11th century

The 11th century is the period from 1001 to 1100 in accordance with the Julian calendar, and the 1st century of the 2nd millennium.

Millennium: 2nd millennium
Centuries:
Timelines:
State leaders:
Decades:
Categories: Births – Deaths
Establishments – Disestablishments
Political boundaries in Eastern Hemisphere in early half of 11th century
Political boundaries in Eastern Hemisphere at the end of the 11th century

In the history of Europe, this period is considered the early part of the High Middle Ages.

There was, after a brief ascendancy, a sudden decline of Byzantine power and rise of Norman domination over much of Europe, along with the prominent role in Europe of notably influential popes. Christendom experienced a formal schism in this century which had been developing over previous centuries between the Roman West and Byzantine East, causing a split in its two largest denominations to this day: Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy. In Northern Italy, a growth of population in urban centers gave rise to early organized capitalism and more sophisticated, commercialized culture by the late 11th century. In East Europe, there was the golden age for the principality of Kievan Rus.

In Song dynasty China and the classical Islamic world, this century marked the high point for both classical Chinese civilization, science and technology, and classical Islamic science, philosophy, technology and literature. Rival political factions at the Song dynasty court created strife amongst the leading statesmen and ministers of the empire.

The Fatimid Caliphate in Egypt, the Ghaznavids, and the Chola dynasty in India had reached their zenith in military might and international influence. The Western Chalukya Empire (the Chola's rival) also rose to power by the end of the century.

In this century the Turkish Seljuk dynasty comes to power in Western Asia over the now fragmented Abbasid realm, while the first of the Crusades were waged towards the close of the century.

In Japan, the Fujiwara clan continued to dominate the affairs of state.

In Korea, the Goryeo Kingdom flourished and faced external threats from the Liao dynasty (Manchuria).

In Vietnam, the Lý Dynasty began, while in Myanmar the Pagan Kingdom reached its height of political and military power.

In the Americas, the Toltec and Mixtec civilizations flourished in Central America, along with the Huari Culture of South America and the Mississippian culture of North America. The Tiwanaku Empire centered around Lake Titicaca collapsed in the first half of the century.

Overview
The Brihadeeswarar Temple of Chola era southern India, completed in 1010, during the reign of Rajaraja Chola I.

In European history, the 11th century is regarded as the beginning of the High Middle Ages, an age subsequent to the Early Middle Ages. The century began while the translatio imperii of 962 was still somewhat novel and ended in the midst of the Investiture Controversy. It saw the final Christianisation of Scandinavia and the emergence of the Peace and Truce of God movements, the Gregorian Reforms, and the Crusades which revitalised a church and a papacy that had survived tarnished by the tumultuous 10th century. In 1054, the Great Schism rent the church in two, however.

In Germany, the century was marked by the ascendancy of the Holy Roman Emperors, who hit their high-water mark under the Salians.

In Italy, it opened with the integration of the kingdom into the empire and the royal palace at Pavia was summoned in 1024. By the end of the century, Lombard and Byzantine rule in the Mezzogiorno had been usurped by the Normans and the power of the territorial magnates was being replaced by that of the citizens of the cities in the north.

In Britain, it saw the transformation of Scotland into a single, more unified and centralised kingdom and the Norman conquest of England in 1066. The social transformations wrought in these lands brought them into the fuller orbit of European feudal politics.

In France, it saw the nadir of the monarchy and the zenith of the great magnates, especially the dukes of Aquitaine and Normandy, who could thus foster such distinctive contributions of their lands as the pious warrior who conquered Britain, Italy, and the East and the impious peacelover, the troubadour, who crafted out of the European vernacular its first great literary themes. There were also the first figures of the intellectual movement known as Scholasticism, which emphasized dialectic arguments in disputes of Christian theology as well as classical philosophy.

In Spain, the century opened with the successes of the last caliphs of Córdoba and ended in the successes of the Almoravids. In between was a period of Christian unification under Navarrese hegemony and success in the Reconquista against the taifa kingdoms that replaced the fallen caliphate.

A Scholar in a Meadow, Chinese Song dynasty, 11th century.

In China, there was a triangular affair of continued war and peace settlements between the Song dynasty, the Tanguts-led Western Xia in the northwest, and the Khitans of the Liao dynasty in the northeast. Meanwhile, opposing political factions evolved at the Song imperial court of Kaifeng. The political reformers at court, called the New Policies Group (新法, Xin Fa), were led by Emperor Shenzong of Song and the Chancellors Fan Zhongyan and Wang Anshi, while the political conservatives were led by Chancellor Sima Guang and Empress Dowager Gao, regent of the young Emperor Zhezong of Song. Heated political debate and sectarian intrigue followed, while political enemies were often dismissed from the capital to govern frontier regions in the deep south where malaria was known to be very fatal to northern Chinese people (see History of the Song dynasty). This period also represents a high point in classical Chinese science and technology, with figures such as Su Song and Shen Kuo, as well as the age where the matured form of the Chinese pagoda was accomplished in Chinese architecture.

In India, the Chola Dynasty reached its height of naval power under leaders such as Rajaraja Chola I and Rajendra Chola I, dominating southern India (Tamil Nadu), Sri Lanka, and regions of South East Asia. They also sent raids into what is now Thailand.

In Japan, the Fujiwara clan dominated central politics by acting as imperial regents, controlling the actions of the Emperor of Japan, who acted merely as a 'puppet monarch' during the Heian period.

In the Middle East, the Fatimid Empire of Egypt reached its zenith only to face steep decline, much like the Byzantine Empire in the first half of the century. The Seljuks came to prominence while the Abbasid caliphs held traditional titles without real, tangible authority in state affairs.

In Nigeria, formation of city states, kingdoms and empires, including Hausa kingdoms and Borno dynasty in north, Oyo and Benin kingdoms in south.

In Korea, the rulers of the Goryeo Kingdom were able to concentrate more central authority into their own hands than in that of the nobles, and were able to fend off two Khitan invasions with their armies.

Events

1000s
The Bayeux Tapestry depicting events leading to the Battle of Hastings in 1066
  • 1001: Mahmud of Ghazni, Muslim leader of Ghazni, begins a series of raids into Northern India; he finishes in 1027 with the destruction of Somnath.
  • c. 1001: Vikings, led by Leif Eriksson, establish small settlements in and around Vinland in North America.
  • 1001–1008: Japanese Lady Murasaki Shikibu writes The Tale of Genji.
  • 1001 ± 40 years: Baitoushan volcano on what would be the Chinese-Korean border, erupts with a force of 6.5, the fourth largest Holocene blast.
  • 1003: Robert II of France invades the Duchy of Burgundy, then ruled by Otto-William, Duke of Burgundy; the initial invasion is unsuccessful, but Robert II eventually gained the acceptance of the Roman Catholic Church in 1016 and annexed Burgundy into his realm.
  • 1004: the library and university Dar Al-Hekma is founded in Egypt under the Fatimids.
  • 1005: the Treaty of Shanyuan was signed between the Chinese Song dynasty and the Khitan Liao dynasty.
  • 1006: King Dharmawangsa's Medang kingdom falls under invasion of King Wurawari from Lwaram (highly possible Srivijayan ally in Java).[1]
  • 1008: the Fatimid Egyptian sea captain Domiyat travels to the Buddhist pilgrimage site in Shandong, China, to seek out the Chinese Emperor Zhenzong of Song with gifts from his ruling Imam Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, successfully reopening diplomatic relations between Egypt and China that had been lost since the collapse of the Tang dynasty.
  • 1009: Lý Thái Tổ overthrew the Anterior Lê Dynasty of Vietnam, establishing the Lý Dynasty.
An 11th-century rock crystal ewer of Fatimid Egypt.
  • 1009–1010: the Lombard known as Melus of Bari led an insurrection against the Byzantine Catepan of Italy, John Curcuas, as the latter was killed in battle and replaced by Basil Mesardonites, who brought Byzantine reinforcements.

1010s

1020s–1030s
Defeat of the Bulgarians by the Byzantines depicted in the Madrid Skylitzes.

1040s
  • 1040: Duncan I of Scotland slain in battle. Macbeth succeeds him.
Celadon statue of an imperial guardian lion of the Chinese Song dynasty, 11th or 12th century.

1050s
An 11th-century Chola Dynasty bronze figurine of Arthanariswara.

1060s

1070s
  • 1070: the death of Athirajendra Chola and the ascension of Kulothunga Chola I marks the transition between the Medieval Cholas and the Chalukya Cholas.
  • 1071: Defeat of the Byzantine Empire at the Battle of Manzikert by the Seljuk army of Alp Arslan, ending three centuries of a Byzantine military and economic Golden Age.
  • 1072: the Battle of Golpejera is fought between Sancho II of Castile and Alfonso VI of Castile
  • 1073: the Seljuk Turks capture Ankara from the Byzantines.
  • 1074: the Seljuk Turks capture Jerusalem from the Byzantines, and cut pilgrim transit.
  • 1075: Henry IV suppresses the rebellion of Saxony in the First Battle of Langensalza.
  • 1075: the Investiture Controversy is sparked when Pope Gregory VII asserted in the Dictatus papae extended rights granted to the pope (disturbing the balance of power) and new interpretation of God's role in founding the Church itself.
  • 1075: Chinese official and diplomat Shen Kuo asserts the Song dynasty's rightful border lines by using court archives against the bold bluff of Emperor Daozong of Liao, who had asserted that Liao dynasty territory exceeded its earlier-accepted bounds.
  • 1075–1076: a civil war in the Western Chalukya Empire of India; the Western Chalukya monarch Someshvara II plans to defeat his own ambitious brother Vikramaditya VI by allying with a traditional enemy, Kulothunga Chola I of the Chola Empire; Someshvara's forces suffered heavy defeat, and was eventually captured and imprisoned by Vikramaditya, who proclaimed himself king.
A flat casket carved out of ivory from Al-Andalus (Islamic Spain), c. 1050
  • 1075–1077: the Song dynasty of China and the Lý Dynasty of Vietnam fight a border war, with Vietnamese forces striking first on land and with their navy, and afterwards Song armies advancing as far as modern-day Hanoi, the capital, but withdraw after Lý makes peace overtures; in 1082, both sides exchange the territories that they had captured during the war, and later a border agreement is reached.
  • 1076: the Ghana Empire is attacked by the Almoravids, who sack the capital of Koumbi Saleh, ending the rule of king Tunka Manin
  • 1076: the Chinese Song dynasty places strict government monopolies over the production and distribution of sulfur and saltpetre, in order to curb the possibility of merchants selling gunpowder formula components to enemies such as the Tanguts and Khitans.
  • 1076: the Song Chinese allied with southern Vietnamese Champa and Cambodian Chenla to conquer the Lý Dynasty, which was an unsuccessful campaign.
  • 1077: the Walk to Canossa by Henry IV of the Holy Roman Empire.
  • 1077: Chinese official Su Song is sent on a diplomatic mission to the Liao dynasty and discovers that the Khitan calendar is more mathematically accurate than the Song calendar; Emperor Zhezong later sponsors Su Song's astronomical clock tower in order to compete with Liao astronomers.
  • 1078: Oleg I of Chernigov is defeated in battle by his brother Vsevolod I of Kiev; Oleg escaped to Tmutarakan, but was imprisoned by the Khazars, sent to Constantinople as a prisoner, and then exiled to Rhodes.
  • 1078: the revolt of Nikephoros III against Byzantine ruler Michael VII
  • 1079: Malik Shah I reforms the Iranian Calendar.
  • 1079: Franks start to settle around the Way of Saint James (Today, modern North Spain)
A page of the Domesday Book of England.

1080s
  • 1080–1081: The Chinese statesman and scientist Shen Kuo is put in command of the campaign against the Western Xia, and although he successfully halts their invasion route to Yanzhou (modern Yan'an), another officer disobeys imperial orders and the campaign is ultimately a failure because of it.
  • 1081: birth of Urraca of León and Castile future Queen of Castille and León.
  • 1084: the enormous Chinese historical work of the Zizhi Tongjian is compiled by scholars under Chancellor Sima Guang, completed in 294 volumes and included 3 million written Chinese characters
  • 1085: Alfonso VI of Castile captures the Moorish Muslim city of Toledo, Spain.
  • 1085: the Katedralskolan, Lund school of Sweden is established by Canute IV of Denmark
  • 1086: compilation of the Domesday Book by order of William I of England; it was similar to a modern-day government census, as it was used by William to thoroughly document all the landholdings within the kingdom that could be properly taxed.
  • 1086: the Battle of az-Zallaqah between the Almoravids and Castilians
  • 1087: a new office at the Chinese international seaport of Quanzhou is established to handle and regulate taxes and tariffs on all mercantile transactions of foreign goods coming from Africa, Arabia, India, Sri Lanka, Persia, and South East Asia.
  • 1087: the Italian cities of Genoa and Pisa engage in the African Mahdia campaign
Siege of Jerusalem (1099).

1090s
An 11th-century reliquary of gold and cloisonné over wood, from the Duchy of Brabant, Maastricht Cathedral, now housed in the Louvre.

Significant people
Alfonso VI of Castile
Empress Agnes, German Queen who became regent of the Holy Roman Empire
Basil II of the Byzantine Empire.
Angels crowning Canute the Great as he and his wife Ælfgifu of Northampton present the Winchester Cross to the church, dated 1031
The Atlantes – columns in the form of Toltec warriors in Tula.

A

B

C-D

E-F

G

H

I-K

L
Statue of Lady Li Qingzhao in the Grand Hall of Poets in Du Fu Cao Tang, China
Matilda of Tuscany military leader from Italy

M

N-P
Chinese Empress Cao, wife of Emperor Renzong of Song.
Lady Sei Shōnagon, wrote her Pillow Book about life in the Japanese court
Emperor Shenzong of Song China
Al-Hakim of Fatimid Egypt
Pope Urban II of Rome
Statue of William the Conqueror, holding Domesday Book on the West Front of Lichfield Cathedral.
11th century mosaic of Constantine IX Monomachos, Empress Zoe, and Jesus Christ in the Hagia Sophia.

R

S

T-X

Y-Z

Architecture
Main article: 11th century in architecture
St Albans Cathedral of England, completed in 1089.
The Gonbad-e Qabus Tower, built in 1006 during the Ziyarid Dynasty of Iran.
Pagoda of Fogong Temple, built in 1056 in Shanxi, China by the Khitan Liao dynasty in 1056.

Inventions, discoveries, introductions
Latin translation of the Book of Optics (1021), written by the Iraqi physicist, Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen).
Constantine the African examines patients' urine; he taught ancient Greek medicine and Islamic medicine at the Schola Medica Salernitana.
The original diagram of Su Song's book Xin Yi Xiang Fa Yao (published 1092) showing the clepsydra tank, waterwheel, escapement mechanism, chain drive, striking clock jacks, and armillary sphere of his clock tower.
Diagram from al-Bīrūnī's book Kitab al-tafhim showing lunar phases and lunar eclipse.
The spherical astrolabe, long employed in medieval Islamic astronomy, was introduced to Europe by Gerbert d'Aurillac, later Pope Sylvester II.

Science and technology

Literature
The Ostromir Gospels of Novgorod, 1057.

Notes
  1. Soekmono, R, Drs., Pengantar Sejarah Kebudayaan Indonesia 2, 2nd ed. Penerbit Kanisius, Yogyakarta, 1973, 5th reprint edition in 1988 p.52
  2. ABU ‘ALI AL-HUSAYN
  3. Soekmono, R, Drs., Pengantar Sejarah Kebudayaan Indonesia 2, 2nd ed. Penerbit Kanisius, Yogyakarta, 1973, 5th reprint edition in 1988 p.56
  4. Epigraphia Carnatica, Volume 10, Part 1, page 41
  5. Soekmono, R, Drs., Pengantar Sejarah Kebudayaan Indonesia 2, 2nd ed. Penerbit Kanisius, Yogyakarta, 1973, 5th reprint edition in 1988 p.57
  6. Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 120–124.
  7. Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 81–84.
  8. Needham, Volume 4, Part 1, 252.
  9. On the Banu Hillal invasion, see Ibn Khaldoun (v.1).
  10. Bowman, 599.
  11. Mohn, 1.
  12. Kennedy, 152.
  13. Ebrey et al. (2006), 158.
  14. Darlington, 474–475.
  15. Seife, 77.
  16. Darlington, 473.
  17. Tester, 131–132.
  18. Darlington, 467–468.
  19. Tester, 130–131, 156.
  20. Salhab, 51.
  21. Darlington, 475.
  22. Holmes, 646.
  23. Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 291.
  24. Needham, Volume 3, 603 – 604, 614, 618.
  25. Sivin, III, 23.
  26. Chan, Clancey, & Loy, 15.
  27. Sivin, III, 16–19.
  28. Needham, Volume 3, 415 – 416.
  29. Needham, Volume 4, Part 1, 98.
  30. Sivin, III, 34.
  31. Fraser & Haber, 227.
  32. Needham, Volume 5, Part 1, 201.
  33. Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 660.
  34. Wu (2005), 5.
  35. Unschuld, 60.
  36. Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 446.
  37. Needham, Volume 6, Part 1, 174, 175.
  38. Needham, Volume 3, 648.
  39. Hartwell, 54.
  40. Prioreschi, 193–195.
  41. Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 352.
  42. Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 111, 165, 145–148.
gollark: I operate a matrix homeserver, although matrix has nonnegligible bee density. We *could* use APIONET #g.
gollark: osmarks.net's source is on git too, it might just be somewhat outdated if I'm doing testing.
gollark: Interesting fact: unlike your "git push and have the site recompile" setups, osmarks.net is always locally compiled on my laptop and submitted to osmarks.net over SCP.
gollark: I will vote on it in the unknowable future.
gollark: Gitea was easy enough, just had to `pacman -S gitea`, edit a several hundred line config file, `systemctl enable --now gitea`.

References
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  • Chan, Alan Kam-leung and Gregory K. Clancey, Hui-Chieh Loy (2002). Historical Perspectives on East Asian Science, Technology and Medicine. Singapore: Singapore University Press. ISBN 9971-69-259-7
  • Darlington, Oscar G. "Gerbert, the Teacher", The American Historical Review (Volume 52, Number 3, 1947): 456 – 476.
  • Ebrey, Patricia Buckley, Anne Walthall, James B. Palais (2006). East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. ISBN 0-618-13384-4.
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  • Hartwell, Robert. "Markets, Technology, and the Structure of Enterprise in the Development of the Eleventh-Century Chinese Iron and Steel Industry", The Journal of Economic History (Volume 26, Number 1, 1966): 29–58.
  • Holmes, Jr., Urban T. "The Idea of a Twelfth-Century Renaissance", Speculum (Volume 26, Number 4, 1951): 643 – 651.
  • Kennedy, E. S. (1970–80). "Bīrūnī, Abū Rayḥān al-". Dictionary of Scientific Biography II. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. ISBN 0-684-10114-9.
  • Mohn, Peter (2003). Magnetism in the Solid State: An Introduction. New York: Springer-Verlag Inc. ISBN 3-540-43183-7.
  • Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 1, Physics. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd.
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  • Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 3, Civil Engineering and Nautics. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd.
  • Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 1: Paper and Printing. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd.
  • Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 7, Military Technology; the Gunpowder Epic. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd.
  • Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 6, Biology and Biological Technology, Part 1, Botany. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd.
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  • Salhab, Walid Amine. (2006). The Knights Templar of the Middle East: The Hidden History of the Islamic Origins of Freemasonry. San Francisco: Red Wheel/Weiser LLC. ISBN 1-57863-346-X.
  • Seife, Charles. (2000) Zero: The Biography of a Dangerous Idea. New York: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-670-88457-X.
  • Sivin, Nathan (1995). Science in Ancient China: Researches and Reflections. Brookfield, Vermont: VARIORUM, Ashgate Publishing.
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  • Wu, Jing-nuan (2005). An Illustrated Chinese Materia Medica. New York: Oxford University Press.
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