Keres language

Keresan /ˈkɛrɪsən/, also Keres /kəˈriːs/, is a Native American language, spoken by the Keres Pueblo people in New Mexico. Depending on the analysis, Keresan is considered a small language family or a language isolate with several dialects. The varieties of each of the seven Keres pueblos are mutually intelligible with its closest neighbors. There are significant differences between the Western and Eastern groups, which are sometimes counted as separate languages.

"Keresan" redirects here. For the US Navy cargo ship, see USS Keresan (ID-1806).

Keresan
Native to	United States
Region	New Mexico
Ethnicity	Keres
Native speakers	10,670 (2007)[1][2]
Language family	Keresan or language isolate
Dialects	East Keres West Keres
Language codes
ISO 639-3	Either: kee – Eastern kjq – Western
Glottolog	kere1287[3]
Pre-contact distribution of Keresan languages

Family division

• Eastern Keres: total of 4,580 speakers (1990 census)
  • Cochiti Pueblo Kotyit dialect: 384 speakers (1990 census)
  • San Felipe Pueblo – Santo Domingo Pueblo:
    • Katishtya dialect: 1,560 speakers (1990 census)
    • Kewa dialect: 1,880 speakers (1990 census)
  • Zia Pueblo – Santa Ana Pueblo:
    • Ts'ia dialect: 463 speakers (1990 census)
    • Tamaiya dialect: 229 speakers (1990 census)
• Western Keres: total of 3,391 speakers (1990 census)
  • Acoma Pueblo Áakʼu dialect: 1,696 speakers (1980 census)
  • Laguna Pueblo Kawaika dialect: 1,695 speakers (1990 census)

Genetic relationships

Keres is now considered a language isolate. In the past, Edward Sapir grouped it together with a Hokan–Siouan stock. Morris Swadesh suggested a connection with Wichita. Joseph Greenberg grouped Keres with Siouan, Yuchi, Caddoan, and Iroquoian in a superstock called Keresiouan. None of these proposals has been validated by subsequent linguistic research.

Phonology

Keresan has between 42 and 45 consonant sounds, and around 40 vowel sounds, adding up to a total of about 95 phonemes, depending on the analysis and the language variety. Based on the classification in the World Atlas of Language Structures, Keres is a language with a large consonant inventory.

The great number of consonants relates to the three-way distinction between voiceless, aspirated and ejective consonants (e.g. /t tʰ tʼ/), and to the larger than average[4] number of fricatives (i.e. /s sʼ ʂ ʂʼ ʃ ʃʼ h/) and affricates, the latter also showing the three-way distinction found in stops.

The large number of vowels derives from a distinction made between long and short vowels (e.g. /e eː/), as well as from the presence of tones and voicelessness. Thus, a single vowel quality may occur with seven distinct realizations: / é è e̥ éː èː êː ěː /, all of which are used to distinguish words in the language.

Consonants

The chart below contains the consonants of the proto-Keresan (or pre-Keresan) from Miller & Davis (1963) based on a comparison of Acoma, Santa Ana, and Santo Domingo, as well as other features of the dialects compiled from The Language of Santa Ana Pueblo (1964), Kansas Working Papers in Linguistics (1987), and The Phonemes of Keresan (1946), and the Grammar of Laguna Keres (2005).[5][6][7][8]

		Labial	Alveolar	Palatal	Retroflex	Postalveolar	Velar	Glottal
Plosive	voiceless	p	t	c			k	ʔ
	aspirated	pʰ	tʰ	cʰ			kʰ
	ejective	pʼ	tʼ	cʼ			kʼ
Fricative	voiceless		s		ʂ	ʃ		h
	ejective		sʼ		ʂʼ	ʃʼ
Affricate	voiceless		ts		tʂ	tʃ
	aspirated		tsʰ		tʂʰ	tʃʰ
	ejective		tsʼ		tʂʼ	tʃʼ
Approximant	voiced	w	ɽ	j
	glottalized	wˀ	ɽˀ	jˀ
Nasal	voiced	m	n	ɲ
	glottalized	mˀ	nˀ	ɲˀ

Vowels

Keresan vowels have a phonemic distinction in duration: all vowels can be long or short. Additionally, short vowels can also be voiceless. The vowel chart below contains the vowel phonemes and allophones from the information of the Keresan languages combined from The Language of Santa Ana Pueblo (1964),[5] The Phonemes of Keresan (1946),[7] and Kansas Working Papers in Linguistics (1987).[6]

	Long		Short
	Phonemic	Phonetic	Phonemic	Phonetic	Voiceless
Close	/ iː /	[ i ]	/ i /	[ i ɪ ]	[ ɪ̥ ]
Mid-front	/ eː /	[ eː ]	/ e /	[e ɛ æ ]	[ e̥ ]
Mid-central	/ ɨː /	[ əː ɨː ]	/ ɨ /	[ ə ɨ ɤ ]	[ ɨ̥ ]
Open	/ ɑː /	[ aː ɑː ]	/ ɑ /	[ a ɑ ]	[ ḁ ]
Back-close	/ oː /	[ oː ]	/ o /	[ o ]	[ o̥ ]
	/ uː /	[ uː ]	/ u /	[ u ʊ o ]	[ ʊ̥ ]

Notes:

• Western Keres does not have phonemic /oː/ or /o/, though both vowels may occur phonetically.[8] Eastern Keres words containing /o/ show /au/ in Western Keres.[9] For instance, the first vowel in the word-sentence Sraúkacha - “I see you”:
  • Kotyit Keres: [ ʂóːkʰɑ̥tʃʰɑ̥ ]
  • Kʼawaika Keres: [ ʂɑ̌ukʰɑ̥tʃʰɑ̥ ] -

Voiceless vowels

All Keresan short vowels may be devoiced in certain positions. The phonemic status of these vowels is controversial.[8] Maring (1967) considers them to be phonemes of Áákʼu Keres, whereas other authors disagree. There are phonetic grounds for vowel devoicing based on the environment they occur, for instance word-finally, but there are also exceptions. Vowels in final position are nearly always voiceless and medial vowels occurring between voiced consonants, after nasals and ejectives are nearly always voiced.[10]

• Word-final devoicing: [ pɑ̌ːkʊ̥ ] because
• Word-medial devoicing: [ ʔìpʰi̥ʃɑ́ ] white paint

Tones

Acoma Keres has four lexical tones: high, low, falling and rising.[10] Falling and rising tones only occur in long vowels and voiceless vowels bear no tones:

Tones	examples	translation
High	[tɨ́j] , [áwáʔáwá]	here, matrilineal uncle
Low	[mùːtètsá]	young boy
Rising	[pɑ̌ːkʊ̥]	because
Falling	[ʔêː] , [hêːk'a]	and, whole part

Syllable structure

Most Keresan syllables take a CV(V) shape.[8] The maximal syllable structure is CCVVC and the minimal syllable is CV. In native Keresan words, only a glottal stop /ʔ/ ⟨ʼ⟩ can close a syllable, but some loanwords from Spanish have syllables that end in a consonant, mostly a nasal (i.e. /m n/ but words containing these sequences are rare in the language.[11]

Syllable type	examples	translation
CV	[sʼà], [ʔɪ]shv́v	I have it, left
CVV	[mùː]dedza , a[táù]shi	young boy, cooking pot
CCV	[ʃkʰí]srátsʼa	I'm not fat
CCVV	[ʃtùː]sra	bluejay
CVC	í[miʔ], [kùm]banêeru	expression of fear, workmate (Spanish "compañero")

Due to extensive vowel devoicing, several Keresan words may be perceived as ending in consonants or even containing consonant clusters.

• Word-internal cluster: yʼâakạ srûunị ‘stomach’ /jˀɑ̂ːkḁʂûːni/ > [jɑ̂ːkḁʂûːni] ~ [jɑ̂ːkʂûːni]
• Word-final coda: úwàakạ ‘baby’; /úwɑ̀ːkḁ/ > [úwɑ̀ːkʰḁ] ~ [úwɑ̀ːkʰ]

Phonotactics

The only sequence of consonants (i.e. consonant cluster) that occurs in native Keresan words is a sequence of a fricative /ʃ ʂ/ and a stop or affricate. Clusters are restricted to beginnings of syllables (i.e. the syllable onset). When the alveolo-palatal consonant /ʃ/ occurs as C₁, it combines with alveolar and palatal C₂, whereas the retroflex alveolar /ʂ/ precedes bilabial and velar C₂s, which suggest a complementary distribution. Consonant clusters may occur both word-initially and word-medially.[9]

C1 / C2	Bilabial			Alveolar			Velar			Postalveolar
	/ p /	/ pʰ /	/ pʼ /	/ t /	/ tʰ /	/ tʼ /	/ k /	/ kʰ /	/ kʼ /	/ tʃ /	/ tʃʰ /	/ tʃʼ /
/ ʃ /				/ʃtáʊ̯rákʊ̥/ shdáurákụ 'frog, toad'	/ʃtʰéràʃtʼíká/ shtérashtʼígá 'cricket'	/ʃtʼìcɑ̀ːtʰɪ̥ʃɪ̥/ shtʼidyàatịshị 'plot of land'				/ʃtʃɨ/ shjv 'upward'	/ʃtʃʰúmúná/ shchúmúmá 'wasp'	/ʃtʃʼísḁ/ shchʼísạ 'six'
/ ʂ /	/ʂpúːná/ srbúuná 'water jug'	/ʂpʰɑ̀ːtʼi/ srpàat'i 'mockingbird'	/ʂpʼeruru/ srpʼeruru 'it's full'				/ʂkɑ́ʂkɑ́ʊ̯kʼa/ srgásrgáukʼa 'quail'	/ʂkʰɨ́tútsʰɪ̥/ srkv́dútsị 'mound, hill'	/ʂkʼàpɪ́hɪ́/ srkʼabíhí 'female in-law'

Orthography

Traditional Keresan beliefs postulate that Keres is a sacred language that must exist only in its spoken form.[12] The language's religious connotation and years of persecution of Pueblo religion by European colonizers may also explain why no unified orthographic convention exists for Keresan. However, a practical spelling system has been developed for Laguna (Kʼawaika)[8] and more recently for Acoma (Áakʼu) Keres,[13] both of which are remarkably consistent.

In the Keres spelling system, each symbol represents a single phoneme. The letters ⟨c q z f⟩ and sometimes also ⟨v⟩ are not used. Digraphs represent both palatal consonants (written using a sequence of C and ⟨y⟩), and retroflex consonants, which are represented using a sequence of C and the letter ⟨r⟩. These graphemes used for writing Western Keres are shown between ⟨...⟩ below.

Consonant Symbols

		Labial	Alveolar	Palatal	Retroflex	Postalveolar	Velar	Glottal
Plosive	voiceless	⟨b⟩	⟨d⟩	⟨dy⟩			⟨g⟩	⟨ʼ⟩
	aspirated	⟨p⟩	⟨t⟩	⟨ty⟩			⟨k⟩
	ejective	⟨pʼ⟩	⟨tʼ⟩	⟨tyʼ⟩			⟨kʼ⟩
Fricative	voiceless		⟨s⟩		⟨sr⟩	⟨sh⟩		⟨h⟩
	ejective		⟨sʼ⟩		⟨srʼ⟩	⟨shʼ⟩
Affricate	voiceless		⟨dz⟩		⟨dr⟩	⟨j⟩
	aspirated		⟨ts⟩		⟨tr⟩	⟨ch⟩
	ejective		⟨tsʼ⟩		⟨trʼ⟩	⟨chʼ⟩
Approximant	voiced	⟨w⟩	⟨r⟩	⟨y⟩
	glottalized	⟨wʼ⟩	⟨rʼ⟩	⟨yʼ⟩
Nasal	voiced	⟨m⟩	⟨n⟩	⟨ny⟩
	glottalized	⟨mʼ⟩	⟨nʼ⟩	⟨nyʼ⟩

Signage at Acoma Pueblo

Signs at Acoma Pueblo sometimes use special diacritics for ejective consonants that differ from the symbols above, as shown in the table:

Signage at Acoma Pueblo

General	⟨pʼ⟩	⟨tʼ⟩	⟨kʼ⟩	⟨sʼ⟩	⟨tsʼ⟩	⟨mʼ⟩	⟨wʼ⟩	⟨yʼ⟩	⟨nʼ shʼ srʼ tyʼ⟩
Acoma signage	⟨ṕ⟩	⟨t́⟩	⟨ḱ⟩	⟨ś⟩	⟨tś⟩	⟨ḿ⟩	⟨ẃ⟩	⟨ý⟩	?

Vowel Symbols

Vowel sounds are represented straightforwardly in the existing spellings for Keresan. Each vowel sound is written using a unique letter or digraph (for long vowels and diphthongs). However, there are two competing representations for the vowel /ɨ/. Some versions simply use the IPA ⟨ɨ⟩ whereas others use the letter ⟨v⟩ (the sound /v/ as in veal does not occur in Keresan). Voiceless vowels have also been represented in two ways; either underlined or with a dot below (see table).

Long vowels		Short vowels		Voiceless vowels
Phoneme	Grapheme	Phoneme	Grapheme	Phoneme	Grapheme
/ iː /	⟨ii⟩	/ i /	⟨i⟩	/ ɪ̥ /	⟨i̱⟩ or ⟨ị⟩
/ eː /	⟨ee⟩	/ e /	⟨e⟩	/ e̥ /	⟨e̱⟩ or ⟨ẹ⟩
/ ɨː /	⟨ɨɨ⟩ or ⟨vv⟩	/ ɨ /	⟨ɨ⟩ or ⟨v⟩	/ ɨ̥ /	⟨ɨ̱⟩ or ⟨ṿ⟩
/ ɑː /	⟨aa⟩	/ ɑ /	⟨a⟩	/ ḁ /	⟨a̱⟩ or ⟨ạ⟩
/ oː /	⟨oo⟩	/ o /	⟨o⟩	/ o̥ /	⟨o̱⟩ or ⟨ọ⟩
/ uː /	⟨uu⟩	/ u /	⟨u⟩	/ ʊ̥ /	⟨u̱⟩ or ⟨ụ⟩

Diacritics for Tone

Tone may or may not be represented in the orthography of Keresan. When represented, four diacritics may be used above the vowel. Unlike the system used for Navajo, diacritics for tone are not repeated in long vowels.

	High tone	Low tone	Rising tone	Falling tone
Long Vowel	⟨áa⟩, ⟨úu⟩	⟨àa⟩, ⟨ùu⟩ or unmarked	⟨ǎa⟩, ⟨ǔu⟩ or ⟨aá⟩, ⟨uú⟩	⟨âa⟩, ⟨ûu⟩ or ⟨aà⟩, ⟨uù⟩
Short Vowel	⟨á⟩, ⟨ú⟩	⟨à⟩, ⟨ù⟩ or unmarked	-

Keres Alphabet and Alphabetical order

Although Keresan is not normally written, there exists only one dictionary of the language in which words are listed in any given order. In this dictionary of Western Keres, digraphs count as single letters, although ejective consonants are not listed separately; occurring after their non-ejective counterparts. Both the glottal stop ⟨ʼ⟩ and long vowels (e.g. ⟨aa ee ii⟩ etc.) are not treated as separate letters.

Alphabetical order in the Acoma Keres Audio Dictionary

A	B	CH	CHʼ	D	DR	DY	DZ	E	G	H	I	J	K	Kʼ	M	Mʼ	N	Nʼ	NY	NYʼ	P
Pʼ	R	Rʼ	S	Sʼ	SH	SHʼ	SR	SRʼ	T	TR	TRʼ	TS	TSʼ	TY	TYʼ	U	W	Wʼ	Y	Yʼ

Sample texts

Orthography marking tone

Woodpecker and Coyote[9]

Ái dítʼîishu srbígà kʼánâaya dyáʼâʼu. Shʼée srbígà ái dyěitsị ái náyáa shdyɨ dyáʼa.

Orthography without tone marking

Boas text[8]

Baanaʼa, egu kauʼseeʼe, atsi sʼaama-ee srayutse.

Morphosyntax

Keresan is a split-ergative language in which verbs denoting states (i.e. stative verbs) behave differently from those indexing actions, especially in terms of the person affixes they take. This system of argument marking is based on a split-intransitive pattern, in which subjects are marked differently if they are perceived as actors than from when they are perceived as undergoers of the action being described.

The morphology of Keresan is mostly prefixing, although suffixes and reduplication also occur.[9] Keresan distinguishes nouns, verbs, numerals and particles as word classes. Nouns in Keresan do not normally distinguish case or number, but they can be inflected for possession, with distinct constructions for alienable and inalienable possession. Other than possession, Keresan nouns show no comprehensive noun classes.

Word order

Keresan is a verb-final language, though word order is rather flexible.[9][8]

Laguna Keres[8]

S	O	V
John	Bill	gukacha
J.	B.	g-Ø-ukacha
John	Bill	3s-3s-see
'John saw Bill'

Negation

Negation is doubly marked in Keresan. In addition to the adverb dzaadi, verbs index negation through a suffix (e.g. -u).

• Gukacha 'S/he saw her/him'
• Dzaadi gukachau 'S/he didn't see her/him'

Verbal morphology

The verb is a central grammatical category in Keres, conveying the most information about events in communicative acts.[8][9][10] Through its morphemes, Keresan verbs code not only person and number of the initiator of the action (e.g. 'Tammy drinks decaf') as is common in Indo-European languages, but also how the initiator is implicated in the action. For instance, the three verbs that describe Tammy's actions in 'Tammy kicked the ball' vs. 'Tammy jumped' vs. 'Tammy sneezed', where kicking, jumping and sneezing require different levels of effort from Tammy. The person and number of the undergoer of the action is also coded on the verb (e.g. gukacha means 'S/he sees her/him' on its own), as well as how the speaker assesses the action ('I think Tammy arrived from class' vs. 'Tammy arrived from class'). Finally, the internal temporal structure of the action (i.e. aspect, as in 'Tammy was sneezing in class' vs. 'Tammy sneezed in class').

According to Maring (1967), the Keresan verb is organized around the following grammatical categories (pp. 39-40)[10]

• Subject/Object relations
  • Subject of intransitive verbs: marked by a prefix that distinguishes 3-4 persons in the singular (see below).
  • Subject of transitive verbs: marked by a prefix that distinguishes 3-4 persons in the singular (see below).
  • Object of transitive verbs: marked by a prefix that combines with the subject prefix, or by a suffix
• Number relations
  • Singular: usually marked by a prefix
  • Dual: can be marked by a prefix, partial reduplication or by suffixes
  • Plural: can be marked by a prefix, partial reduplication, by suffixes or by suppletive stem forms (i.e. singular and plural forms are not related etymologically)
• Temporal relations
  • Future: is marked on the verb by a series of prefixes that also encode number
• Modality relations
  • Indicative
  • Dubitative
  • Hortative
    • Negative hortative
  • Negative
    • Future negative
• Voice relations
  • Active
  • Passive
  • Reflexive
  • Reciprocal
• Aspect
  • Imperfective
  • Inceptive
  • Repetitive
  • Continuative
  • Habitual
  • Inchoative
  • Perfective

The verbal prefix

In Keres, the verbal prefix carries information from five different grammatical categories: argument role, modality, polarity,[8] person and number. That is, a single Keresan verb prefix codes who initiated the action and how implicated that entity is (the subject/case), whom underwent the effects of the action (the direct object), the speaker's assessment of the action (the modality)[14] and whether it occurred or not (polarity). On the other hand, information about when the action took place (i.e. tense) is expressed elsewhere in a clause, mostly by adverbs.[9]

Number

Keresan verbs distinguish three numbers: singular, dual (two entities) and plural (more than two entities); and four persons: first (the speaker), second (the hearer), third (a known, definite or salient entity being talked about) and fourth (a non-salient, unknown or indefinite entity being talked about, also known as obviative) persons. The plural and dual forms are often marked by reduplication of part of the stem (gukacha ‘s/he saw it’ vs guʼukacha ‘the two of them saw it’).

Argument role

Languages encode two main types of actions: those in which the main participant initiates an action that produces change in an object (e.g. kick a ball, buy a gift, cook a dish, read a book); and those in which the action produces no (perceived) change in the world or that have no object (sneezing, breathing, growing, diving, etc.).[15] Actions that take an object are encoded by transitive verbs, whereas those that take no object are expressed via intransitive verbs.

Intransitive verbs

In Indo-European languages like English, all intransitive verbs behave similarly (‘They sneeze/breathe/dive/think’/etc.). In Keresan, actions that take no object are conceptualized in two distinct ways depending on how the initiator of the action is implicated. More active-like intransitive verbs (e.g. ‘to sneeze’) are coded through one set of morphemes, whereas actions conceptualized as involving the initiator at a lesser degree (e.g. ‘to believe’) are coded using a separate set of prefixes.

Degrees of involvement of the initiator in Keres[8]

	Actions	Intransitive verb type
More	to write (-dyàatra), to steal as a thief (-chʼáwʼa), to have diarrhea (-ushchʼi), to leave (-mi), to whistle (-srbiitsa), to sweat (-shdyuwàan’i)	Active
Less	to believe (-hima), to be born (-dyá), to sleep (-bái), to be afraid (-tyishu), to forget (-dyúmidruwi)	Inactive

Ideas expressed in Indo-European languages with adjectives are most often encoded by verbs in Keresan. That is, in Keresan one express the idea in the sentence ‘He is selfish’ by saying something along the lines of ‘He selfishes’. In such “actions”, the entity that is characterized by them is not implicated in the action directly (i.e. it's beyond their control), and thus belong in the Inactive intransitive category. The different sets of prefixes are shown below:

Intransitive Prefixes by Verb Type

	Active intransive			Inactive intrasitive
	Prefix	Example		Prefix	Example
First	s(i)-	sudyàatra	I write	srk-	srkuhima	I believe
Second	sr-	srúuchʼáwʼa	you steal	kɨdr-	kɨdrâidyá	you were born
Third	k-	kashdyuwàanʼi	s/he sweats	dz-	dzíibái	he is sleeping

Transitive verbs

Transitive verb - Indicative mood (-ukạchạ 'to see')

	Direct object
	Singular
Subject		First ('me’)	Second (‘you’)	Third (‘her’/‘him’)	Fourth
	First (‘I’)	-	srà-ukạchạ	sì-ukạchạ	-
			I see you	I see her/him
	Second (‘you’)	dyù-ukạchạ	-	srù-ukạchạ
		you see me		you see her/him
	Third (‘she’/‘he’)	srgù-ukạchạ	kudrù -ukạchạ	g-ukạchạ	gù-ukạchạ
		s/he sees me	s/he sees you	s/he sees her/him	s/he sees something
	Fourth (‘one’)	-		dzì-ukạchạ	-
				one sees it

Aspect

Aspect in Keresan is signalled by suffixes.

-ajanu 'to rain'

kájáni	it rains
káajáni	it is raining
kájásɨ	it keeps raining
káajatú	it rained

Time (tense) adverbials

The category of tense is expressed in Keresan via adverbs that indicate when the action about which one is speaking took place.

Time adverbials in Acoma Keres[10]

Past		Future
tsikʼínuma	long ago	kúsra	tonight
háma	once, formerly	nacháma	tomorrow
súwa	yesterday	naháayashi	day after tomorrow

Lexicon

New words are coined through a number of roots that are combined to pre-existing ones. Compounding is a common strategy for word building, although derivation also occurs.

Numerals

The Keresan numeral system is a base 10 system. Numerals 11-19, as well as those between the multiple of tens, are formed by adding the word kʼátsi (/ kʼátsʰɪ / 'ten') followed by the word dzidra (/tsɪtʂa/ 'more'). Numerals 20 and above are formed by adding a multiplicative adverb (-wa or -ya) to the base number and the word kʼátsi.[8]

Western Keres
1	ísrkʼé	11	kʼátsi-írskʼá-dzidra	21	dyúya-kʼátsi-íisrkʼé-dzidra
2	dyúuwʼée	12	kʼátsi-dyú-dzidra	22	dyúya-kʼátsi-dyú-dzidra
3	chameʼée	13	kʼátsi-chami-dzidra	30	chamiya-kʼátsi
4	dyáana	14	kʼátsi-dyáana-dzidra	40	dyáanawa-kʼátsi
5	táam'a	15	kʼátsi-táamʼa-dzidra	50	táamʼawa-kʼátsi
6	shʼísa	16	kʼátsi-shchʼísa-dzidra	60	shchʼísawa-kʼátsi
7	mʼáiʼdyàana	17	kʼátsi-mʼáidyana-dzidra	70	mʼáidyanawa-kʼátsi
8	kukʼúmishu	18	kʼátsi-kukʼúmishu-dzidra	80	kukʼúmishuwa-kʼátsi
9	máyúkʼu	19	kʼátsi-máiyúkʼa-dzidra	90	máiyúkʼuwa-kʼátsi
10	kʼátsi	20	dyúwa-kʼátsi	100	kʼádzawa-kʼátsi

Loanwords from Spanish

European colonizers arriving in the Southwest US brought with them material culture and concepts that were unknown to the peoples living in the area. Words for the new ideas introduced by Spaniards were often borrowed into Keres directly from Early Modern Spanish, and a large number of these persists in Modern Keresan.[11]

Semantic domain	Modern Western Keres	Modern Spanish	English translation
Household items	kamárîita, kuchâaru, kujûuna, méesa, mendâan, kuwêeta	camarita, cuchara, colchón, mesa, ventana, cubeta (Mexico)	bed, spoon, mattress, table, window (glass), bucket
Social structure	gumbanêerụ, rái, murâatụ, merigâanạ, kumanirá, ninêeru	compañero, rey, mulato, americano(a), comunidad, dinero	workmate, king, black person, white person, community house, money
Food	géesu, arûusị, kawé, kurántụ, mantạgîiyụ, mandêegạ	queso, arroz, café, cilantro, mantequilla, manteca	cheese, rice, coffee, cilantro, butter, lard/butter
Animal husbandry	kawâayu, kanêeru, kujíinu, kurá, dûura, wáakạshị	caballo, carnero, cochino, corral, toro, vaca	horse, sheep, pen/corral, bull, cow
Religious concepts	míisa, Háasus Kuríistị, nachạwêena, guréesima	misa, Jesús Cristo, Noche Buena, Cuaresma	mass, Jesus Christ, Christmas, Lent
Days of the week	tamîikụ, rûunishị, mâatịsị, mérikụsị, sruwêewesị, yêenịsị, sâawaru	domingo, lunes, martes, miércoles, jueves, viernes, sábado	Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday

Proto-language

Proto-Keresan
Reconstruction of	Keresan languages

Proto-Keresan reconstructions by Miller and Davis (1963):[16]

no.	gloss	Proto-Keresan
1	closed	*-ʔáˑʔᴀ; *c̍ʔáˑʔᴀ
2	arrive	*-ʔác̍ɪ; *záʔác̍ɪ
3	cooking pot	*ʔádàus̆ɪ
4	tether	*ʔáˑdʸáˑnɪ
5	there	*ʔáisí
6	lamp	*ʔánáiẓáṅɪ
7	chair, pillow	*ʔánámát̠ɪ
8	tasty	*ʔáṅéˑ-za
9	knee	*ʔás̆ɪ; gáʔás̆ɪ
10	wheat	*ʔáṣánɪ
11	metate	*ʔáˑwáˑṅɪ
12	he is willing	*ʔé-gu
13	his name	*ʔéˑ-gá
14	remember	*ʔéʔé-gu
15	go (plural)	*-ʔégᴜ; *zéʔégᴜ
16	sneeze	*ʔésu-gᴀ
17	centipede	*ʔíʔìˑdʸawa
18	liver	*ʔíʔínâˑni
19	cholla cactus	*ʔiˑbánɪ
20	bark	*ʔíˑč̇ánání
21	flour	*ʔín̍áˑwí
22	excrement	*ʔiˑsa
23	arrow	*ʔísdúwa
24	one	*ʔísgᴀ
25	meat	*ʔíšâiˑni
26	grease, lard	*ʔíṣat̍ɪ
27	porcupine	*ʔiˑṣ̍á
28	life	*ʔíyâˑní
29	hot	*ʔɨ́rɨ́ˑ
30	give	*-ʔíᴜ; *zâuʔᴜ
31	dwell	*-ʔᴜ; *gâuʔᴜ
32	leggings	*ʔúˑbᴀsdʸán̍ɪ
33	earrings	*ʔúkúˑyá-ṁɪ
34	warrior society	*ʔu̍ˑpɪ
35	sun	*ʔúṣâˑẓᴀ
36	basket	*ʔút̍áˑn̍ɪ, *ʔúˑt̍áˑn̍ɪ
37	bowl	*ʔúwáist̍án̍ɪ
38	baby	*ʔúwàˑḵa
39	match	*ʔúˑwísgɨ́zɪ
40	grandchild, grandparent	*báˑba̍ˑ
41	wake up	*-bádʸɨ; *ċíˑbádʸɨ
42	fire, to build a	*-báyᴀ; *súbáyᴀ
43	tell	*-be; *síube
44	eat	*-bᴇ; *kúbᴇ, *ku̍ˑbᴇ
45	toad	*bêˑrak̠ᴀ
46	wood, to fetch	*-bí; *súbí
47	smooth	*-bîˑrizᴀ; *ka̍ubîˑrizᴀ
48	dark	*-bɪs̆ᵻ; *ḱábɪs̆ᵻ
49	purple	*bís̆ɨ́ˑná
50	lopsided	*bíyáˑ-za
51	west	*bɨ́-
52	enter	*-bᵻ; *gúbᵻ
53	put in	*-bɨnaiʔɪ; *s̍áubɨnaiʔɪ
54	log	*bɨ́ẓâˑm̍ɪ
55	torso	*búmúˑná
56	butterfly	*búˑr̍àigᴀ
57	odor	*bùˑṣᴜ-gᴀ
58	lightning	*búẓuw̍ist̠ɪ
59	breathe	*cáˑ-gᴀ
60	breath	*càˑc̠ɪ
61	wing	*cáˑp̠ɪ
62	wall	*cèˑc̠ɪ
63	turkey	*cinᴀ
64	fox	*cúsk̠ɪ
65	fly	*c̍âˑp̠ɪ
66	angry	*-c̍ayawᴀ; *kúc̍ayawᴀ
67	broken	*c̍áyú̠-zɪ
68	chew	*-c̍êˑnazᴀ; *káʔáuc̍êˑnazᴀ
69	deep	*-c̍ɪ; *k̍ác̍ɪ
70	need	*-c̍íbᵻ; *zíuc̍íbᵻ
71	locust	*c̍íˑga
72	Zia Pueblo	*c̍íˑy̍á
73	water	*c̍ízɪ
74	rain	*-c̆ᴀ; *kàˑc̆ᴀ
75	side	*c̆áˑdʸa
76	tomorrow	*c̆ámá
77	three	*c̆émɪ
78	kiva	*c̆ídʸá
79	yellow	*-c̆in̍ɪ; *k̍uˑc̆in̍ɪ
80	burp	*-c̆úˑ-gᴀ
81	hot	*-č̇ᴀ; *gâˑc̐ᴀ
82	steal	*-c̐áwᴀ; *kúˑc̐áwᴀ
83	medicine man	*č̇áyâˑni
84	hawk	*č̇ɨ́ˑríga
85	horned toad	*dabínᴜsk̠ᴀ
86	heel	*-dák̍ᴀ; *séˑdák̍ᴀ
87	Santa Ana Pueblo	*dámáyá
88	squash	*dâˑni
89	moon	*dâw̍áˑẓᵻ
90	give	*-di; *zìudi, *gùˑdi
91	corn husk	*díˑskámí
92	feed	*-di̍ˑša (*-dîˑšaʔ); *c̍ídi̍ˑša
93	dog	*díyᴀ
94	cliff	*-dúwɪ; *kádúwɪ
95	stocking	*dúwim̍išɪ
96	pet	*-dʸáˑ; *k̍ádʸá
97	catch	*-dʸa; *zídʸa
98	bobcat	*dʸáˑdʸᴜ
99	eagle	*dʸáˑmí
100	four	*dʸâˑna
101	deer	*dʸán̍é
102	fast (abstain from eating)	*-dʸašɪ
103	early	*dʸáwa
104	gourd	*dʸáˑwí
105	piñon pine	*dʸèic̠ɪ
106	north	*dʸídʸᴀ
107	above	*dʸíní
108	elk	*dʸɨ́ˑṣᴀ
109	two	*dʸûˑ-w̍éˑ
110	badger	*dʸúˑbí
111	brother of a man	*dʸúmᵻ; *k̍ádʸyúmᵻ
112	beans	*gánami
113	white	*gášé
114	seed	*gáwɪc̠ɪ
115	morning	*gáˑyu
116	and	*gu
117	bite	*-gᴜ; *gàˑgᴜ
118	firewood	*gùˑc̠ɪ
119	bear	*gúháyᴀ
120	eight	*gúk̍úmɪšᵻ
121	sell	*-gúyᴀ; zígúyᴀ
122	east	*háˑ-
123	land	*háʔác̍ɪ
124	yucca	*háʔásc̐á
125	finger-nail	*háʔáw̍íˑc̐á-ni
126	claw	*háʔáw̍íˑc̐ánani
127	oak	*ha̍ˑbánɪ
128	feather	*háˑbí
129	navel	*hádáw̍ini
130	coals	*hâˑk̍aˑni
131	tobacco	*hâˑmiˑ
132	beard	*háˑmúšaˑni
133	long ago	*hám̍aˑ
134	hand	*hám̍ᴀsdíʔini
135	ice	*hâˑm̍éˑ
136	naked	*hánâˑm,
137	pine tree	*hâˑniˑ
138	people	*hánᴜ
139	shoe	*háˑs̐uwim̍ɪ, *háˑs̐úwím̍ɪ
140	pollen	*háˑt̍awé
141	who	*háu
142	yawn	*háu-gᴀ
143	snow	*háˑwéˑ
144	stalk (of a plant)	*háwiẓɨni
145	prayer-stick	*háẓam̍ɨni
146	hair	*háˑẓɨ́nɪ
147	Jemez Pueblo	*héˑmíšíˑ-cɪ, *héˑmíšíˑ-zé
148	cloud	*hénat̍ɪ
149	turtle	*héyᴀdʸɪ
150	fog	*héyàˑšɪ
151	I, we	*hínᴜ
152	knife	*hìˑsgai
153	arrowhead	*hìˑst̍íyaˑni
154	you	*híṣᴜ
155	road	*híyâˑni
156	seed	*híˑẓɨni
157	willow	*híẓᵻsk̍áwa
158	dove	*húˑʔùˑga
159	saliva	*húˑbɨ́nɪ
160	wool	*hùˑséní
161	yucca fruit	*hùˑsk̍ani
162	sky	*húwak̍ᴀ
163	eye	*húwanáʔani
164	milk	*húwîˑni
165	hear	*-káˑ; *k̍ákáˑ
166	see	*k̠ᴀčᴀ; *gùˑk̠ᴀčᴀ, *gúˑk̠ᴀčᴀ
167	summer	*káṣâidɪ
168	broken	*káyú-zɪ
169	antelope	*kɨ́ˑc̠ɪ
170	burn	*kɨ́ˑẓᵻ-gᴀ
171	situated	*-k̠ᴜ; *ga̍ˑk̠ᴜ
172	winter	*kúˑkᵻ
173	thread a needle	*-kûˑyau; *zíkûˑyau
174	mouth	*-k̍ᴀ; *c̍îˑk̍ᴀ, *zîˑk̍ᴀ
175	wolf	*k̍ákana
176	spider	*k̍ámᴀsk̠ᵻ
177	heat of the sun	*k̍ánani
178	rainbow	*k̍ásdʸâˑc̍ɪ
179	moss	*k̍áwina
180	ten	*k̍ázɪ
181	friend	*-k̍îˑni, *k̍áuk̍îˑni
182	clown	*k̍ɨṣáirí
183	woman	*k̍úˑ, *k̍úwí
184	wife	*-k̍ui; *k̍âuk̍ui
185	sister of a man	*-k̍ûiẓᴀ; *k̍ák̍ûiẓᴀ
186	string (noun)	*-k̍úmɪ; *ċíuk̍úmɪ, *kúk̍úmíná
187	last night	*k̍úṣᴀ
188	mountain	*k̍úˑtí
189	game animal	*k̍úyàitɪ
190	old woman	*k̍úˑyáu-ẓá
191	thigh	*-maˑ; *kâˑmaˑ
192	girl	*ma̍ˑgɨ́ˑ-za
193	leaf	*másâˑni
194	boy	*mɨ́ˑdéˑ
195	kill	*-mɨdʸɪzᴀ; *gúmɨdʸɪzᴀ
196	black	*mɨ̂ˑnagan̍ɪ
197	buttocks	*-múc̐ᴀ; *gáumūc̐ᴀ
198	mountain lion	*mûˑk̍aiẓᴀ
199	dented	*múr̍ᴀ-zɪ
200	buffalo	*múšêiẓᴀ
201	soapweed	*múšɪ
202	house	*-m̍ᴀ; *gâˑm̍ᴀ
203	clay	*m̍íˑc̍ɪ
204	seven	*m̍àidʸaˑna
205	dipper	*m̍ák̍ᴀ
206	word	*m̍áˑní
207	palm of the hand	*-m̍aˑp̠ᴀ; *gám̍aˑp̠ᴀ
208	moth	*m̍ídá
209	others	*m̍ídá
210	salt	*m̍ína
211	ashes	*m̍ísc̐ai
212	alkali	*m̍íst̠ɪ
213	hummingbird	*m̍îˑzᴀ
214	salty	*-m̍ᵻ; *zéˑm̍ᵻ
215	leave	*-m̍ᵻ; *gúmᵻ
216	eye	*-ná; *k̍âˑná
217	new	*nàˑceˑ
218	food	*nác̍í
219	stomach	*-nac̐ᴀɪ
220	head	*-násgái; *gánásgái
221	uncle, nephew	*-náwé; *k̍áˑnáwé
222	mother	*-nâˑya; *kánâˑya
223	know	*-ni; *gúni
224	rubber	*nɨ́ˑʔɨ́ẓᵻ
225	prairie dog	*nɨ́t̠ɪ
226	separate	*núwáiná
227	survive	*n̍ám̍ᴀzᴀ; *kín̍ám̍ᴀzᴀ
228	body	*n̍í; *sín̍í
229	down	*n̍ɨ́
230	lungs	*pánᴀc̠ɪ
231	bag	*pâˑni
232	bedbug	*peséc̍uru
233	cracked	*pét̍ᴀ-gᴀ
234	forehead	*-pɪ; *k̍ùˑp̠í
235	buckskin	*pìˑc̠ɪ
236	flat	*písc̐ᴀ-zɪ
237	skin	*písc̐ánani
238	blow	*-pùˑzᴀ; *síupùˑzᴀ
239	salamander	*p̍águra
240	good	*ráwáˑ
241	rabbit	*rèˑdʸᴀ
242	fat	*rîˑwagan̍ɪ
243	small	*rɨ́ˑ-
244	all	*sái
245	sun rays	*-sbí; *gáisbí
246	woodpecker	*sbíga
247	chicken	*sbíˑná
248	string (verb)	*-sbíẓᴀ; *kúsbíẓᴀ
249	jug	*sbúˑná
250	burst	*sc̐ác̍ɪ-gᴀ
251	meadowlark	*sc̐áˑná
252	cut hair	*sc̐ánᴀwᴀ; *kúsc̐ánᴀwᴀ
253	twilight	*sc̐áp̠ᵻˑgᴀ
254	grasshopper	*sc̐ár̍ɪ
255	tender	*sc̐áẇᵻ-zɪ
256	trousers	*-sc̐áẓán̍ɪ; *ẇíˑsc̐áẓán̍ɪ, *áisc̐áẓán̍ɪ
257	fast	*sc̐áẓɨ́ˑ
258	squeal	*-sc̐èˑzᴀ; *gúˑsc̐èˑzᴀ
259	six	*sc̐ísᴀ
260	crow	*sc̐ɨ́r̍á
261	swallow	*sc̐úˑ-sᴇ
262	wild honey	*sc̐úmᵻ
263	cough	*sc̐úṣᴜ-sᴇ
264	mosquito	*sc̐úy̍úˑná
265	breeze	*-sdayᴀ; *zèˑsdayᴀ
266	foot	*-sdi; *kásdi
267	temple	*-sduˑ; *sèusduˑ
268	suck	*-sdʸᴀ; *zíˑsdʸᴀ
269	brown	*-sdʸɪrɪ; *k̍ùisdʸɪrɪ
270	fill	*-sé; *c̍íˑsé
271	sure	*se̍ˑgᴀ
272	fur	*-séˑn̍é; *kúséˑn̍é
273	twisted	*sgɨ́ẓᵻ-zɪ
274	ant	*síˑʔí
275	squirrel	*síˑdʸᴀ
276	flesh	*sínani
277	eyelash	*-síp̠ᴀ; *ciˑsíp̠ᴀ
278	bird, sp.	*sír̍úˑ
279	mouse	*síyan̍ᵻ
280	wrong doing	*sìˑ-zɪ
281	middle	*sɨ́nᴀ
282	bighorn sheep	*skàˑsk̠ᴜ
283	blue, green	*-sk̠ᵻ-, *k̍ùisk̠ᵻ
284	giant	*skúˑy̍ᴜ
285	drink	*-sk̍ᴀ; *gísk̍ᴀ
286	bullsnake	*sk̍áʔáˑdʸᴜ
287	fish	*sk̍àˑšᵻ
288	turn around	*-sk̍ɨ́ˑʔᵻẓᴀɪ; *sa̍isk̍ɨ́ˑʔᵻẓᴀɪ
289	round	*sk̍ɨ́r̍ɪ-zɪ
290	spherical	*sk̍úrú-zɪ
291	peas	*sk̍úrúˑná
292	plate	*spéráˑná, *pérazɪšɪ
293	dwarf corn	*spíníní
294	chicken pox	*spúrúˑná
295	peck	*-sp̍ék̍ᴜzᴀ; *kúsp̍ék̍ᴜzᴀ
296	singe hair	*-st̍amuc̐ᴀzᴀ; *c̍ást̍amuc̐ᴀzᴀ
297	get water	*-st̍á; *kúst̍á
298	give liquid	*-st̍i
299	melt	*-st̍ɪt̠ᴜ; *c̍íst̍ɪt̠ᴜ
300	straight	*-st̍ɨ́ˑ-zɪ
301	die	*-st̍ᴜ; *kùˑst̍ᴜ
302	pointed	*-st̍úk̍ᴜ-zɪ
303	sharp	*-st̍úw̍ɪ-zɪ
304	yesterday	*súwá, *súˑ
305	step	*-šᴀ; *kášᴀ
306	parrot	*šâˑwit̠ᴀ
307	flea, louse	*šínaˑ
308	hip	*šᵻbᴀ
309	goose	*šúˑdá
310	snake, sp.	*šùˑga
311	corpse	*šûˑmɨˑ
312	spit	*šúp̠ᵻ-sᴇ
313	turquoise	*šúwimu
314	borrow	*-s̐iˑzᴀ; *síus̐iˑzᴀ
315	scattered	*ṣám̍áˑ
316	torn	*ṣárɪ-gᴀ
317	raw	*ṣící
318	blue jay	*ṣúisɪ
319	snake	*ṣûˑwiˑ
320	crooked	*ṣúw̍ɪ-zɪ
321	five	*tâˑm̍ᴀ
322	work	*-tâˑn̍iẓᴀ; *kútâˑn̍iẓᴀ
323	esteem	*ténéˑ-gu
324	teeth	*-t̠ɪ; *za̍ˑt̠ɪ
325	back	*t̠ɪdʸᴀ; *k̍át̠ɪdʸᴀ
326	full	*-t̍á; *gíˑt̍á
327	step on	*t̍ᴀ; *zîˑt̍ᴀ
328	visit	*-t̍àˑnᴇ; *gúˑt̍àˑnᴇ
329	grind	*-t̍ɪwᴀ; *káʔâˑt̍ɪwᴀ
330	tongue	*wáˑčɨ́n̍ɪ
331	dress, shirt	*wágɨn̍ɪ
332	bird snare	*wáˑsɪ
333	young of animal	*wa̍ˑst̍ɪ
334	soft	*wáṣ̍ᴀ-zɪ
335	medicine	*wáˑwá
336	root	*wáˑwáiẓɨni
337	brother of a woman	*-waẓᵻ; *k̍áwaẓᵻ
338	stir	*-wáẓᵻša; *síwáẓᵻša, *síwáẓᵻšayᴀ
339	chest	*-wic̍ɪ; *gáwic̍ɪ
340	neck	*-wîˑẓa; *gáwîˑẓa
341	face	*-wa; *k̍úwa, *k̍úwaw̍ɪ
342	abalone shell	*w̍a̍ˑbɨ́nɪ
343	eagle down	*w̍abúˑsc̐ᴀ
344	hunt	*-w̍àˑnᴇ; *súw̍àˑnᴇ
345	sour	*-w̍ᴀsdá; *k̍áw̍ᴀsdá
346	son-in-law	*-w̍a̍ˑti; *k̍áw̍a̍ˑti
347	duck	*w̍âˑyuṣᴀ
348	sweet	*-w̍eˑʔᴇ; *kúw̍eˑʔᴇ
349	child	*-w̍ɪ; *k̍âˑw̍ɪ
350	heart	*w̍ínᴜsgᴀ
351	cigarette	*w̍ìˑsp̍ɪ
352	born	*-yá; *cíyá
353	sand	*yáʔái
354	corn silk	*yábášɪ
355	corn	*yáˑčínɪ
356	mesquite	*yêˑt̠ᴜ
357	worm	*yúʔúbɨ́
358	intestines	*y̍áʔáwâˑni
359	staff of office	*y̍áˑbí
360	look for (singular object)	*-y̍áibᴀ; *zíy̍áibᴀ
361	find	*-y̍âin̍ᴀ; *zíy̍âin̍ᴀ
362	brains	*y̍àˑsbu̍ˑẓaˑni
363	stone	*y̍âuni
364	stick	*y̍áw̍ᴀstí
365	crippled	*y̍âˑyu
366	arm	*-y̍ûˑm̍ɪ; *cíy̍ûˑm̍ɪ, *gáy̍ûˑm̍ɪ
367	song	*y̍ûˑni
368	shoulder	*y̍úˑsbiˑni
369	corn cob	*y̍úˑskúm̍á
370	sing	*-y̍ùˑtᴀ; *súy̍ùˑtᴀ
371	no	*zá
372	say	*-za; *k̍áza
373	plains	*zàˑdʸa
374	old	*záwini
375	language	*zêˑni
376	lie down	*-zi; *káʔáizi
377	go (singular)	*zùˑ-gᴜ
378	pay	*-zúwᴀ; *zíˑzúwᴀ
379	horn	*-ẓᴀ; *záẓᴀ
380	awake	*-ẓáˑčúwᴀ; *ki̍ˑẓáˑčúwᴀ, *kíˑẓáˑčúwᴀ
381	club	*ẓàic̠ɪ
382	husband	*ẓɨ́; *k̍áˑẓɨ́
383	house	*-ẓᵻ; *káẓᵻ
384	smoke (tobacco)	*ẓᵻkᴀ; *ka̍ˑẓᵻkᴀ

In popular media

Keres was one of the seven languages used in the Coca-Cola commercial called "It's Beautiful" broadcast during the 2014 Super Bowl.[17]

See also

• Keresan Sign Language

References

1. "Keres, Western". Ethnologue. Retrieved 2018-05-04.
2. "Keres, Eastern". Ethnologue. Retrieved 2018-05-04.
3. Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Keresan". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
4. Ian., Maddieson (1984). Patterns of sounds. Cambridge [Cambridgeshire]: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521113267. OCLC 10724704.
5. Davis, Irvine (1964). The Language of Santa Ana Pueblo, Smithsonian Bulletin 191, Anthropological Papers, No. 69.
6. A Comparative Sketch of Pueblo Languages: Phonology. Kansas Working Papers in Linguistics. 1987.
7. Spencer, Robert F. (1946). The Phonemes of Keresan.
8. Lachler, Jordan (2005). Grammar of Laguna Keres. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Dissertation.
9. Valiquette, Hilaire (1990). A study for a lexicon of Laguna Keresan.
10. Maring, Joel M. (1967). Grammar of Acoma Keresan. Indiana University Dissertation.
11. Spencer, Robert (1947). "Spanish Loanwords in Keresan". Southwestern Journal of Anthropology. 3 (2): 130–146. doi:10.1086/soutjanth.3.2.3628729.
12. Brandt, Elizabeth (1981). "Native American Attitudes toward Literacy and Recording in the Southwest". Journal of the Linguistic Association of the Southwest. 4 (2): 185–195.
13. "The Keres Language Project". The Keres Language Project. Retrieved 2018-03-18.
14. L., Bybee, Joan (1994). The evolution of grammar : tense, aspect, and modality in the languages of the world. Perkins, Revere D. (Revere Dale), Pagliuca, William. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226086631. OCLC 29387125.
15. 1936-, Givón, Talmy (2001). Syntax : an introduction. Volume 1 (Rev. ed.). Amsterdam: J. Benjamins. ISBN 1588110656. OCLC 70727915.CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
16. Miller, Wick R. and Davis, Irvine. 1963. Proto-Keresan phonology. International Journal of American Linguistics 29: 310-330.
17. "Native Language Spotlighted During Coca-Cola Super Bowl Ad". Indian Country Today Media Network. 2014-02-03. Retrieved 2014-02-26.

Bibliography

• Boas, Franz (1923). "A Keresan text". International Journal of American Linguistics. 2 (3–4): 171–180. doi:10.1086/463743.
• Campbell, Lyle (1997). American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America. Oxford Studies in Anthropological Linguistics. 4. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-509427-5.
• Davis, Irvine (1963). "Bibliography of Keresan linguistic sources". International Journal of American Linguistics. 29 (3): 289–293. doi:10.1086/464745.
• Davis, Irvine (1964). "The language of Santa Ana Pueblo". Anthropological Papers. Bulletin (Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology). Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press. 191 (69): 53–190. ISSN 0082-8882 – via U.S. Government Printing Office.
• Davis, Irvine (1966). "Acoma Grammar and Texts. Wick R. Miller". Review. American Anthropologist. 68 (3): 810–811. doi:10.1525/aa.1966.68.3.02a00450.
• Davis, Irvine (1968). "Acoma Grammar and Texts. By Wick R. Miller". Review. Language. 44 (1): 185–189. doi:10.2307/411485.
• Davis, Irvine (1974). "Keresan–Caddoan comparisons". International Journal of American Linguistics. 40 (3): 265–267. doi:10.1086/465321.
• Hawley, Florence (1950). "Keresan patterns of kinship and social organization". American Anthropologist. 52 (4): 499–512. doi:10.1525/aa.1950.52.4.02a00050.
• Kroskrity, Paul V. (1983). "On male and female speech in the Pueblo Southwest". International Journal of American Linguistics. 49 (1): 88–91. doi:10.1086/465769.
• Lachler, Jordan (2005). A grammar of Laguna Keres (PhD thesis). University of New Mexico. ISBN 978-05-4273622-3.
• Maring, Joel M. (1975). "Speech variation in Acoma Keresan". In Kinkade, M. Dale; Hale, Kenneth L.; Werner, Oswald (eds.). Linguistics and Anthropology: In Honor of C. F. Voegelin. Lisse, Netherlands: Peter de Ridder Press. pp. 473–485. ISBN 978-90-316-0079-3.
• Mickey, Barbara H. (1956). "Acoma kinship terms". Southwestern Journal of Anthropology. 12 (3): 249–256. doi:10.1086/soutjanth.12.3.3629083.
• Miller, Wick R. (1959). "Some notes on Acoma kinship terminology". Southwestern Journal of Anthropology. 15 (2): 179–184. doi:10.1086/soutjanth.15.2.3628805.
• Miller, Wick R. (1959). "Spanish loanwords in Acoma: I". International Journal of American Linguistics. 25 (3): 147–153. doi:10.1086/464521.
• Miller, Wick R. (1960). "Spanish loanwords in Acoma: II". International Journal of American Linguistics. 26 (1): 41–49. doi:10.1086/464552.
• Miller, Wick R. (1965). Acoma Grammar and Texts. University of California Publications in Linguistics. 40. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. ISSN 0068-6484.
• Miller, Wick R.; Davis, Irvine (1963). "Proto-Keresan phonology". International Journal of American Linguistics. 29 (4): 310–330. doi:10.1086/464748.
• Mithun, Marianne (1999). The Languages of Native North America. Cambridge Language Surveys. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-29875-9.
• Sims, Christine P.; Valiquette, Hilaire (1990). "More on male and female speech in (Acoma and Laguna) Keresan". International Journal of American Linguistics. 56 (1): 162–166. doi:10.1086/466144.
• Spencer, Robert F. (1946). "The phonemes of Keresan". International Journal of American Linguistics. 12 (4): 229–236. doi:10.1086/463918.
• Spencer, Robert F. (1947). "Spanish loanwords in Keresan". Southwestern Journal of Anthropology. 3 (2): 130–146. doi:10.1086/soutjanth.3.2.3628729.
• Valiquette, Hilaire Paul (1990). A study for a lexicon of Laguna Keresan (PhD thesis). University of New Mexico.
• Walker, Willard (1967). "Acoma Grammar and Texts. By Wick R. Miller". Review. International Journal of American Linguistics. 33 (3): 254–257. doi:10.1086/464971.
• White, Leslie A. (1928). "Summary report of field work at Acoma". American Anthropologist. 30 (4): 559–568. doi:10.1525/aa.1928.30.4.02a00020.
• Yumitani, Yukihiro (1987). "A comparative sketch of Pueblo languages: Phonology". Kansas Working Papers in Linguistics. 12: 119–139. doi:10.17161/KWPL.1808.514.

External links

• Nathan Romero, "Chochiti Keres: About Me and My Language: The politics of saving a vanishing language: The politics of writing", Language Documentation Training Center, University of Hawaii, Manoa (UHM)
• John Menaul (1880). Child's catechism in English and Laguna. Retrieved 25 August 2012.
• Grammatical and Lexical Notes on the Keres Language (Acoma-Laguna Dialect) of the Keresan Stock
• English-Queres Language Vocabulary
• Keres Language Project – Keres Audio Dictionary