quarterly (2012) 83#3: 468-477.
21. Nathaniel Copsey and Tim Haughton, "Farewell Britannia? 'Issue Capture' and the Politics of David Cameron's 2013 EU Referendum Pledge." JCMS: Journal of Common Market Studies (2014) 52-S1: 74-89.
22. "East of Suez, West from Helmand: British Expeditionary Force and the next SDSR" (PDF). Oxford Research Group. December 2014. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 July 2015. Retrieved 22 May 2015.
23. "A Return to East of Suez? UK Military Deployment to the Gulf". Royal United Services Institute. April 2013. Retrieved 1 July 2015.
24. "The New East of Suez Question: Damage Limitation after Failure Over Syria". Royal United Services Institute. 19 September 2013. Archived from the original on 2 July 2015. Retrieved 1 July 2015.
25. "Defence Secretary visits Oman". Ministry of Defence. 1 October 2015. Retrieved 28 October 2015.
26. Gaskarth, Jamie (2013). British Foreign Policy Crises, Conflicts and Future Challenges. Hoboken: Wiley. p. 15. ISBN 9780745670003.
27. Wagnsson, Charlotte (2012). Security in a Greater Europe: The Possibility of a Pan-European Approach. Oxford University Press. p. 33. ISBN 9780719086717. The British solution: spread the right norms and sustain NATO ... The new rules placed humanitarian intervention above the principle of sovereignty. Blair stated that this 'would become the basis of an approach to future conflict'.
28. Lunn, Jon; Miller, Vaughne; Smith, Ben (23 June 2008). "British foreign policy since 1997" (PDF). Research Paper 08/56. House Commons Library.
29. "Review of the Balance of Competences between the United Kingdom and the European Union: Foreign Policy" (PDF). HM Government. July 2013. p. 13. Retrieved 21 November 2015.
30. "National Security Strategy and Strategic Defence and Security Review 2015" (PDF). HM Government. November 2015. Retrieved 23 November 2015.
31. Lord Robertson, former UK Defence Secretary and Secretary General of NATO (27 October 2015). "The 2015 Strategic Defence and Security Review and its Implications". Gresham College. Retrieved 26 November 2015. Defence Review would be foreign policy led
32. Longinotti, Edward (9 September 2015). "'For God's sake, act like Britain' Lessons from the 1960s for British defence policy". History & Policy. Retrieved 7 July 2016.
33. "The Berlin blockade: Moscow draws the iron curtain". BBC News. 1 April 1998. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
34. "1973: Super tug to defend fishing fleet". BBC News. 19 January 1973. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
35. John Campbell, Margaret Thatcher: Volume 2: The Iron Lady (2003) pp 273-9
36. "1988: Jumbo jet crashes onto Lockerbie". BBC News. 21 December 1988. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
37. "1991: 'Mother of all Battles' begins". BBC News. 17 January 1991. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
38. John Campbell, Margaret Thatcher: Volume 2: The Iron Lady (2003) p 315–317
39. Taylor, Ros (20 March 2008). "Anglo-Russian relations". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
40. "Iran nuclear deal: Key details". BBC. 16 January 2016. Retrieved 28 May 2016.
41. "Gibraltar profile". BBC News. 23 March 2010. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
42. "Chagos Archipelago - Dictionary definition of Chagos Archipelago - Encyclopedia.com: FREE online dictionary". www.encyclopedia.com.
43. https://maldivesindependent.com/politics/maldives-defends-un-vote-on-chagos-islands-dispute-145501
44. Bowcott, Owen (19 October 2007). "Argentina ready to challenge Britain's Antarctic claims". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
45. "1955: Britain claims Rockall". 21 September 1955 – via news.bbc.co.uk.
46. "The Commonwealth of Nations - Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade". Archived from the original on 1 May 2008.
47. Britain and Morocco during the embassy of John Drummond Hay, 1845-1886 by Khalid Ben Srhir, Malcolm Williams, Gavin Waterson p.13
48. Akbar Shah Khan Najibabadi (9 October 2017). History of Islam (Vol 3). Darussalam. ISBN 9789960892931 – via Google Books.
49. "Nigeria: Facts and figures". 17 April 2007 – via news.bbc.co.uk.
50. "Argentine Embassy - London". www.argentine-embassy-uk.org.
51. British embassy in Buenos Aires Archived 28 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine
52. Staff writer (14 March 2010). "Barbados is queen of the Caribbean". The Independent. London. Retrieved 5 June 2010.
53. Staff writer. "Barbados profile: Overview". UK Trade and Investment (UKTI). Archived from the original on 23 November 2004. Retrieved 28 December 2009. Barbados is the UK's fourth largest export market in the Caribbean. Traditionally the UK has maintained close trading links with Barbados despite strong competition from the United States, Canada and Japan. Barbados is a small market in global terms yet remains a key one for UK companies in the region. In 2008, UK exports to Barbados were valued at over £38.0 million. Invisibles such as banking, insurance and consultancy are of considerable importance.
54. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 3 May 2008. Retrieved 17 July 2009.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) Foreign Affairs - Canada-United Kingdom Relations
55. Paolo Tripodi, "General Matthei's revelation and Chile's role during the Falklands War: A new perspective on the conflict in the South Atlantic." Journal of Strategic Studies (2003) 26#4 pp: 108–123.
56. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 27 November 2013. Retrieved 29 November 2013.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
57. "British Embassy Bogotá - GOV.UK". www.gov.uk.
58. Addley, Esther; Woolf, Beatrice (19 June 2012). "Assange seeks refuge at Ecuador's embassy". The Guardian. London. p. 1.
59. Pearse, Damien (16 August 2012). "Julian Assange can be arrested in Ecuador embassy, UK warns". The Guardian. London.
60. "Julian Assange: Ecuador grants Wikileaks founder asylum". BBC News. 16 August 2012.
61. "State Banquet at Buckingham Palace, Mexican State Visit, 30 March 2009". Official web site of the British Monarchy. Retrieved 8 April 2009.
62. "Inicio". embamex.sre.gob.mx.
63. "British Embassy Mexico City - GOV.UK". www.gov.uk.
64. "Consulate General of Panama in London". www.panamaconsul.co.uk. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
65. "UK and Panama - UK and the world - GOV.UK". ukinpanama.fco.gov.uk. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
66. Leslie Bethell (1996). The Paraguayan War (1864-1870). Institute of Latin American Studies. ISBN 9781900039086.
67. "Embassy of Paraguay. London, UK". www.paraguayembassy.co.uk.
68. "Ties that bind: Bush, Brown and a different relationship". FT. Retrieved 22 December 2008.
69. British embassy in Montevideo Archived 4 August 2003 at the Wayback Machine
70. "UK - Bilateral Relations - Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Armenia". www.mfa.am. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
71. "UK - Embassies - Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Armenia". www.mfa.am. Archived from the original on 6 April 2015. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
72. "Worldwide organisations - GOV.UK". www.fco.gov.uk. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
73. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2 September 2012. Retrieved 21 November 2012.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
74. "Worldwide organisations - GOV.UK". www.fco.gov.uk. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
75. "More than 20 ambassadors condemn China's treatment of Uighurs in Xinjiang". The Guardian. 11 July 2019.
76. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 3 June 2012. Retrieved 16 November 2012.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
77. "Worldwide organisations - GOV.UK". www.fco.gov.uk. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
78. "Welcome to High Commission of India, London, UK". www.hcilondon.gov.in. Archived from the original on 15 January 2013.
79. "British High Commission New Delhi - GOV.UK". ukinindia.fco.gov.uk.
80. "THE NATION'S FAVOURITE DISH". BBC. 4 November 2002. Retrieved 21 November 2009.
81. "India slips to be 4th largest investor into UK". The Economic Times. 6 July 2017. Retrieved 6 November 2018.
82. Sufia Tippu (30 October 2006). "India becomes second largest investor in Britain". ITWire. Archived from the original on 17 October 2007. Retrieved 2009-11-21.
83. "Indian investment in London jumps". BBC. 27 April 2007. Retrieved 21 November 2009.
84. "Central, FDI 2005–2006 statistics" (PDF). Ministry Of Commerce, Government of India. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 March 2007.
85. "News-Indonesianembassy". Archived from the original on 26 November 2010.
86. "British Embassy Jakarta - GOV.UK". ukinindonesia.fco.gov.uk.
87. Patrick Clawson. Eternal Iran. Palgrave 2005 ISBN 1-4039-6276-6, p.25
88. "British Embassy Tel Aviv - GOV.UK". ukinisrael.fco.gov.uk.
89. The Israeli Government's Official Website, by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs Archived 29 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine
90. The Israeli Government's Official Website, by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs Archived 13 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine
91. About the Embassy The Embassy of the Republic of Kazakhstan in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
92. Analysis: Why the world cares about Kazakhstan The Times
93. "Ceremonies: State visits". Official web site of the British Monarchy. Archived from the original on 6 November 2008. Retrieved 26 November 2008.
94. "Outward state visits made by the queen since 1952". Official web site of the British Monarchy. Archived from the original on 21 October 2008. Retrieved 26 November 2008.
95. "Oman 'seeks Eurofighter purchase'". 2 April 2010 – via news.bbc.co.uk.
96. "Oman and the UK - GOV.UK". ukinoman.fco.gov.uk.
97. Oman Embassy in the UK Archived 25 March 2010 at the Wayback Machine
98. "Country Profile: The Occupied Palestinian Territories". Archived from the original on 24 May 2011.
99. "British Embassy Riyadh - GOV.UK". ukinsaudiarabia.fco.gov.uk.
100. "Request Rejected". www.mofa.gov.sa.
101. "공관약사주 영국 대한민국 대사관". overseas.mofa.go.kr.
102. Harris, Thomas (27 June 2014). "Britain's Relations with Korea: A Personal View". Gresham College.
103. "Tier 5 (Youth Mobility Scheme) visa: Eligibility - GOV.UK". www.gov.uk.
104. "Embassy of the Republic of Korea in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland". gbr.mofa.go.kr.
105. "South Korea and the UK - GOV.UK". www.gov.uk.
106. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 8 February 2010. Retrieved 11 June 2010.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
107. "Thailand and the UK - GOV.UK". ukinthailand.fco.gov.uk.
110. "Worldwide organisations - GOV.UK". www.fco.gov.uk. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
111. "British Embassy Ankara - GOV.UK". ukinturkey.fco.gov.uk. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
112. "World Fact Book - Turkey" cia.gov Link accessed 29/05/08
113. "The UK and Turkey" Archived 18 August 2007 at the Wayback Machine britishembassy.gov.uk Link accessed 29/05/08
114. "Openning SBA Administration Official Web....n". www.sba.mod.uk.
115. Embassy of Vietnam London http://www.vietnamembassy.org.uk/. Retrieved 30 December 2015. Missing or empty |title= (help)
116. "British Embassy Hanoi". Gov.uk. Retrieved 30 December 2015.
117. "1973: Britain joins the EEC". 9 October 1973 – via news.bbc.co.uk.
118. "2002: Celebrations as euro hits the streets". 9 October 2017 – via news.bbc.co.uk.
119. "Britain and the EU: A long and rocky relationship". BBC News. 1 April 2014. Retrieved 24 October 2016.
120. "The ultimate causes of Brexit: history, culture, and geography". LSE. 18 July 2016. Retrieved 24 October 2016.
122. "Albania, Tirana, British Embassy". FCO. Archived from the original on 14 September 2008. Retrieved 27 August 2008.
123. "Permanent Mission of Andorra in Geneva". www.exteriors.ad. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
124. "Worldwide organisations - GOV.UK". www.fco.gov.uk. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
125. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 5 December 2012. Retrieved 21 November 2012.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
126. "Worldwide organisations - GOV.UK". www.fco.gov.uk. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
127. "Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo VELIKE BRITANIJE i SJEVERNE IRSKE". www.mfa.ba. Archived from the original on 13 May 2013. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
128. "Worldwide organisations - GOV.UK". www.fco.gov.uk. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
129. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 31 March 2012. Retrieved 20 November 2012.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
130. "Worldwide organisations - GOV.UK". www.fco.gov.uk. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
131. "Worldwide organisations - GOV.UK". www.fco.gov.uk. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
132. "Consular Missions Of The Republic Of Kosovo - Diplomatic Missions - Ministry of Foreign Affairs - Republic of Kosovo". Ministry of Foreign Affairs - Republic of Kosovo. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
133. "Worldwide organisations - GOV.UK". www.fco.gov.uk. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
134. "UK to recognise independent Kosovo - PM". United Kingdom Prime Minister's Office, 10 Downing Street. 18 February 2008. Archived from the original on 10 May 2008. Retrieved 9 May 2008.
135. Nicholas Kulish and C. J. Chivers (19 February 2008). "Kosovo Is Recognized but Rebuked by Others". The New York Times. Retrieved 9 May 2008.
136. "British Embassy in Pristina, Kosovo". Foreign and Commonwealth Office. Retrieved 9 May 2008.
137. "Ministry of Foreign Affairs and European Integration of the RM". www.mfa.gov.md. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
138. "Embassy of the Republic of Moldova to the Republic to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland". www.britania.mfa.gov.md.
139. "Worldwide organisations - GOV.UK". www.fco.gov.uk.
140. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 14 November 2012. Retrieved 23 November 2012.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
141. "Worldwide organisations - GOV.UK". www.fco.gov.uk. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
142. "Norway in the United Kingdom". Norgesportalen.
143. "Worldwide organisations - GOV.UK". www.fco.gov.uk. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
144. "Главная". www.mid.ru.
145. "Главная". www.mid.ru.
146. "Worldwide organisations - GOV.UK". www.fco.gov.uk. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
147. "British Embassy Moscow - GOV.UK". ukinrussia.fco.gov.uk. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
148. "Russia says it could have been in interests of Britain to poison Sergei Skripal". 2 April 2018. The Kremlin has reacted angrily to the expulsion of Russian diplomats by Britain and its allies, starting tit-for-tat expulsions.
149. "Embassy of San Marino in United Kingdom". san-marino.visahq.com.
150. "British Foreign Office website". Archived from the original on 8 September 2008.
151. "Embassy of the Republic of Serbia in Great Britain". www.serbianembassy.org.uk.
152. "Serbia and the UK - GOV.UK". ukinserbia.fco.gov.uk.
153. "Embassy of Switzerland in the United Kingdom". www.eda.admin.ch. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
154. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 1 May 2008. Retrieved 2008-05-06.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
155. "Worldwide organisations - GOV.UK". www.fco.gov.uk. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
156. "Embassy of Ukraine to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland".
157. British embassy in Kiev Archived 13 August 2008 at the Wayback Machine
158. "British Embassy to the Holy See: "UK-Holy See relations"". Archived from the original on 20 October 2012.
159. "Holy See". Foreign and Commonwealth Office. Archived from the original on 27 September 2008. Retrieved 17 September 2008. Formal diplomatic links between the United Kingdom and the Holy See were first established in 1479 when John Shirwood was appointed as the first resident Ambassador. Shirwood was also the first English Ambassador to serve abroad, making the embassy to the Holy See the oldest embassy in the UK diplomatic service.
160. Österreich, Außenministerium der Republik. "Suche nach österreichischen Vertretungen – BMEIA, Außenministerium Österreich". www.bmeia.gv.at. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
161. "Worldwide organisations - GOV.UK". www.fco.gov.uk. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
162. "British Embassy Vienna - GOV.UK". ukinaustria.fco.gov.uk. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
163. "Addresses of Belgian Embassies and Consulates abroad | Federal Public Service Foreign Affairs". diplomatie.belgium.be. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
164. "British Embassy Brussels - GOV.UK". ukinbelgium.fco.gov.uk. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
165. "Министерство на външните работи - Пътувам за..." Министерство на външните работи. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
166. "Worldwide organisations - GOV.UK". www.fco.gov.uk. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
167. "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (The)". Diplomatic Missions and Consular Offices of Croatia. MVEP. Retrieved 1 July 2019.
168. "Worldwide organisations - GOV.UK". www.fco.gov.uk. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
169. "British Embassy Zagreb - GOV.UK". ukincroatia.fco.gov.uk. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
170. "Consular Information". High Commission of The Republic of Cyprus in London.
171. "Worldwide organisations - GOV.UK". www.fco.gov.uk. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
174. "Worldwide organisations - GOV.UK". www.fco.gov.uk. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
175. "Outward state visits made by the queen since 1952". Official web site of the British Monarchy. Archived from the original on 21 October 2008. Retrieved 29 November 2008.
176. "Ceremonies: State visits". Official web site of the British Monarchy. Archived from the original on 6 November 2008. Retrieved 30 November 2008.
177. "Outward state visits made by the queen since 1952". Official web site of the British Monarchy. Archived from the original on 21 October 2008. Retrieved 30 November 2008.
178. Archived 27 September 2012 at the Wayback Machine
179. Archived 20 June 2012 at the Wayback Machine
180. "Worldwide organisations - GOV.UK". www.fco.gov.uk. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
181. "Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Finland: Entering Finland and travelling abroad: United Kingdom of Great Britain". formin.finland.fi.
182. "Finland and the UK - GOV.UK". ukinfinland.fco.gov.uk.
183. "France in the United Kingdom - La France au Royaume-Uni". www.ambafrance-uk.org.
184. "British Embassy Paris - GOV.UK". ukinfrance.fco.gov.uk.
185. "German Missions in the United Kingdom - Home". www.london.diplo.de. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
186. "German Missions in the United Kingdom - Home". www.london.diplo.de. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
188. "Worldwide organisations - GOV.UK". www.fco.gov.uk. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
189. "British Embassy Berlin - GOV.UK". ukingermany.fco.gov.uk.
190. "British Embassy Berlin - GOV.UK". ukingermany.fco.gov.uk. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
191. "Greece's Bilateral Relations". www.mfa.gr. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
192. "Worldwide organisations - GOV.UK". www.fco.gov.uk. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
193. "British Embassy Athens - GOV.UK". ukingreece.fco.gov.uk. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
194. Peter Laszlo, and Martyn Rady, British-Hungarian Relations Since 1848 (2004), 366pp
195. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 12 December 2012. Retrieved 16 November 2012.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
196. "Worldwide organisations - GOV.UK". www.fco.gov.uk. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
197. Affairs, Department of Foreign. "Page Not Found (404) - Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade". www.dfa.ie.
198. "Worldwide organisations - GOV.UK". www.fco.gov.uk.
200. "Worldwide organisations - GOV.UK". www.fco.gov.uk.
201. "British Embassy Rome - GOV.UK". ukinitaly.fco.gov.uk.
202. "Foreign & Commonwealth Office - GOV.UK".
203. Bilateral Relations British Embassy, Italy Archived 8 June 2007 at the Wayback Machine
204. "Diplomatic Missions". www.am.gov.lv. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
205. "Worldwide organisations - GOV.UK". www.fco.gov.uk. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
206. Kryptis, Dizaino. "Lietuvos Respublikos užsienio reikalų ministerija | Lietuvos Respublikos užsienio reikalų ministerija". uk.mfa.lt. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
207. "Worldwide organisations - GOV.UK". www.fco.gov.uk. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
208. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 27 November 2012. Retrieved 20 November 2012.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
209. Kryptis, Dizaino. "Lietuvos Respublikos užsienio reikalų ministerija | Lietuvos Respublikos užsienio reikalų ministerija". www.urm.lt. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
210. "British queen begins 'historic' visit to Baltics (Roundup) - Monsters and Critics". Archived from the original on 20 May 2011.
211. Kryptis, Dizaino. "Lietuvos Respublikos užsienio reikalų ministerija | Lietuvos Respublikos užsienio reikalų ministerija". uk.mfa.lt. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
214. "Worldwide organisations - GOV.UK". www.fco.gov.uk. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
215. Zaken, Ministerie van Buitenlandse. "The United Kingdom". www.netherlands-embassy.org.uk. Archived from the original on 10 January 2010. Retrieved 19 February 2010.
216. Zaken, Ministerie van Buitenlandse. "Home - landingspage". www.minbuza.nl.
217. "British Embassy The Hague - GOV.UK". ukinnl.fco.gov.uk.
218. "Worldwide organisations - GOV.UK". www.fco.gov.uk.
219. "Embassy of the Republic of Poland in London". www.londyn.msz.gov.pl. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
220. "Consulate of the Republic of Poland in Edinburgh". www.edynburg.msz.gov.pl. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
221. "Konsulat Generalny Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej w Manchesterze". www.manchester.msz.gov.pl. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
222. "Polish Consulate of Northern Ireland". Polish Consulate of Northern Ireland (in Polish). Archived from the original on 4 December 2012. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
223. "Worldwide organisations - GOV.UK". www.fco.gov.uk. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
224. "XXI Governo". Governo de portugal.
225. "Worldwide organisations - GOV.UK". www.fco.gov.uk. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
226. "British Embassy Lisbon - GOV.UK". ukinportugal.fco.gov.uk. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
227. "AMBASADA ROMÂNIEI în Regatul Unit al Marii Britanii şi Irlandei de Nord". londra.mae.ro.
228. "Romanian Missions | Ministry of Foreign Affairs". www.mae.ro. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
229. "Worldwide organisations - GOV.UK". www.fco.gov.uk. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
230. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 3 June 2013. Retrieved 23 November 2012.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
231. "Slovakia and the UK - GOV.UK". ukinslovakia.fco.gov.uk.
232. "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland | Ministry of Foreign Affairs". www.mzz.gov.si. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
233. "Worldwide organisations - GOV.UK". www.fco.gov.uk. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
234. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 5 September 2012. Retrieved 23 November 2012.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
235. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 3 September 2012. Retrieved 23 November 2012.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
236. "Worldwide organisations - GOV.UK". www.fco.gov.uk. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
237. "British Embassy Madrid - GOV.UK". ukinspain.fco.gov.uk. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
238. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 21 February 2015. Retrieved 20 February 2015.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
239. "Worldwide organisations - GOV.UK". www.fco.gov.uk. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
240. "British Embassy Stockholm - GOV.UK". ukinsweden.fco.gov.uk. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
241. "Nauru", World Statesmen.org
242. "UK in Fiji", British High Commission in Fiji
243. "New Zealand's Export Markets year ended June 2000 (provisional)". Statistics New Zealand. June 2000. Archived from the original on 15 May 2010. Retrieved 15 June 2008.
244. New Zealand Historical Atlas - McKinnon, Malcolm (Editor); David Bateman, 1997, Plate 61
245. "Tonga: History", Encyclopædia Britannica
246. "CIA World Factbook - United Kingdom". Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 10 March 2011.

Bibliography

• Blair, Tony. A Journey: My Political Life (2010)
• Casey, Terrence. The Blair Legacy: Politics, Policy, Governance, and Foreign Affairs (2009) excerpt and text search
• Daddow, Oliver, and Jamie Gaskarth, eds. British foreign policy: the New Labour years (Palgrave, 2011)
• Daddow, Oliver. "Constructing a ‘great’ role for Britain in an age of austerity: Interpreting coalition foreign policy, 2010–2015." International Relations 29.3 (2015): 303-318.
• Dickie, John. The New Mandarins: How British Foreign Policy Works (2004)
• Dumbrell, John. A special relationship: Anglo-American relations from the Cold War to Iraq (2006)
• Finlan, Alastair. Contemporary Military Strategy and the Global War on Terror: US and UK Armed Forces in Afghanistan and Iraq 2001-2012 (2014)
• Honeyman, V. C. "From Liberal Interventionism to Liberal Conservatism: the short road in foreign policy from Blair to Cameron." British Politics (2015). abstract
• Lane, Ann. Strategy, Diplomacy and UK Foreign Policy (Palgrave Macmillan, 2010)
• Leech, Philip, and Jamie Gaskarth. "British Foreign Policy and the Arab Spring." Diplomacy & Statecraft 26#1 (2015).
• Lunn, Jon, Vaughne Miller, Ben Smith. "British foreign policy since 1997 - Commons Library Research Paper RP08/56 (UK House of Commons, 2008) 123pp online
• Magyarics, Tamas. Balancing in Central Europe: Great Britain and Hungary in the 1920s
• Seah, Daniel. "The CFSP as an aspect of conducting foreign relations by the United Kingdom: With Special Reference to the Treaty of Amity & Cooperation in Southeast Asia]" International Review of Law (2015) "online
• Seton-Watson, R. W. Britain in Europe (1789–1914): A Survey of Foreign Policy (1937) online
• Whitman, Richard G. "The calm after the storm? Foreign and security policy from Blair to Brown." Parliamentary Affairs 63.4 (2010): 834–848. online
• Williams, Paul. British Foreign Policy under New Labour (2005)

External links

• Foreign and Commonwealth Office
• Department for International Development