Government in exile

A government in exile (abbreviated as GiE) is a political group which claims to be a country or semi-sovereign state's legitimate government, but is unable to exercise legal power and instead resides in another state or foreign country.[1] Governments in exile usually plan to one day return to their native country and regain formal power. A government in exile differs from a rump state in the sense that a rump state controls at least part of its former territory.[2] For example, during World War I, nearly all of Belgium was occupied by Germany, but Belgium and its allies held on to a small slice in the country's west. A government in exile, in contrast, has lost all its territory.

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Exiled governments tend to occur during wartime occupation, or in the aftermath of a civil war, revolution, or military coup. For example, during German expansion in World War II, some European governments sought refuge in the United Kingdom, rather than face destruction at the hands of Nazi Germany. On the other hand, the Provisional Government of Free India sought to use support from the invading Japanese to gain control of the country from what it viewed as British occupiers. A government in exile may also form from widespread belief in the illegitimacy of a ruling government. Due to the outbreak of the Syrian Civil War in 2011, for instance, the National Coalition for Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces was formed by groups whose members sought to end the rule of the ruling Ba'ath Party.

The effectiveness of a government in exile depends primarily on the amount of support it receives, either from foreign governments or from the population of its own country. Some exiled governments come to develop into a formidable force, posing a serious challenge to the incumbent regime of the country, while others are maintained chiefly as a symbolic gesture.

The phenomenon of a government in exile predates the formal utilization of the term. In periods of monarchical government, exiled monarchs or dynasties sometimes set up exile courts—as the House of Stuart did when driven from their throne by Oliver Cromwell and again at the Glorious Revolution[3] (see James Francis Edward Stuart § Court in exile). The House of Bourbon would be another example because it continued to be recognized by other countries at the time as the legitimate government of France after it was overthrown by the populace during the French Revolution. This continued to last through the rule of Napoleon Bonaparte and the Napoleonic Wars from 1803–04 to 1815. With the spread of constitutional monarchy, monarchical governments which were exiled started to include a prime minister, such as the Dutch government during World War II headed by Pieter Sjoerds Gerbrandy.

Activities

International law recognizes that governments in exile may undertake many types of actions in the conduct of their daily affairs. These actions include:

In cases where a host country holds a large expatriate population from a government in exile's home country, or an ethnic population from that country, the government in exile might come to exercise some administrative functions within such a population. For example, the WWII Provisional Government of Free India had such authority among the ethnically Indian population of British Malaya, with the consent of the then Japanese military authorities.

Current governments in exile

Governments in exile may have little or no recognition from other states. Some exiled governments have some characteristics in common with rump states. Such disputed or partially in exile cases are noted in the tables below.

Deposed governments of current states

These governments in exile were created by deposed governments or rulers who continue to claim legitimate authority of the state they once controlled.

Name Exile since State controlling its claimed territory (entirely or partially) Notes References
Rada of the Belarusian Democratic Republic 1920  Republic of Belarus
See also: Belarusian Democratic Republic and Polish–Soviet War

The oldest current government (formally, a provisional parliament) in exile, currently led by Ivonka Survilla in Toronto, Ontario, Canada

 [4][5]
Sublime State of Persia 1925  Islamic Republic of Iran The Qajar dynasty went into exile in 1923 and continue to claim the Iranian throne, which is currently claimed by Mohammad Hassan Mirza II who is based in Dallas, United States
Imperial State of Iran 1979
See also: Pahlavi dynasty and National Council of Iran
The Pahlavi dynasty, led by Reza Pahlavi and living in Potomac, Maryland, United States
Royal Lao Government in Exile 1975  Lao People's Democratic Republic
See also: Laotian Civil War

The former government of the Kingdom of Laos; based in Gresham, Oregon, United States
Quetta Shura 2001  Islamic Republic of Afghanistan
See also: Taliban insurgency and United States invasion of Afghanistan

Based in Quetta, Pakistan as a continuation of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan. After the Taliban were removed from power in the 2001 Afghan war, the veteran high-ranking leaders of the former government including Mullah Mohammed Omar, founder and spiritual leader of the Taliban, fled to Quetta, Balochistan Province, Pakistan where they set up Quetta Shura in exile to organize and direct the insurgency and retake Afghanistan.

 [6][7][8]
Government of the Republic of Yemen 2015  Republic of Yemen (Supreme Political Council)
See also: Yemeni Civil War (2015–present)

Leadership based in Riyadh.

 [9]

Deposed governments of former states

These governments in exile were created by deposed governments or rulers who continue to claim legitimate authority of the state they once controlled but whose state no longer exists.

Name Exile Current control of claimed territory Notes References
since as by as
Republic of South Maluku 1963 Independent state  Republic of Indonesia Maluku Province Based in the Netherlands and formed by members of the exiled government of the Republic of South Maluku which was an unrecognized independent state between 1950 and 1963. [10]

Current government regarded by some as a "government-in-exile"
See also: Political status of Taiwan, Theory of the Undetermined Status of Taiwan, and Chinese Civil War

Government of the Republic of China: The currently Taipei-based Republic of China government does not regard itself as a government-in-exile, but is claimed to be such by some participants in the debate on the political status of Taiwan.[11] In addition to the island of Taiwan and some other islands it currently controls, the Republic of China formally maintains claims over territory now controlled by the People's Republic of China as well as some parts of Afghanistan, Bhutan, India, Japan, Myanmar, Pakistan, Russia, and Tajikistan. The usual formal reasoning on which this "government-in-exile" claim is based relies on an argument that the sovereignty of Taiwan was not legitimately handed to the Republic of China at the end of World War II,[12] and on that basis the Republic of China is located in foreign territory, therefore effectively making it a government in exile.[13] By contrast, this theory is not accepted by those who view the sovereignty of Taiwan as having been legitimately returned to the Republic of China at the end of the war.[14] Both the People's Republic of China government and the Kuomintang in Republic of China (Taiwan) hold the latter view.

However, there are also some who do not accept that the sovereignty of Taiwan was legitimately returned to the Republic of China at the end of the war nor that the Republic of China is a government-in-exile, and China's territory does not include Taiwan. The current Democratic Progressive Party in Taiwan is inclined to this view, and supports Taiwanese independence.

Deposed governments of subnational territories

Current

These governments in exile claim legitimacy of autonomous territories of another state and have been created by deposed governments or rulers, who do not claim independence as a separate state.

Name Exile Current control of claimed territory Notes References
since as by as
Government of the Autonomous Republic of Abkhazia 1993 autonomous republic Republic of Abkhazia de facto independent state Georgian provincial government, led by Ruslan Abashidze, whose territory is under the control of Abkhaz separatists
Azerbaijani Community of Nagorno-Karabakh 1994 Republic of Artsakh Azerbaijan provisional government, led by Tural Ganjaliyev, whose territory is under the control of Armenian separatists
Provisional Administrative Entity of South Ossetia 2008 provisional administrative entity Republic of South Ossetia Georgian provincial administration, led by Dmitry Sanakoyev, whose territory is under the control of South Ossetian separatists
Autonomous Republic of Crimea 2014 autonomous republic Russian Federation federal subject (republic) Ukrainian autonomous republic, whose territory was seized and annexed by Russia in March 2014, following a disputed status referendum; Presidential Representative-in-exile now based in Kherson[15]
City of Sevastopol special city federal city Ukrainian special city, whose territory was seized and annexed by Russia in March 2014, following a disputed status referendum

Past
Name Exile Actual control of claimed territory Notes References
Period Actual control over claimed territory
Generalitat de Catalunya 1939-1977 Spain In 1939, as the Spanish Civil War finished with the defeat of the Republican side, the Francoist dictatorship abolished the Generalitat de Catalunya, autonomous government of Catalonia, and its president Lluís Companys was tortured and executed. However, the Generalitat maintained its official existence in exile from 1939 to 1977, led by presidents Josep Irla (1940-1954) and Josep Tarradellas (1954-1980). In 1977 Tarradellas returned to Catalonia and was recognized by the post-Franco Spanish government, ending the Generalitat's exile.

Alternative governments of current states

These governments have been created in exile by political organisations and opposition parties, aspire to become actual governing authorities or claim to be legal successors to previously deposed governments, and have been created as alternatives to incumbent governments.

Name Claimed exile Exile proclamation Government presently controlling claimed territory Notes References
Committee for the Five Northern Korean Provinces — 1949 North Korea Based in Seoul, the South Korean government's provisional administration for the five pre-1945 provinces which became North Korea at the end of World War II and the division of Korea. The five provinces are North Hamgyeong, South Hamgyeong, Hwanghae, North Pyeongan, South Pyeongan [16]
Delegation of Taiwan Province, National People's Congress/CPPCC of PRC
Taiwan Affairs Office		 —  Republic of China As representative body and executive organ, work together with Taiwan Democratic Self-Government League (Political Party), All-China Federation of Taiwan Compatriots (Civil)
East Turkistan Government-in-Exile 1949 2004  People's Republic of China Campaigns for the restoration of an independent East Turkistan; based in Washington, DC, United States [17]
Crown Council of Ethiopia 1974 1993  Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Led by Prince Ermias Sahle Selassie and based in the Washington D.C. Metropolitan Area
National Council of Iran — 2013  Islamic Republic of Iran Political umbrella coalition of forty Iranian opposition political organizations, led by Prince Reza Pahlavi; based in Maryland, United States
National Council of Resistance of Iran — 1981 Political umbrella coalition of five Iranian opposition political organizations, the largest organization being the People's Mujahedin of Iran led by Maryam and Massoud Rajavi; based in Paris [18]
Progress Party of Equatorial Guinea — 2003  Republic of Equatorial Guinea Proclaimed Severo Moto President of Equatorial Guinea in Madrid [19]
Third Republic of Vietnam 1990 1991  Socialist Republic of Vietnam Third Republic of Vietnam previously named Provisional National Government of Vietnam was formed in Orange County, California by former soldiers and refugees from the former South Vietnamese. Declared a terrorist organization in Vietnam.[20]
Syrian Interim Government — 2012  Syrian Arab Republic Opposes the government of the Syrian Arab Republic; based in Istanbul; has ties to some Free Syrian Army groups. [21]
Royal Lao Government in Exile — 1993  Lao People's Democratic Republic Opposes communist government in Laos; seek to institute a constitutional monarchy, based in Gresham, Oregon.

Alternative separatist governments of current subnational territories

These governments have been created in exile by political organisations, opposition parties, and separatist movements, and desire to become the governing authorities of their territories as independent states, or claim to be the successor to previously deposed governments, and have been created as alternatives to incumbent governments.

Name Claimed exile Exile proclamation Government presently controlling claimed territory Notes References
Free City of Danzig Government in Exile 1939 1947  Republic of Poland Based in Berlin, Germany [22]

[23] [24]

West Papuan Government in Exile 1963 1969  Republic of Indonesia Campaigns for an independent West Papua; based in the Netherlands [25][26]
Biafran Government in Exile 1970 2007  Federal Republic of Nigeria An arm of the Movement for the Actualization of the Sovereign State of Biafra, seeking to reestablish the Republic of Biafra; based in Washington, DC [27]
Republic of Cabinda 1975  Republic of Angola Based in Paris, France
Tatar Government in Exile 1994  Russian Federation [28]
 Chechen Republic of Ichkeria 2000  Russian Federation Some members are fighting as rebels against the Russian Armed Forces; based in Western Europe and the United States, with its leaders in London.
There is a contested claim that it has been succeeded by the Caucasus Emirate.		 [29]
Acting Witan of Mercia 1066 2001 United Kingdom Based in Birmingham, UK [30]
Manchukuo Temporary Government 1945 2004  People's Republic of China Based in Hong Kong
Republic of Serbian Krajina 1996 2005  Republic of Croatia Reconstituted in 2005 in Belgrade, by the remains of the government of the Republic of Serbian Krajina, after Croatian forces pushed out the internationally unrecognized entity in 1995 during Operation Storm at the end of the Croatian War of Independence [31]
Koma Civakên Kurdistan — 1998  Republic of Turkey Aims to create a Kurdish entity in Turkey; successor organization of Kurdish parliament in exile [32]
Republic of Ambazonia — 1999  Republic of Cameroon Former British mandate and trust territory of Southern Cameroons; declared independence on December 31, 1999 [33]
Western Kurdistan Government in Exile — 2004  Syrian Arab Republic Aims to create a Kurdish state in Syria; based in London [34]
Coptic Government In Exile — 1992  Arab Republic of Egypt Aims to establish an independent state for the Coptic ethnic group [35]
Interim Government of Federated Shan States — 2005  Republic of the Union of Myanmar Aims to establish an independent state for the Shan ethnic group [36]
Transnational Government of Tamil Eelam 2009 2010  Sri Lanka Aims to establish an independent state of Tamil Eelam [37]

Exiled governments of non-self-governing or occupied territories

These governments in exile are governments of non-self-governing or occupied territories. They claim legitimate authority over a territory they once controlled, or claim legitimacy of a post-decolonization authority. The claim may stem from an exiled group's election as a legitimate government.

The United Nations recognizes the right of self-determination for the population of these territories, including the possibility of establishing independent sovereign states.

From the Palestinian Declaration of Independence in 1988 in exile in Algiers by the Palestine Liberation Organization, it has effectively functioned as the government in exile of the Palestinian State. In 1994, however the PLO established the Palestinian National Authority interim territorial administration as result of the Oslo Accords signed by the PLO, Israel, the United States, and Russia. Between 1994 and 2013, the PNA functioned as an autonomy, thus while the government was seated in the West Bank it was not sovereign. In 2013, Palestine was upgraded to a non-member state status in the UN.

All of the above created an ambiguous situation, in which there are two distinct entities: The Palestinian Authority, exercising a severely limited amount of control on the ground under the tutelage of an Israeli military occupation; and the State of Palestine, recognized by the United Nations and by numerous countries as a fully sovereign and independent state, but not able to exercise such sovereignty on the ground. Both are headed by the same person—as of February 2016, President Mahmud Abbas—but are judicially distinct. For example, a dissolution of The Palestinian Authority and resumption of full rule on the ground by Israel would not in itself affect the State of Palestine, which could continue to exist as a government-in-exile diplomatically recognized by the UN and by numerous countries.

Exiled governments with ambiguous status

These governments have ties to the area(s) they represent, but their claimed status and/or stated aims are sufficiently ambiguous that they could fit into other categories.

Name Exile Current control of claimed territory Notes References
Central Tibetan Administration 1959  People's Republic of China Founded by the Dalai Lama in Dharamsala, India with cooperation of Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru; see also Tibetan sovereignty debate and Tibetan independence movement Tibet.net[38]
Ukrainian Salvation Committee 2015  Ukraine Formed in Moscow, Russia, by former Prime Minister of Ukraine Mykola Azarov, with the intention of holding new elections in Ukraine. [39]
Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic 1976  Morocco Proclaimed on February 27, 1976, following the Spanish withdrawal from what was until then Spanish Sahara after the POLISARIO insurgency. Not strictly a government in exile since it does control 20–25% of its claimed territory. Nevertheless, often referred to as such, especially since most day-to-day government business is conducted in the Tindouf refugee camps in Algeria, which house most of the Sahrawi exile community, rather than in the proclaimed temporary capital (first Bir Lehlou, moved to Tifariti in 2008).

Past governments in exile
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Name Exiled or created(*) since Defunct, reestablished,(*) or integrated(°) since State that controlled its claimed territory Notes References
Republican Government of Siena 1555 1559 Grand Duchy of Tuscany After the Italian city-state of Siena was defeated in the Battle of Marciano and annexed to the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, 700 Sienese families did not concede defeat, established themselves in Montalcino and declared themselves to be the legitimate Republican Government of Siena. This lasted until 1559, when Tuscan troops arrived and annexed Montalcino, too.
Exile government of the Electoral Palatinate 1622–1623* 1648° Electorate of Bavaria In the early stages of the Thirty Years' War, Maximilian I, Elector of Bavaria, occupied the Electoral Palatinate and was awarded possession of it by Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor. In late 1622 and early 1623, the fugitive Frederick V, Elector Palatine organised a Palatinate government-in-exile at The Hague. This Palatinate Council was headed by Ludwig Camerarius, replaced in 1627 by Johann Joachim Rusdorf. Frederick himself died in exile, but his son and heir Charles Louis was able to regain the Lower Palatinate following the Peace of Westphalia in 1648.
Privy Council of England 1649 1660°
Based for most of the Interregnum in the Spanish Netherlands and headed by Charles II; actively supported Charles' claim to the thrones of England, Scotland and Ireland
Hanover exile court/Guelphic Legion 1866 1878 Prussia

Germany

 On September 20, 1866, Prussia annexed Hanover. Living in exile in Austria, at Hietzing and Gmunden, King George V of Hanover never abandoned his claim to the Hanoverian throne and from 1866 to 1870 maintained at his own expense an exile Hanoverian armed force, the Guelphic Legion.[40] George was forced to give up this Legion after the Prussian lower chamber passed in 1869 a law sequestering his funds.[41] George V died in 1878. Though his son and heir Prince Ernest Augustus retained a formal claim to be the legitimate King of Hanover until 1918 (when all German Royal Families were dethroned), he does not seem to have kept up a government-in-exile.
 Kingdom of Hawaii 1893 1895 Republic of Hawaii Royal government exiled following the Hawaiian Revolution of 1893, dissolved after the abdication of Queen Liliuokalani in response to the Hawaiian Counter-revolution of 1895.
Provisional Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh 1971* 1972° East Pakistan Based in Calcutta; led by Tajuddin Ahmad, the first Prime Minister of Bangladesh, during the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971.
 Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea 1919* 1948° Korea Based in Shanghai, and later in Chongqing; after Japan's defeat in World War II, President Syngman Rhee became the first president of the First Republic of South Korea
All-Palestine Government 1948 1959
The All-Palestine government was proclaimed in Gaza in September 1948, but was shortly relocated to Cairo in fear of Israeli offensive. Despite Egyptian ability to keep control of the Gaza Strip, the All-Palestine Government was forced to remain in exile in Cairo, gradually stripping it of its authority, until in 1959 it was dissolved by President Gamal Abdel Nasser's decree.
Provisional Government of the Algerian Republic 1958* 1962* French Algeria (France) Established during the latter part of the Algerian War of Independence; after the war, a compromise agreement with the Armée de Libération Nationale dissolved it but allowed most of its members to enter the post-independence government
Revolutionary Government of Angola in Exile 1962* 1992° People's Republic of Angola Based in Kinshasa; its military branch, the National Liberation Front of Angola, was recognized as a political party in 1992 and holds three seats in Angola's parliament

Government of Free Vietnam

 1995* 2013°  Socialist Republic of Vietnam The Government of Free Vietnam was an anti-communist political organization centered in Garden Grove, California and Missouri City, Texas. It was disbanded in 2013.
Namibian Government in Exile 1966* 1989°  South Africa Formed after opposition to the apartheid South African administration over South-West Africa, which had been ruled as illegal by the United Nations; in 1990, Namibia achieved independence after the South African Border War. [42]
Sinkiang Provincial Government Office 1949 1992 Xinjiang Autonomous Region Relocated to Taipei, Taiwan in 1949 after Sinkiang fell to the communists. Office was abolished in 1992 after the Taiwan government accepted the "One China" Consensus.
Coalition Government of Democratic Kampuchea 1982* 1993° People's Republic of Kampuchea Established with UN recognition in opposition to the Vietnamese-backed government. Elections in 1993 brought the reintegration of the exiled government into the newly reconstituted Kingdom of Cambodia.
Polish government-in-exile 1939* 1990°
Based in Paris, Angers, and London, it opposed German occupied Poland and the Soviet satellite state, the People's Republic of Poland; disbanded following the fall of communism in Poland.
Estonian government-in-exile 1953* 1992 Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic Established in Sweden by several members of Otto Tief's government; did not achieve any international recognizion. In fact, it was not recognized even by Estonian diplomatic legations that were seen by western countries as legal representatives of the annexed state. However the government in exile was recognized by the restored Government of Estonia when the government in exile ceased its activity in 1992 and gave over its credentials to the restored Republic of Estonia. A rival electoral committee was created by another group of Estonian exiles in the same year in Detmold, North Rhine-Westphalia, West Germany, but it was short lived. [43]
Spanish Republican government in exile 1939 1977  Spanish State Created after Francisco Franco's coup d'état; first based in Paris, France from 1939 until 1940 when France fell to the Nazis. The exiled government was then moved to Mexico City and stayed there from 1940 to 1946, when it was moved back to Paris, where it lasted until Franco's death and democracy in Spain was restored in the transition.
Government of the Democratic Republic of Georgia in Exile 1921 1954 Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic Formed after the Soviet invasion of Georgia of 1921; based in Leuville-sur-Orge, France
Dubrovnik Republic (1991) 1991 1992  Republic of Croatia Formed in Cavtat with the help of the Yugoslav People's Army after Croatia declared independence from Yugoslavia. Claimed to be the historic successor of the Republic of Ragusa (1358–1808). [44]
President of Ukraine (in exile) 1920 1992
Organized after the Soviet occupation of Ukraine during the Russian Civil War.
Free Aceh Movement 1976* 2005 Republic of Indonesia Headquartered in Sweden; surrendered its separatist intentions and dissolved its armed wing following the 2005 peace agreement with the Indonesian government
Bongo Doit Partir 1998 2009  Gabon Founded by Daniel Mengara in opposition to president Omar Bongo; after Bongo's death in June 2009, Mengara returned to Gabon in order to participate in the country's elections [45][46]
Confederate government of Missouri 1861 1865 State of Missouri Missouri had both Union and Confederate governments, but the Confederate government was exiled, eventually governing out of Marshall, Texas. [47]
Confederate government of Kentucky 1861 1865 Commonwealth of Kentucky Kentucky had both Union and Confederate governments. The Confederate government was soon forced out of the state, and was an exiled government traveling with the Confederate Army of Tennessee, except for during a short return when the Confederate army briefly occupied Frankfort.
Restored Government of Virginia 1861 1865 Commonwealth of Virginia
East Tennessee 1861 1862 State of Tennessee
De Broqueville government in exile 1914 1918 German Empire Formed in 1915 by the Government of Belgium following the German invasion during World War I. It was disbanded following the restoration of Belgian sovereignty with the Armistice with Germany.
National Coalition Government of the Union of Burma 1990 2012
Led by Sein Win and composed of members of parliament elected in 1990 but not allowed by the military to take office; based in Rockville, Montgomery County, Maryland, U.S. [48][49]
Philippine Commonwealth in exile 1942 1944°
After Japanese forces took control over the Philippine islands, the Philippine commonwealth government led by Manuel Quezon fled first to Melbourne, Australia and later to Washington, D.C. United States. It existed from May 1942 to October 1944 before returning to the Philippines along with U.S. forces during the Philippines campaign (1944–1945).
Emergency Government of the Republic of Indonesia 1948* 1949° Dutch East Indies Based in Bukittinggi; led by Sjafruddin Prawiranegara, founded after Operatie Kraai in December 1948. Disbanded after Roem–Van Roijen Agreement.

World War II
Main article: List of governments in exile during World War II

Many countries established a government in exile after loss of sovereignty in connection with World War II.

Governments in London

A large number of European governments-in-exile were set up in London.

Name Leaders
Belgian government in exile Prime Minister: Hubert Pierlot
Czechoslovak government-in-exile
Free France Charles de Gaulle, Henri Giraud, French Committee of National Liberation (from 1943)
Greek government-in-exile
Luxembourg government-in-exile
Dutch government-in-exile
Norwegian government-in-exile
Polish government-in-exile
Yugoslav government-in-exile
Unrecognised groups

Other exiled leaders in Britain in this time included King Zog of Albania and Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia.

Occupied Denmark did not establish a government in exile, although there was an Association of Free Danes established in London.[50] The government remained in Denmark and functioned with relative independence until August 1943 when it was dissolved, placing Denmark under full German occupation. Meanwhile, Iceland, Greenland and the Faroe Islands were occupied by the Allies and effectively separated from the Danish crown. (See British occupation of the Faroe Islands, Iceland during World War II, and History of Greenland during World War II.)

Governments-in-exile in Asia

The Philippine Commonwealth (invaded December 9, 1941) established a government in exile, initially located in Australia and later in the United States. Earlier, in 1897, the Hong Kong Junta was established as a government in exile by the Philippine revolutionary Republic of Biak-na-Bato.

While formed long before World War II, the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea continued in exile in China until the end of the war.

At the fall of Java, and the surrender by the Dutch on behalf of Allied forces on March 8, 1942, many Dutch-Indies officials (including Dr van Mook and Dr Charles van der Plas) managed to flee to Australia in March 1942, and on December 23, 1943, the Royal Government (Dutch) decreed an official Netherlands East Indies Government-in-exile, with Dr van Mook as Acting Governor General, on Australian soil until Dutch rule was restored in the Indies.[51]

Axis-aligned governments in exile

Under the auspices of the Axis powers, Axis-aligned groups from some countries set up "governments-in-exile" in Axis territory, even though internationally recognized governments were in place in their home countries. The main purpose of these was to recruit and organize military units composed of their nationals in the host country.

Name Exiled or created(*) since Defunct, reestablished,(*) or integrated(°) since State that controlled its claimed territory Notes References
Kingdom of Bulgaria September 16, 1944* May 10, 1945 Kingdom of Bulgaria (Fatherland Front) Formed after the 1944 Bulgarian coup d'état brought socialists to power in Bulgaria, the government was based on Vienna and headed by Aleksandar Tsankov. It raised the 1st Bulgarian Regiment of the SS.
Sigmaringen Governmental Commission September 7, 1944* April 23, 1945° Provisional Government of the French Republic Members of the collaborationist French cabinet at Vichy were relocated by the Germans to the Sigmaringen enclave in Germany, where they became a government-in-exile until April 1945. They were given formal governmental power over the city of Sigmaringen, and the three Axis governments – Germany, Italy and Japan – established there what were officially their Embassies to France. Pétain having refused to take part in this, it was headed by Fernand de Brinon. [52]
Hungarian Government of National Unity 28/29 March 1945 May 7, 1945 Czechoslovak Republic

Kingdom of Hungary
Kingdom of Romania
Kingdom of Yugoslavia

 The Szálasi government fled in the face of the Soviet advance through Hungary. It was first based on Vienna and then Munich Most of its leaders were arrested in the following months.
Hellenic State September 1944 April 1945 Kingdom of Greece After the liberation of Greece, a new collaborationist government had been established at Vienna, during September of 1944, formed by former collaborationist ministers. It was headed by the former collaborationist minister Ektor Tsironikos. In April 1945, Tsironikos was captured during the Vienna offensive along with his ministers.[53][54][55]
Legionary Romania August, 1944 May 8, 1945 Kingdom of Romania Germany had imprisoned Horia Sima and other members of the Iron Guard following the Legionnaires' rebellion of 1941. In 1944, King Michael's Coup brought a pro-Allied government to power in Romania. In response Germany released Sima to establish a pro-Axis government in exile in Vienna.[56]
Montenegrin State Council Summer of 1944 May 8, 1945 Kingdom of Yugoslavia After the Germans withdrew from Montenegro, the fascist leader Sekula Drljević created a government-in-exile based on Zagreb, capital of the Independent State of Croatia (NDH). Drljević created the Montenegrin National Army, a military force set up by him and the Croatian fascist leader Ante Pavelić. However, his government was dissolved after the fall of the NDH.
Slovak Republic April 4, 1945 May 8, 1945 Czechoslovak Republic The government of the Slovak Republic, led by Jozef Tiso, went into exile on 4 April 1945 to the Austrian town of Kremsmünster when the Red Army captured Bratislava and occupied Slovakia. The exiled government capitulated to the American General Walton Walker on 8 May 1945 in Kremsmünster. In summer 1945, the captured members of the government were handed over to Czechoslovak authorities.
Provisional Government of Free India October 21, 1943* August 18, 1945 British Raj India's First Independent Government in exile to fight with and get territorial independence from British-Raj. It was based in Rangoon and later in Port Blair. Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose was the leader of the government and the Head of State of this provisional Indian government in exile, established in Singapore but later given control of Japanese-controlled territory in far eastern India and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Indian Government has also issued its currency notes and started establishing bilateral relationships with anti-British countries. Azad Hind Fauj or Indian National Army INA was official military of Government of India led by Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose. This government was disestablished in 1945 following the defeat of the Axis powers in World War II. INA kept fighting for independence of India, which led to create revolt by Indian Navy against British Govt in India and that forced British to think about leaving India.
 Second Philippine Republic June 11, 1945 August 17, 1945° Philippine Commonwealth After the Allied forces liberated the Philippines from Japanese occupiers and the reestablishment of the Philippine Commonwealth in the archipelago after a few years in exile in the United States, the Second Philippine Republic became a nominal government-in-exile[57] from June 11, 1945 based in Nara / Tokyo.[58] The government was later dissolved on August 17, 1945.[59]

Persian Gulf War

Following the Ba'athist Iraqi invasion and occupation of Kuwait, during the Persian Gulf War, on August 2, 1990, Sheikh Jaber Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah and senior members of his government fled to Saudi Arabia, where they set up a government-in-exile in Ta'if.[60] The Kuwaiti government in exile was far more affluent than most other such governments, having full disposal of the very considerable Kuwaiti assets in western banks—of which it made use to conduct a massive propaganda campaign denouncing the Ba'athist Iraqi occupation and mobilizing public opinion in the Western world in favor of war with Ba'athist Iraq. In March 1991, following the defeat of Ba'athist Iraq at the hands of coalition forces in the Persian Gulf War, the Sheikh and his government were able to return to Kuwait.

Municipal councils in exile

Following the Turkish Invasion of Cyprus in 1974 and the displacement of many Greek Cypriots from North Cyprus, displaced inhabitants of several towns set up what are in effect municipal councils in exile, headed by mayors in exile. The idea is the same as with a national government in exile – to assert a continuation of legitimate rule, even though having no control of the ground, and working towards restoration of such control. Meetings of the exiled Municipal Council of Lapithos took place in the homes of its members until the Exile Municipality was offered temporary offices at 37 Ammochostou Street, Nicosia. The current Exile Mayor of the town is Athos Eleftheriou. The same premises are shared with the Exile Municipal Council of Kythrea.

Also in the Famagusta District of Cyprus, the administration of the part retained by the Republic of Cyprus considers itself as a "District administration in exile", since the district's capital Famagusta had been under Turkish control since 1974.

Fictional governments in exile

Works of alternate history as well as science fictional depictions of the future sometimes include fictional governments in exile.

  • In Len Deighton's SS-GB, Britain is defeated and occupied by Nazi Germany. A British government in exile is formed, but finds it far from easy to secure international recognition. Specifically, Deighton refers to this government in exile needing to go to the American courts and wage a prolonged struggle against the London-based Nazi-collaborating government, before securing possession of the British Embassy in Washington.
  • In If Israel Lost the War by Robert Littell, Richard Z. Chesnoff and Edward Klein, Israel is defeated in the 1967 Six-Day War and its territory occupied by Arab armies. Thereupon, David Ben-Gurion and Golda Meir set up an Israeli government in exile in America.
  • Algis Budrys' The Falling Torch is set in a future time when Earth was conquered and occupied by extraterrestrial humanoid invaders. Many years later, the Earth government in exile, located at a human colony planet orbiting Alpha Centauri, is holding a regular meeting in an atmosphere of dejection and futility – its hosts being indifferent to Earth's plight and unwilling to offer any real help. The Exile Prime Minister is shown more involved with his successful career as the chef of a luxury hotel than with the seemingly non-existent hope of liberating Earth. This depiction might have drawn on the writer's actual experience as a member of the exile Lithuanian community in the 1950s US, at the time seeing little hope of shaking the Soviet hold of its homeland.
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See also

Lists

References
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  3. Corp, Edward (2009). A Court in Exile: The Stuarts in France, 1689-1718. Cambridge University Press. p. 12. ISBN 0521108373.
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  11. Lori Reese (August 28–30, 1999). "China's Christian Warrior". Time. Time Inc. 154 (No. 7/8). Archived from the original on May 11, 2010. After four years of civil war, Chiang and the nationalists were forced to flee to the island of Taiwan. There they established a government-in-exile and dreamed of retaking the mainland.
    "Chiang Kai-shek (1887-1975)". BBC. Archived from the original on January 18, 2015. Retrieved March 4, 2015. There Chiang established a government in exile which he led for the next 25 years.
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    "Establishment of the People's Republic Of China (Oct 1, 1949)". Public Broadcasting Service. Archived from the original on December 28, 2014. Retrieved March 10, 2015. ......after the inauguration of the People's Republic of China (PRC) in Beijing on October 1, 1949, Chiang and the Nationalists installed the rival Republic of China (ROC) as a government in exile on Taiwan.
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    Kerry Dumbaugh (Specialist in Asian Affairs Foreign Affairs, Defense, and Trade Division) (February 23, 2006). "Taiwan's Political Status: Historical Background and Ongoing Implications". Congressional Research Service. Retrieved December 20, 2009. While on October 1, 1949, in Beijing a victorious Mao proclaimed the creation of the People’s Republic of China (PRC), Chiang Kai-shek re-established a temporary capital for his government in Taipei, Taiwan, declaring the ROC still to be the legitimate Chinese government-in-exile and vowing that he would "retake the mainland" and drive out communist forces.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
    John J. Tkacik, Jr. (June 19, 2008). "Taiwan's "Unsettled" International Status: Preserving U.S. Options in the Pacific". Heritage Foundation. Retrieved December 20, 2009. Chiang Kai-shek wanted to fight it out on an all-or-nothing basis. There are also reports that Chiang's advisors convinced him that if the ROC mission stayed to represent Taiwan, Chiang would be under pressure to demonstrate in some constitutional way that his Chinese government-in-exile represented the people of Taiwan rather than the vast population of China. Doing so would require Chiang to dismantle his existing regime (which was elected in 1947 on the Chinese mainland and continued to rule in Taiwan under emergency martial law provisions without benefit of elections), adopt an entirely new constitution, and install an entirely new government.
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    TIME magazine, Far Eastern Economic Review, Stanford University, US State Dept., Public Broadcasting Service, BBC, US Congressional Research Service, UK Parliament, UK Foreign Office, Los Angeles Times, New York Times, and numerous law journals have all referred to the Republic of China on Taiwan as a government in exile. However, the ROC has diplomatic relations with 14 UN member states and the Holy See. The PRC claims that the ROC government no longer exists. Republic of China government in exile, retrieved February 27, 2010
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  12. Taipei Times (June 9, 2013), CIA report shows Taiwan concerns, retrieved June 10, 2013, [Quoting from a declassified CIA report on Taiwan written in March 1949] From the legal standpoint, Taiwan is not part of the Republic of China. Pending a Japanese peace treaty, the island remains occupied territory in which the US has proprietary interests.
  13. Robert I. Starr (July 13, 1971), Starr Memorandum of the Dept. of State, retrieved May 18, 2012, Following World War II, the Republic of China, under the Kuomintang (KMT) became the governing polity on Taiwan. In 1949, after losing control of mainland China following the Chinese civil war, the ROC government under the KMT withdrew to occupied Taiwan and Chiang Kai-shek declared martial law. Japan formally renounced all territorial rights to Taiwan in 1952 in the San Francisco Peace Treaty, but neither in that treaty nor in the peace treaty signed between Japan and China was the territorial sovereignty of Taiwan awarded to the Republic of China.
  14. Tzu-Chin Huang. "Disputes over Taiwan Sovereignty and the Sino-Japanese Peace Treaty Since World War II" (PDF). Institute of Modern History, Academia sinica. Central Academic Advisory Committee and Academic Affairs Office. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 28, 2015. Retrieved January 25, 2015.
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    Barbara A. West (January 1, 2009). Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Infobase Publishing. p. 15. ISBN 978-1-4381-1913-7.
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    Knud J. V. Jespersen (January 1, 2002). No Small Achievement: Special Operations Executive and the Danish Resistance, 1940–1945. University Press of Southern Denmark. p. 48. ISBN 978-87-7838-691-5.
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Further reading
  • Vít, Smetana; Kathleen, Geaney, eds. (2018). Exile in London: The Experience of Czechoslovakia and the Other Occupied Nations, 1939–1945. Charles University in Prague, Karolinum Press. ISBN 978-80-246-3701-3.
  • Yapou, Eliezer (1998). Governments in Exile, 1939–1945. Retrieved October 9, 2016.
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