Cairo

Cairo (/ˈkaɪroʊ/ KY-roh; Arabic: القاهرة‎, romanized: al-Qāhirah, pronounced [ælˈqɑːhɪɾɑ] (listen)) is the capital of Egypt and the largest city in the Arab world. Its metropolitan area, with a population of over 20 million, is the largest in Africa, the Arab world, and the Middle East, and the 6th-largest in the world. Cairo is associated with ancient Egypt, as the famous Giza pyramid complex and the ancient city of Memphis are located in its geographical area. Located near the Nile Delta,[4][5] Cairo was founded in 969 AD by the Fatimid dynasty, but the land composing the present-day city was the site of ancient national capitals whose remnants remain visible in parts of Old Cairo. Cairo has long been a centre of the region's political and cultural life, and is titled "the city of a thousand minarets" for its preponderance of Islamic architecture. Cairo is considered a World City with a "Beta +" classification according to GaWC.[6]

This article is about the Egyptian capital. For other uses, see Cairo (disambiguation).

Cairo

القاهرة
Metropolis
From top, left to right:
View of the Nile, Ibn Tulun Mosque, Muizz Street, Talaat Harb Square, Azhar Park, Baron Empain Palace, Cairo Citadel
Flag
Emblem
Nickname(s): 
City of a Thousand Minarets
Cairo
Location of Cairo within Egypt
Cairo
Cairo (Africa)
Coordinates: 30°2′N 31°14′E
Country Egypt
GovernorateCairo
Founded969 AD
Founded byFatimid dynasty
Government
 • GovernorKhaled Abdel Aal[1]
Area
 • Metropolis606 km2 (234 sq mi)
 • Metro
17,267.6 km2 (6,667.1 sq mi)
Elevation
23 m (75 ft)
Population
 (October 2018[2])
 • Metropolis9,500,000
 • Density16,000/km2 (41,000/sq mi)
 • Metro
20,439,541
 • Demonym
Cairene
Time zoneUTC+02:00 (EST)
Area code(s)(+20) 2
WebsiteCairo.gov.eg
Official nameHistoric Cairo
TypeCultural
Criteriai, iii, vi
Designated1979
Reference no.[3]
State PartyEgypt

Cairo has the oldest and largest film and music industries in the Arab world, as well as the world's second-oldest institution of higher learning, Al-Azhar University. Many international media, businesses, and organizations have regional headquarters in the city; the Arab League has had its headquarters in Cairo for most of its existence.

With a population of over 9 million[7] spread over 3,085 square kilometers (1,191 sq mi), Cairo is by far the largest city in Egypt. An additional 9.5 million inhabitants live in close proximity to the city. Cairo, like many other megacities, suffers from high levels of pollution and traffic. The Cairo Metro is one of the only two metro systems in Africa (the other being in Algiers, Algeria), and ranks amongst the fifteen busiest in the world,[8] with over 1 billion[9] annual passenger rides. The economy of Cairo was ranked first in the Middle East in 2005,[10] and 43rd globally on Foreign Policy's 2010 Global Cities Index.[11]

Etymology

Egyptians often refer to Cairo as Maṣr (IPA: [mɑsˤɾ]; Egyptian Arabic: مَصر‎), the Egyptian Arabic name for Egypt itself, emphasizing the city's importance for the country.[12][13] Its official name al-Qāhirah  (Arabic: القاهرة‎) means "the Vanquisher" or "the Conqueror", supposedly due to the fact that the planet Mars, an-Najm al-Qāhir (Arabic: النجم القاهر‎, "the Conquering Star"), was rising at the time when the city was founded,[14] possibly also in reference to the much awaited arrival of the Fatimid Caliph Al-Mu'izz who reached Cairo in 973 from Mahdia, the old Fatimid capital.[15] The location of the ancient city of Heliopolis is the suburb of Ain Shams (Arabic: عين شمس‎, "Eye of the Sun").

There are a few Coptic names of the city. (di)Kashromi (Coptic: (ϯ)ⲕⲁϣⲣⲱⲙⲓ) is attested as early as 1211 and is a calque which means "man breaker" ("ⲕⲁϣ-" – to break, "ⲣⲱⲙⲓ" – man) which is akin to Arabic al-Qāhirah .[16] Lioui (Coptic: ⲗⲓⲟⲩⲓ) or Elioui (Coptic: ⲉⲗⲓⲟⲩⲓ) is another name which is a corruption of Greek name of Heliopolis (Greek: Ήλιούπολις).[17] Some argue that Mistram (Coptic: ⲙⲓⲥⲧⲣⲁⲙ) or Nistram (Coptic: ⲛⲓⲥⲧⲣⲁⲙ) is another Coptic name for Cairo, although others think that it's rather a name of an Abbasid capital Al-Askar.[18] ⲕⲁϩⲓⲣⲏ is a popular modern rendering of an Arabic name (others being ⲭⲁⲓⲣⲟⲛ and (ⲁⲗ)ⲭⲁϩⲓⲣⲁ) which has a folk etymology "land of sun". Some argue that it was a name of an Egyptian settlement upon which Cairo was built, but it's rather doubtful as this name is not attested in any Hieroglyphic or Demotic source, although some researchers, like Paul Casanova, view it as a legitimate theory.[17] Cairo is also referred to as ⲭⲏⲙⲓ, which means Egypt in Coptic, the same way it's referred to in Egyptian Arabic.[18]

Sometimes the city is informally referred to as Kayro by people from Alexandria (IPA: [ˈkæjɾo]; Egyptian Arabic: كايرو‎).[19]

History
See also: Timeline of Cairo and History of Egypt
Louis Comfort Tiffany (1848–1933). On the Way between Old and New Cairo, Citadel Mosque of Mohammed Ali, and Tombs of the Mamelukes, 1872. Oil on canvas. Brooklyn Museum

Initial settlements
A rendition of Fustat from A. S. Rappoport's History of Egypt

The area around present-day Cairo, especially Memphis that was the old capital of Egypt, had long been a focal point of Ancient Egypt due to its strategic location just upstream from the Nile Delta. However, the origins of the modern city are generally traced back to a series of settlements in the first millennium. Around the turn of the 4th century,[20] as Memphis was continuing to decline in importance,[21] the Romans established a fortress town along the east bank of the Nile. This fortress, known as Babylon, was the nucleus of the Roman and then the Byzantine city and is the oldest structure in the city today. It is also situated at the nucleus of the Coptic Orthodox community, which separated from the Roman and Byzantine churches in the late 4th century. Many of Cairo's oldest Coptic churches, including the Hanging Church, are located along the fortress walls in a section of the city known as Coptic Cairo.

Following the Muslim conquest in 640 AD, the conqueror Amr ibn As settled to the north of the Babylon in an area that became known as al-Fustat. Originally a tented camp (Fustat signifies "City of Tents") Fustat became a permanent settlement and the first capital of Islamic Egypt.

In 750, following the overthrow of the Umayyad caliphate by the Abbasids, the new rulers created their own settlement to the northeast of Fustat which became their capital. This was known as al-Askar (the city of sections, or cantonments) as it was laid out like a military camp.

A rebellion in 869 by Ahmad ibn Tulun led to the abandonment of Al Askar and the building of another settlement, which became the seat of government. This was al-Qatta'i ("the Quarters"), to the north of Fustat and closer to the river. Al Qatta'i was centred around a palace and ceremonial mosque, now known as the Mosque of ibn Tulun.

In 905, the Abbasids re-asserted control of the country and their governor returned to Fustat, razing al-Qatta'i to the ground.

Foundation and expansion
Further information: Egypt in the Middle Ages
Fresco of Fatimid Caliph Al-Hakim (985–1021)

In 969, the Fatimids conquered Egypt from their base in Ifriqiya and a new fortified city northeast of Fustat was established. It took four years to build the city, initially known as al-Manṣūriyyah,[22] which was to serve as the new capital of the caliphate. During that time, the construction of the al-Azhar Mosque was commissioned by order of the Caliph, which developed into the third-oldest university in the world. Cairo would eventually become a centre of learning, with the library of Cairo containing hundreds of thousands of books.[23] When Caliph al-Mu'izz li Din Allah arrived from the old Fatimid capital of Mahdia in Tunisia in 973, he gave the city its present name, Qāhirat al-Mu'izz ("The Vanquisher of al-Mu'izz").[22]

For nearly 200 years after Cairo was established, the administrative centre of Egypt remained in Fustat. However, in 1168 the Fatimid vizier Shawar set fire to Fustat to prevent its capture by Amalric, the Crusader king of Jerusalem.[24] Egypt's capital was permanently moved to Cairo, which was eventually expanded to include the ruins of Fustat and the previous capitals of al-Askar and al-Qatta'i. As al Qahira expanded these earlier settlements were encompassed, and have since become part of the city of Cairo as it expanded and spread; they are now collectively known as "Old Cairo".

While the Fustat fire successfully protected the city of Cairo, a continuing power struggle between Shawar, King Amalric I of Jerusalem, and the Zengid general Shirkuh led to the downfall of the Fatimid establishment.[25]

In 1169, Saladin was appointed as the new vizier of Egypt by the Fatimids and two years later he seized power from the family of the last Fatimid caliph, al-'Āḍid.[26] As the first Sultan of Egypt, Saladin established the Ayyubid dynasty, based in Cairo, and aligned Egypt with the Abbasids, who were based in Baghdad.[27] During his reign, Saladin constructed the Cairo Citadel, which served as the seat of the Egyptian government until the mid-19th century.

The Cairo Citadel, seen above in the late 19th century, was commissioned by Saladin between 1176 and 1183.
The Cairo Citadel today.

In 1250, slave soldiers, known as the Mamluks, seized control of Egypt and like many of their predecessors established Cairo as the capital of their new dynasty. Continuing a practice started by the Ayyubids, much of the land occupied by former Fatimid palaces was sold and replaced by newer buildings.[28] Construction projects initiated by the Mamluks pushed the city outward while also bringing new infrastructure to the centre of the city.[29] Meanwhile, Cairo flourished as a centre of Islamic scholarship and a crossroads on the spice trade route among the civilisations in Afro-Eurasia. By 1340, Cairo had a population of close to half a million, making it the largest city west of China.[30]

The historic traveller[31] Ibn Battuta travelled thousands of miles during the course of his trek. One city he stopped in was Cairo, Egypt. One significant note Ibn Battuta made was that Cairo was the principal district of Egypt, meaning Cairo was Egypt's most important and most influential city (Ibn Battuta, 2009). Ibn Battuta also acknowledges the importance of the Nile river to all of Egypt, including Cairo, as he often travelled via boat to arrive at Cairo and to leave to continue his journey. The Nile was not just a means for transportation, it was the source of a plethora of other tangibles as well. The Nile's most influential attribute was its ability to sustain rich soil for agriculture. Part of the Agricultural Revolution thrived in Egypt, predominantly off the back of the Nile. The Nile also served as a source of food and a pathway for trade. Without it, the Egypt we know today wouldn't have been the same. One of Ibn Battuta's most detailed accounts in Cairo involves a plague that was devastating the city. Today, this plague is known as the Bubonic Plague, or the Black Death. It is believed to have arrived in Egypt in 1347, and as Ibn Battuta recalls, the Bubonic plague was responsible for the deaths of between 1 and 20,000 people a day in Cairo[32](Berkeley ORIAS, 2018) (Ibn Battuta, 2009). The plague originated in Asia and spread via fleas on rodents, such as rats (Berkeley ORIAS, 2018). The plague would end up spreading to all of Eurasia and wiped out any civilizations that were in its path. It is estimated that somewhere between 75 and 200 million people total died from the plague.

Ottoman rule
See also: Muhammad Ali's seizure of power
Illustration of Cairo in the 19th century.

Although Cairo avoided Europe's stagnation during the Late Middle Ages, it could not escape the Black Death, which struck the city more than fifty times between 1348 and 1517.[33] During its initial, and most deadly waves, approximately 200,000 people were killed by the plague,[34] and, by the 15th century, Cairo's population had been reduced to between 150,000 and 300,000.[35] The city's status was further diminished after Vasco da Gama discovered a sea route around the Cape of Good Hope between 1497 and 1499, thereby allowing spice traders to avoid Cairo.[30] Cairo's political influence diminished significantly after the Ottomans supplanted Mamluk power over Egypt in 1517. Ruling from Constantinople, Sultan Selim I relegated Egypt to a province, with Cairo as its capital.[36] For this reason, the history of Cairo during Ottoman times is often described as inconsequential, especially in comparison to other time periods.[30][37][38] However, during the 16th and 17th centuries, Cairo remained an important economic and cultural centre. Although no longer on the spice route, the city facilitated the transportation of Yemeni coffee and Indian textiles, primarily to Anatolia, North Africa, and the Balkans. Cairene merchants were instrumental in bringing goods to the barren Hejaz, especially during the annual hajj to Mecca.[38][39] It was during this same period that al-Azhar University reached the predominance among Islamic schools that it continues to hold today;[40][41] pilgrims on their way to hajj often attested to the superiority of the institution, which had become associated with Egypt's body of Islamic scholars.[42] By the 16th century, Cairo also had high-rise apartment buildings where the two lower floors were for commercial and storage purposes and the multiple stories above them were rented out to tenants.[43]

Under the Ottomans, Cairo expanded south and west from its nucleus around the Citadel.[44] The city was the second-largest in the empire, behind Constantinople, and, although migration was not the primary source of Cairo's growth, twenty percent of its population at the end of the 18th century consisted of religious minorities and foreigners from around the Mediterranean.[45] Still, when Napoleon arrived in Cairo in 1798, the city's population was less than 300,000, forty percent lower than it was at the height of Mamluk—and Cairene—influence in the mid-14th century.[30][45]

The French occupation was short-lived as British and Ottoman forces, including a sizeable Albanian contingent, recaptured the country in 1801. Cairo itself was besieged by a British and Ottoman force culminating with the French surrender on 22 June 1801.[46] The British vacated Egypt two years later, leaving the Ottomans, the Albanians, and the long-weakened Mamluks jostling for control of the country.[47][48] Continued civil war allowed an Albanian named Muhammad Ali Pasha to ascend to the role of commander and eventually, with the approval of the religious establishment, viceroy of Egypt in 1805.[49]

Modern era
Further information: History of Egypt under the Muhammad Ali dynasty and History of modern Egypt
Historical population
YearPop.±%
19502,493,514—    
19603,680,160+47.6%
19705,584,507+51.7%
19807,348,778+31.6%
19909,892,143+34.6%
200013,625,565+37.7%
201016,899,015+24.0%
201920,484,965+21.2%
for Cairo Agglomeration:[50]
Qasr El Nil Bridge

Until his death in 1848, Muhammad Ali Pasha instituted a number of social and economic reforms that earned him the title of founder of modern Egypt.[51][52] However, while Muhammad Ali initiated the construction of public buildings in the city,[53] those reforms had minimal effect on Cairo's landscape.[54] Bigger changes came to Cairo under Isma'il Pasha (r. 1863–1879), who continued the modernisation processes started by his grandfather.[55] Drawing inspiration from Paris, Isma'il envisioned a city of maidans and wide avenues; due to financial constraints, only some of them, in the area now composing Downtown Cairo, came to fruition.[56] Isma'il also sought to modernize the city, which was merging with neighbouring settlements, by establishing a public works ministry, bringing gas and lighting to the city, and opening a theatre and opera house.[57][58]

The immense debt resulting from Isma'il's projects provided a pretext for increasing European control, which culminated with the British invasion in 1882.[30] The city's economic centre quickly moved west toward the Nile, away from the historic Islamic Cairo section and toward the contemporary, European-style areas built by Isma'il.[59][60] Europeans accounted for five percent of Cairo's population at the end of the 19th century, by which point they held most top governmental positions.[61]

In 1905 the Heliopolis Oasis Company headed by the Belgian industrialist Édouard Empain and by Boghos Nubar, son of the Egyptian Prime Minister Nubar Pasha built a suburb called Heliopolis ten kilometers from the center of Cairo. It represented the first large-scale attempt to promote its own architecture, known now as the Heliopolis style.

Aerial view 1904 from a balloon where the Egyptian Museum appears to the right side.
View of the 6th October Bridge and the Cairo skyline.
Nile view from the Cairo Marriott Hotel.

The British occupation was intended to be temporary, but it lasted well into the 20th century. Nationalists staged large-scale demonstrations in Cairo in 1919,[30] five years after Egypt had been declared a British protectorate.[62] Nevertheless, this led to Egypt's independence in 1922.

1924 Cairo Quran

The King Fuad I Edition of the Qur’an[63] was first published on 10 July 1924 in Cairo under the patronage of King Fuad.[64][65] The goal of the government of the newly formed Kingdom of Egypt was not to delegitimize the other variant Quranic texts ("qira'at"), but to eliminate errors found in Qur’anic texts used in state schools. A commitee of teachers chose to preserve a single one of the canonical qira’at “readings”, namely that of the "Ḥafṣ" version,[66] an 8th-century Kufic recitation. This edition has become the standard for modern printings of the Quran[67][68] for much of the Islamic world.[69] The publication has been called a "terrific success", and the edition has been described as one "now widely seen as the official text of the Qur’an", so popular among both Sunni and Shi'a that the common belief among less well-informed Muslims is "that the Qur’an has a single, unambiguous reading". Minor amendments were made later in 1924 and in 1936 - the "Faruq edition" in honour of then ruler, King Faruq.[70]

British occupation until 1956

British troops remained in the country until 1956. During this time, urban Cairo, spurred by new bridges and transport links, continued to expand to include the upscale neighbourhoods of Garden City, Zamalek, and Heliopolis.[71] Between 1882 and 1937, the population of Cairo more than tripled—from 347,000 to 1.3 million[72]—and its area increased from 10 to 163 square kilometres (4 to 63 sq mi).[73]

The city was devastated during the 1952 riots known as the Cairo Fire or Black Saturday, which saw the destruction of nearly 700 shops, movie theatres, casinos and hotels in Downtown Cairo.[74] The British departed Cairo following the Egyptian Revolution of 1952, but the city's rapid growth showed no signs of abating. Seeking to accommodate the increasing population, President Gamal Abdel Nasser redeveloped Maidan Tahrir and the Nile Corniche, and improved the city's network of bridges and highways.[75] Meanwhile, additional controls of the Nile fostered development within Gezira Island and along the city's waterfront. The metropolis began to encroach on the fertile Nile Delta, prompting the government to build desert satellite towns and devise incentives for city-dwellers to move to them.[76]

1960s

Cairo's population has doubled since the 1960s, reaching close to seven million (with an additional ten million in its urban area). Concurrently, Cairo has established itself as a political and economic hub for North Africa and the Arab world, with many multinational businesses and organisations, including the Arab League, operating out of the city.

In 1992, Cairo was hit by an earthquake causing 545 deaths, injuring 6,512 and leaving around 50,000 people homeless.[77]

2011 Egyptian revolution
Main article: Egyptian revolution of 2011
A protester holding an Egyptian flag during the protests that started on 25 January 2011.

Cairo's Tahrir Square was the focal point of the 2011 Egyptian Revolution against former president Hosni Mubarak.[78] Over 2 million protesters were at Cairo's Tahrir square. More than 50,000 protesters first occupied the square on 25 January, during which the area's wireless services were reported to be impaired.[79] In the following days Tahrir Square continued to be the primary destination for protests in Cairo[80] as it took place following a popular uprising that began on Tuesday, 25 January 2011 and continued until June 2013. The uprising was mainly a campaign of non-violent civil resistance, which featured a series of demonstrations, marches, acts of civil disobedience, and labour strikes. Millions of protesters from a variety of socio-economic and religious backgrounds demanded the overthrow of the regime of Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak. Despite being predominantly peaceful in nature, the revolution was not without violent clashes between security forces and protesters, with at least 846 people killed and 6,000 injured. The uprising took place in Cairo, Alexandria, and in other cities in Egypt, following the Tunisian revolution that resulted in the overthrow of the long-time Tunisian president Zine El Abidine Ben Ali.[81] On 11 February, following weeks of determined popular protest and pressure, Hosni Mubarak resigned from office.

Post-revolutionary Cairo

Under the rule of President el-Sisi, in March 2015 plans were announced for another yet-unnamed planned city to be built further east of the existing satellite city of New Cairo, intended to serve as the new capital of Egypt.[82]

Geography
The river Nile flows through Cairo, here contrasting ancient customs of daily life with the modern city of today.
Aerial view looking south, with the Zamalek and Gezira districts on Gezira Island, surrounded by the Nile

Cairo is located in northern Egypt, known as Lower Egypt, 165 kilometres (100 mi) south of the Mediterranean Sea and 120 kilometres (75 mi) west of the Gulf of Suez and Suez Canal.[83] The city lies along the Nile River, immediately south of the point where the river leaves its desert-bound valley and branches into the low-lying Nile Delta region. Although the Cairo metropolis extends away from the Nile in all directions, the city of Cairo resides only on the east bank of the river and two islands within it on a total area of 453 square kilometres (175 sq mi).[84][85]

Until the mid-19th century, when the river was tamed by dams, levees, and other controls, the Nile in the vicinity of Cairo was highly susceptible to changes in course and surface level. Over the years, the Nile gradually shifted westward, providing the site between the eastern edge of the river and the Mokattam highlands on which the city now stands. The land on which Cairo was established in 969 (present-day Islamic Cairo) was located underwater just over three hundred years earlier, when Fustat was first built.[86]

Low periods of the Nile during the 11th century continued to add to the landscape of Cairo; a new island, known as Geziret al-Fil, first appeared in 1174, but eventually became connected to the mainland. Today, the site of Geziret al-Fil is occupied by the Shubra district. The low periods created another island at the turn of the 14th century that now composes Zamalek and Gezira. Land reclamation efforts by the Mamluks and Ottomans further contributed to expansion on the east bank of the river.[87]

Because of the Nile's movement, the newer parts of the city—Garden City, Downtown Cairo, and Zamalek—are located closest to the riverbank.[88] The areas, which are home to most of Cairo's embassies, are surrounded on the north, east, and south by the older parts of the city. Old Cairo, located south of the centre, holds the remnants of Fustat and the heart of Egypt's Coptic Christian community, Coptic Cairo. The Boulaq district, which lies in the northern part of the city, was born out of a major 16th-century port and is now a major industrial centre. The Citadel is located east of the city centre around Islamic Cairo, which dates back to the Fatimid era and the foundation of Cairo. While western Cairo is dominated by wide boulevards, open spaces, and modern architecture of European influence, the eastern half, having grown haphazardly over the centuries, is dominated by small lanes, crowded tenements, and Islamic architecture.

Northern and extreme eastern parts of Cairo, which include satellite towns, are among the most recent additions to the city, as they developed in the late-20th and early-21st centuries to accommodate the city's rapid growth. The western bank of the Nile is commonly included within the urban area of Cairo, but it composes the city of Giza and the Giza Governorate. Giza has also undergone significant expansion over recent years, and today the city, although still a suburb of Cairo, has a population of 2.7 million.[85] The Cairo Governorate was just north of the Helwan Governorate from 2008 when some Cairo's southern districts, including Maadi and New Cairo, were split off and annexed into the new governorate,[89] to 2011 when the Helwan Governorate was reincorporated into the Cairo Governorate.

A panorama of the Nile in central Cairo showing the west side of Gezira Island, located in the middle of the Nile, with the Cairo Tower in the middle, the 6th October Bridge on the far left and El Galaa Bridge on the far right

According to the World Health Organization, the level of air pollution in Cairo is nearly 12 times higher than the recommended safety level[90]

Climate

In Cairo, and along the Nile River Valley, the climate is a hot desert climate (BWh according to the Köppen climate classification system[91]). Wind storms can be frequent, bringing Saharan dust into the city, from March to May and the air often becomes uncomfortably dry. High temperatures in winter range from 14 to 22 °C (57 to 72 °F), while night-time lows drop to below 11 °C (52 °F), often to 5 °C (41 °F). In summer, the highs rarely surpass 40 °C (104 °F), and lows drop to about 20 °C (68 °F). Rainfall is sparse and only happens in the colder months, but sudden showers can cause severe flooding. The summer months have high humidity due to its coastal location. Snowfall is extremely rare; a small amount of graupel, widely believed to be snow, fell on Cairo's easternmost suburbs on 13 December 2013, the first time Cairo's area received this kind of precipitation in many decades.[92] Dew points in the hottest months range from 13.9 °C (57 °F) in June to 18.3 °C (65 °F) in August.[93]

Climate data for Cairo
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 31
(88)		 34.2
(93.6)		 37.9
(100.2)		 43.2
(109.8)		 47.8
(118.0)		 46.4
(115.5)		 42.6
(108.7)		 43.4
(110.1)		 43.7
(110.7)		 41
(106)		 37.4
(99.3)		 30.2
(86.4)		 47.8
(118.0)
Average high °C (°F) 18.9
(66.0)		 20.4
(68.7)		 23.5
(74.3)		 28.3
(82.9)		 32
(90)		 33.9
(93.0)		 34.7
(94.5)		 34.2
(93.6)		 32.6
(90.7)		 29.2
(84.6)		 24.8
(76.6)		 20.3
(68.5)		 27.7
(81.9)
Daily mean °C (°F) 14.0
(57.2)		 15.1
(59.2)		 17.6
(63.7)		 21.5
(70.7)		 24.9
(76.8)		 27.0
(80.6)		 28.4
(83.1)		 28.2
(82.8)		 26.6
(79.9)		 23.3
(73.9)		 19.5
(67.1)		 15.4
(59.7)		 21.8
(71.2)
Average low °C (°F) 9
(48)		 9.7
(49.5)		 11.6
(52.9)		 14.6
(58.3)		 17.7
(63.9)		 20.1
(68.2)		 22
(72)		 22.1
(71.8)		 20.5
(68.9)		 17.4
(63.3)		 14.1
(57.4)		 10.4
(50.7)		 15.8
(60.4)
Record low °C (°F) 1.2
(34.2)		 3.6
(38.5)		 5
(41)		 7.6
(45.7)		 12.3
(54.1)		 16
(61)		 18.2
(64.8)		 19
(66)		 14.5
(58.1)		 12.3
(54.1)		 5.2
(41.4)		 3
(37)		 1.2
(34.2)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 5
(0.2)		 3.8
(0.15)		 3.8
(0.15)		 1.1
(0.04)		 0.5
(0.02)		 0.1
(0.00)		 0
(0)		 0
(0)		 0
(0)		 0.7
(0.03)		 3.8
(0.15)		 5.9
(0.23)		 24.7
(0.97)
Average precipitation days (≥ 0.01 mm) 3.5 2.7 1.9 0.9 0.5 0.1 0 0 0 0.5 1.3 2.8 14.2
Average relative humidity (%) 59 54 53 47 46 49 58 61 60 60 61 61 56
Mean monthly sunshine hours 213 234 269 291 324 357 363 351 311 292 248 198 3,451
Average ultraviolet index 4 5 7 9 10 11.5 11.5 11 9 7 5 3 7.8
Source 1: World Meteorological Organization (UN) (1971–2000),[94] NOAA for mean, record high and low and humidity[93]
Source 2: Danish Meteorological Institute for sunshine (1931–1960),[95]

Weather2Travel (ultraviolet)[96]

Cairo weather observations by French savants

Metropolitan area
See also: Greater Cairo and Cairo Governorate

The Greater Cairo is the largest metropolitan area in Africa. It consists of Cairo Governorate, parts of Giza Governorate, and parts of Qalyubia Governorate.

Satellite cities
See also: Greater Cairo

6th of October City, west of Cairo, and New Cairo, east of Cairo, are major urban developments which have been built to accommodate additional growth and development of the Cairo area.[97] New development includes several high-end residential developments.[98]

Planned new capital
Main article: New Administrative Capital

In March 2015, plans were announced for a yet-unnamed planned city to be built east of Cairo, in an undeveloped area of the Cairo Governorate, which would serve as the administrative and financial capital of Egypt.[82]

Infrastructure
Cairo seen from Spot Satellite

Health
See also: List of hospitals in Egypt

Cairo, as well as neighbouring Giza, has been established as Egypt's main centre for medical treatment, and despite some exceptions, has the most advanced level of medical care in the country. Cairo's hospitals include the JCI-accredited As-Salaam International Hospital—Corniche El Nile, Maadi (Egypt's largest private hospital with 350 beds), Ain Shams University Hospital, Dar Al Fouad, Nile Badrawi Hospital, 57357 Hospital, as well as Qasr El Eyni Hospital.

Education

Greater Cairo has long been the hub of education and educational services for Egypt and the region. Today, Greater Cairo is the centre for many government offices governing the Egyptian educational system, has the largest number of educational schools, and higher education institutes among other cities and governorates of Egypt.

Some of the International Schools found in Cairo:

Further information: List of schools in Egypt
Faculty of Engineering, Ain Shams University
Faculty of Pharmacy, Ain Shams University
Cairo University is the largest university in Egypt, and is located in Giza.
Library building at the new campus of the American University of Cairo in New Cairo

Universities in Greater Cairo:

University Date of Foundation
Al Azhar University 970–972
Cairo University 1908
American University in Cairo 1919
Ain Shams University 1950
Arab Academy for Science & Technology and Maritime Transport 1972
Helwan University 1975
Sadat Academy for Management Sciences 1981
Higher Technological Institute 1989
Modern Academy In Maadi 1993
Misr International University 1996
Misr University for Science and Technology 1996
Modern Sciences and Arts University 1996
Université Française d'Égypte 2002
German University in Cairo 2003
Arab Open University 2003
Modern University for Technology & Information 2004
Canadian International College 2004
British University in Egypt 2005
Ahram Canadian University 2005
Nile University 2006
Future University in Egypt 2006
Egyptian Russian University 2006
Heliopolis University for Sustainable Development 2009
University of Science and Technology at Zewail City 2013
Egyptian Chinese University 2013
Badr University in Cairo 2013

Transportation
Main article: Transport in Cairo
The Autostrade in Nasr City
The interior of Ramses Station
Façade of Terminal 3 at Cairo International Airport
Departures area of Cairo International Airport's Terminal 1

Cairo has an extensive road network, rail system, subway system and maritime services. Road transport is facilitated by personal vehicles, taxi cabs, privately owned public buses and Cairo microbuses. Cairo, specifically Ramses Square, is the centre of almost the entire Egyptian transportation network.[99]

The subway system, officially called "Metro (مترو)", is a fast and efficient way of getting around Cairo. Metro network covers Helwan and other suburbs. It can get very crowded during rush hour. Two train cars (the fourth and fifth ones) are reserved for women only, although women may ride in any car they want.

Trams in Greater Cairo and Cairo trolleybus are former modes of transportation but were closed.

An extensive road network connects Cairo with other Egyptian cities and villages. There is a new Ring Road that surrounds the outskirts of the city, with exits that reach outer Cairo districts. There are flyovers and bridges, such as the Sixth of October bridge that, when the traffic is not heavy, allow fast[99] means of transportation from one side of the city to the other.

Cairo traffic is known to be overwhelming and overcrowded.[100] Traffic moves at a relatively fluid pace. Drivers tend to be aggressive, but are more courteous at junctions, taking turns going, with police aiding in traffic control of some congested areas.[99]

In 2017 plans to construct two monorail systems were announced, one linking October City to suburban Giza, a distance of 35 km (22 mi), and the other linking Nasr City to New Cairo, a distance of 52 km (32 mi).[101][102]

Other forms of transport

Sports
Cairo International Stadium with 75,100 seats

Football is the most popular sport in Egypt, and Cairo has a number of sporting teams that compete in national and regional leagues. The best known teams are Al Ahly, El Zamalek and Al-Ismaily. Al Ahly and El Zamalek annual football tournament is perhaps the most watched sports event in Egypt as well as the African-Arab region. Both teams are known as the "rivals" of Egyptian football, and are the first and the second champions in Africa and the Arab world. They play their home games at Cairo International Stadium or Naser Stadium, which is Egypt's 2nd largest stadium, Cairo's largest one and one of the largest stadiums in the world.

The Cairo International Stadium was built in 1960 and its multi-purpose sports complex that houses the main football stadium, an indoor stadium, several satellite fields that held several regional, continental and global games, including the African Games, U17 Football World Championship and was one of the stadiums scheduled that hosted the 2006 Africa Cup of Nations which was played in January 2006. Egypt later won the competition and went on to win the next edition In Ghana (2008) making the Egyptian and Ghanaian national teams the only teams to win the African Nations Cup Back to back which resulted in Egypt winning the title for a record number of six times in the history of African Continental Competition. This was followed by a third consecutive win in Angola 2010, making Egypt the only country with a record 3-consecutive and 7-total Continental Football Competition winner. This achievement had also placed the Egyptian football team as the #9 best team in the world's FIFA rankings.

Cairo failed at the applicant stage when bidding for the 2008 Summer Olympics, which was hosted in Beijing, China. However, Cairo did host the 2007 Pan Arab Games.

There are several other sports teams in the city that participate in several sports including el Gezira Sporting Club, el Shams Club, el Seid Club, Heliopolis Club and several smaller clubs, but the biggest clubs in Egypt (not in area but in sports) are Al Ahly and Al Zamalek. They have the two biggest football teams in Egypt. There are new sports clubs in the area of New Cairo (one hour far from Cairo's down town), these are Al Zohour sporting club, Wadi Degla sporting club and Platinum Club.

Most of the sports federations of the country are also located in the city suburbs, including the Egyptian Football Association. The headquarters of the Confederation of African Football (CAF) was previously located in Cairo, before relocating to its new headquarters in 6 October City, a small city away from Cairo's crowded districts.

In October 2008, the Egyptian Rugby Federation was officially formed and granted membership into the International Rugby Board.

Egypt is internationally known for the excellence of its squash players who excel in both professional and junior divisions. Egypt has seven players in the top ten of the PSA men's world rankings, and three in the women's top ten. Mohamed El Shorbagy held the world number one position for more than a year before being overtaken by compatriot Karim Abdel Gawad, who is number two behind Gregory Gaultier of France. Ramy Ashour and Amr Shabana are regarded as two of the most talented squash players in history. Shabana won the World Open title four times and Ashour twice, although his recent form has been hampered by injury. Egypt's Nour El Sherbini has won the Women's World Championship twice and has been women's world number one for 16 consecutive months. On 30 April 2016, she became the youngest woman to win the Women's World Championship which was held in Malaysia. On April 2017 she retained her title by winning the Women's World Championship which was held in the Egyptian resort of El Gouna.

Culture
Cairo Opera House, at the National Cultural Center, Zamalek district.
Khedivial Opera House, 1869.

Cultural tourism in Egypt
Main article: Cultural tourism in Egypt

Cairo Opera House
Main article: Cairo Opera House

President Mubarak inaugurated the new Cairo Opera House of the Egyptian National Cultural Centres on 10 October 1988, 17 years after the Royal Opera House had been destroyed by fire. The National Cultural Centre was built with the help of JICA, the Japan International Co-operation Agency and stands as a prominent feature for the Japanese-Egyptian co-operation and the friendship between the two nations.

Khedivial Opera House
Main article: Khedivial Opera House

The Khedivial Opera House, or Royal Opera House, was the original opera house in Cairo. It was dedicated on 1 November 1869 and burned down on 28 October 1971. After the original opera house was destroyed, Cairo was without an opera house for nearly two decades until the opening of the new Cairo Opera House in 1988.

Cairo International Film Festival
Main article: Cairo International Film Festival

Cairo held its first international film festival 16 August 1976, when the first Cairo International Film Festival was launched by the Egyptian Association of Film Writers and Critics, headed by Kamal El-Mallakh. The Association ran the festival for seven years until 1983.

This achievement lead to the President of the Festival again contacting the FIAPF with the request that a competition should be included at the 1991 Festival. The request was granted.

In 1998, the Festival took place under the presidency of one of Egypt's leading actors, Hussein Fahmy, who was appointed by the Minister of Culture, Farouk Hosni, after the death of Saad El-Din Wahba. Four years later, the journalist and writer Cherif El-Shoubashy became president.

Cairo Geniza
Solomon Schechter studying documents from the Cairo Geniza, c. 1895.
Main article: Cairo Geniza

The Cairo Geniza is an accumulation of almost 200,000 Jewish manuscripts that were found in the genizah of the Ben Ezra synagogue (built 882) of Fustat, Egypt (now Old Cairo), the Basatin cemetery east of Old Cairo, and a number of old documents that were bought in Cairo in the later 19th century. These documents were written from about 870 to 1880 AD and have been archived in various American and European libraries. The Taylor-Schechter collection in the University of Cambridge runs to 140,000 manuscripts, a further 40,000 manuscripts are at the Jewish Theological Seminary of America.

Food

The majority of Cairenes make food for themselves and make use of local produce markets.[103] The restaurant scene includes traditional Middle Eastern cuisine as well as local staples such as kushari. The city's most exclusive restaurants are typically concentrated in Zamalek and around the luxury hotels lining the shore of the Nile near the Garden City district. Influence from modern western society is also evident, with American chains such as McDonald's, Arby's, Pizza Hut, Subway, and Kentucky Fried Chicken being easy to find in central areas.[103]

Places of worship
See also: List of mosques in Cairo

Among the places of worship, they are predominantly Muslim mosques.[104] There are also Christian churches and temples: Coptic Orthodox Church, Coptic Catholic Church (Catholic Church), Evangelical Church of Egypt (Synod of the Nile) (World Communion of Reformed Churches).

Economy
The statue of Talaat Pasha Harb in Downtown Cairo, the father of the modern Egyptian economy.
The NBE towers as viewed from the Nile.

Cairo accounts for 11% of Egypt's population and 22% of its economy (PPP). The majority of the nation's commerce is generated there, or passes through the city. The great majority of publishing houses and media outlets and nearly all film studios are there, as are half of the nation's hospital beds and universities. This has fuelled rapid construction in the city—one building in five is less than 15 years old.

This growth until recently surged well ahead of city services. Homes, roads, electricity, telephone and sewer services were all in short supply. Analysts trying to grasp the magnitude of the change coined terms like "hyper-urbanization".

Cairo's automobile assembler and manufacturer

Cityscape and landmarks
View of Tahrir Square (in 2008).

Tahrir Square
Main article: Tahrir Square

Tahrir Square was founded during the mid 19th century with the establishment of modern downtown Cairo. It was first named Ismailia Square, after the 19th-century ruler Khedive Ismail, who commissioned the new downtown district's 'Paris on the Nile' design. After the Egyptian Revolution of 1919 the square became widely known as Tahrir (Liberation) Square, though it was not officially renamed as such until after the 1952 Revolution which eliminated the monarchy. Several notable buildings surround the square including, the American University in Cairo's downtown campus, the Mogamma governmental administrative Building, the headquarters of the Arab League, the Nile Ritz Carlton Hotel, and the Egyptian Museum. Being at the heart of Cairo, the square witnessed several major protests over the years. However, the most notable event in the square was being the focal point of the 2011 Egyptian Revolution against former president Hosni Mubarak.

Egyptian Museum
Main entrance of the Egyptian Museum, located at Tahrir Square.

The Museum of Egyptian Antiquities, known commonly as the Egyptian Museum, is home to the most extensive collection of ancient Egyptian antiquities in the world. It has 136,000 items on display, with many more hundreds of thousands in its basement storerooms. Among its most famous collections on display are the finds from the tomb of Tutankhamun.

Grand Egyptian Museum
Main article: Grand Egyptian Museum

Much of the collection of the Museum of Egyptian Antiquities, including the Tutankhamun collection, are slated to be moved to the new Grand Egyptian Museum, under construction in Giza and due to open by the end of 2020.[112][113]

Cairo Tower
Cairo Tower at night.
Main article: Cairo Tower

The Cairo Tower is a free-standing tower with a revolving restaurant at the top. It provides a bird's eye view of Cairo to the restaurant patrons. It stands in the Zamalek district on Gezira Island in the Nile River, in the city centre. At 187 metres (614 feet), it is 44 metres (144 feet) higher than the Great Pyramid of Giza, which stands some 15 kilometres (9 miles) to the southwest.

Old Cairo
Main article: Old Cairo
Remains of the Roman fortress of Babylon, in Old Cairo.

This area of Cairo is so-named as it contains the remains of the ancient Roman fortress of Babylon and also overlaps the original site of Fustat, the first Arab settlement in Egypt (7th century AD) and the predecessor of later Cairo. The area includes the Coptic Cairo, which holds a high concentration of old Christian churches such as the Hanging Church, the Greek Orthodox Church of St. George, and other Christian or Coptic buildings, most of which are located over the site of the ancient Roman fortress. It is also the location of the Coptic Museum, which showcases the history of Coptic art from Greco-Roman to Islamic times, and of the Ben Ezra Synagogue, the oldest and best-known synagogue in Cairo, where the important collection of Geniza documents were discovered in the 19th century.[114] To the north of this Coptic enclave is the Amr ibn al-'As Mosque, the first mosque in Egypt and the most important religious centre of what was formerly Fustat, founded in 642 AD right after the Arab conquest but rebuilt many times since.[115]

Islamic Cairo
Main article: Islamic Cairo
Al-Muizz Street in Islamic Cairo.
Al-Azhar Mosque, view of Fatimid-era courtyard and Mamluk minarets.
Sultan Hassan Mosque-Madrasa and the al-Rifa'i Mosque, seen from the Citadel.
Bayt Al-Suhaymi, a historic house and mansion off al-Muizz street.

Cairo holds one of the greatest concentrations of historical monuments of Islamic architecture in the world.[116] The areas around the old walled city and around the Citadel are characterized by hundreds of mosques, tombs, madrasas, mansions, caravanserais, and fortifications dating from the Islamic era and are often referred to as "Islamic Cairo", especially in English travel literature.[117] It is also the location of several important religious shrines such as the al-Hussein Mosque (whose shrine is believed to hold the head of Husayn ibn Ali), the Mausoleum of Imam al-Shafi'i (founder of the Shafi'i madhhab, one of the primary schools of thought in Sunni Islamic jurisprudence), the Tomb of Sayyida Ruqayya, the Mosque of Sayyida Nafisa, and others.[116]

The first mosque in Egypt was the Mosque of Amr ibn al-As in what was formerly Fustat, the first Arab-Muslim settlement in the area. However, the Mosque of Ibn Tulun is the oldest mosque that still retains its original form and is a rare example of Abbasid architecture from the classical period of Islamic civilization. It was built in 876–879 AD in a style inspired by the Abbasid capital of Samarra in Iraq.[118] It is one of the largest mosques in Cairo and is often cited as one of the most beautiful.[119][120] Another Abbasid construction, the Nilometer on Rhoda Island, is the oldest original structure in Cairo, built in 862 AD. It was designed to measure the level of the Nile, which was important for agricultural and administrative purposes.[121]

The settlement that was formally named Cairo (Arabic: al-Qahira) was founded to the northeast of Fustat in 959 AD by the victorious Fatimid army. The Fatimids built it as a separate palatial city which contained their palaces and institutions of government. It was enclosed by a circuit of walls, which were rebuilt in stone in the late 11th century AD by the vizir Badr al-Gamali,[122] parts of which survive today at Bab Zuwayla in the south and Bab al-Futuh and Bab al-Nasr in the north.

One of the most important and lasting institutions founded in the Fatimid period was the Mosque of al-Azhar, founded in 970 AD, which competes with the Qarawiyyin in Fes for the title of oldest university in the world.[123] Today, al-Azhar University is the foremost Center of Islamic learning in the world and one of Egypt's largest universities with campuses across the country.[123] The mosque itself retains significant Fatimid elements but has been added to and expanded in subsequent centuries, notably by the Mamluk sultans Qaitbay and al-Ghuri and by Abd al-Rahman Katkhuda in the 18th century.

Other extant monuments from the Fatimid era include the large Mosque of al-Hakim, the Aqmar Mosque, Juyushi Mosque, Lulua Mosque, and the Mosque of Al-Salih Tala'i.

The most prominent architectural heritage of medieval Cairo, however, dates from the Mamluk period, from 1250 to 1517 AD. The Mamluk sultans and elites were eager patrons of religious and scholarly life, commonly building religious or funerary complexes whose functions could include a mosque, madrasa, khanqah (for Sufis), a sabil (water dispensary), and a mausoleum for themselves and their families.[124] Among the best-known examples of Mamluk monuments in Cairo are the huge Mosque-Madrasa of Sultan Hasan, the Mosque of Amir al-Maridani, the Mosque of Sultan al-Mu'ayyad (whose twin minarets were built above the gate of Bab Zuwayla), the Sultan Al-Ghuri complex, the funerary complex of Sultan Qaytbay in the Northern Cemetery, and the trio of monuments in the Bayn al-Qasrayn area comprising the complex of Sultan al-Mansur Qalawun, the Madrasa of al-Nasir Muhammad, and the Madrasa of Sultan Barquq. Some mosques include spolia (often columns or capitals) from earlier buildings built by the Romans, Byzantines, or Copts.[116]

The Mamluks, and the later Ottomans, also built wikalas or caravanserais to house merchants and goods due to the important role of trade and commerce in Cairo's economy.[125] The most famous example still intact today is the Wikala al-Ghuri, which nowadays also hosts regular performances by the Al-Tannoura Egyptian Heritage Dance Troupe.[126] The famous Khan al-Khalili is a commercial hub which also integrated caravanserais (also known as khans).

Citadel of Cairo
The Citadel of Cairo, with the Mosque of Muhammad Ali.
Main article: Cairo Citadel

The Citadel is a fortified enclosure begun by Salah al-Din in 1176 AD on an outcrop of the Muqattam Hills as part of a large defensive system to protect both Cairo to the north and Fustat to the southwest.[125] It was the centre of Egyptian government and residence of its rulers until 1874, when Khedive Isma'il moved to 'Abdin Palace.[127] It is still occupied by the military today, but is now open as a tourist attraction comprising, notably, the National Military Museum, the 14th century Mosque of al-Nasir Muhammad, and the 19th century Mosque of Muhammad Ali which commands a dominant position on Cairo's skyline.

Khan el-Khalili
Main article: Khan el-Khalili
A medieval gateway in Khan al-Khalili.

Khan el-Khalili is an ancient bazaar, or marketplace adjacent to the Al-Hussein Mosque. It dates back to 1385, when Amir Jarkas el-Khalili built a large caravanserai, or khan. (A caravanserai is a hotel for traders, and usually the focal point for any surrounding area.) This original carvanserai building was demolished by Sultan al-Ghuri, who rebuilt it as a new commercial complex in the early 16th century, forming the basis for the network of souqs existing today.[128] Many medieval elements remain today, including the ornate Mamluk-style gateways.[129] Today, the Khan el-Khalili is a major tourist attraction and popular stop for tour groups.[130]

Society

Today, Cairo is heavily urbanized and most Cairenes now live in apartment buildings. Because of the influx of people into the city, lone standing houses are rare to find, and apartment buildings accommodate for the limited space and abundance of people. Single detached houses are symbolic of the wealthy. Formal education has also become very important. There are twelve years of formal education, and Cairenes also take an apprehension test similar to the SAT to help them further their education and become accepted to a higher institution. However, most children do not finish school and opt to pick up a trade to enter the work force.[131] Egypt still struggles with poverty, with almost half the population living on $2 or less a day[132] From the income the country does make, most of it does come from Cairo, as the majority of the countries manufacturing headquarters are located there.

Women's rights

The civil rights movement for women in Cairo and Egypt has been a long battle for years. Women are reported to face constant discrimination, harassment, and abuse throughout Cairo. A 2013 UN study found that over 99% of Egyptian women reported experiencing sexual harassment at some point in their lives.[133] The problem has persisted in spite of new national laws since 2014 defining and criminalizing sexual harassment.[134] The situation is so severe that in 2017 Cairo was named by one poll as the most dangerous megacity for women in the world.[135]

Pollution

Cairo is an expanding city, which has led to many environmental problems. The air pollution in Cairo is a matter of serious concern. Greater Cairo's volatile aromatic hydrocarbon levels are higher than many other similar cities.[136] Air quality measurements in Cairo have also been recording dangerous levels of lead, carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, and suspended particulate matter concentrations due to decades of unregulated vehicle emissions, urban industrial operations, and chaff and trash burning. There are over 4,500,000 cars on the streets of Cairo, 60% of which are over 10 years old, and therefore lack modern emission cutting features. Cairo has a very poor dispersion factor because of its lack of rain and its layout of tall buildings and narrow streets, which create a bowl effect.[137]

Smog in Cairo

In recent years, a mysterious black cloud (as Egyptians refer to it) appeared over Cairo every autumn and causes serious respiratory diseases and eye irritations for the city's citizens. Tourists who are not familiar with such high levels of pollution must take extra care.[138]

Cairo also has many unregistered lead and copper smelters which heavily pollute the city. The results of this has been a permanent haze over the city with particulate matter in the air reaching over three times normal levels. It is estimated that 10,000 to 25,000 people a year in Cairo die due to air pollution-related diseases. Lead has been shown to cause harm to the central nervous system and neurotoxicity particularly in children.[139] In 1995, the first environmental acts were introduced and the situation has seen some improvement with 36 air monitoring stations and emissions tests on cars. Twenty thousand buses have also been commissioned to the city to improve congestion levels, which are very high.

Traffic in Cairo

The city also suffers from a high level of land pollution. Cairo produces 10,000 tons of waste material each day, 4,000 tons of which is not collected or managed. This once again is a huge health hazard and the Egyptian Government is looking for ways to combat this. The Cairo Cleaning and Beautification Agency was founded to collect and recycle the waste; however, they also work with the Zabbaleen (or Zabaleen), a community that has been collecting and recycling Cairo's waste since the turn of the 20th century and live in an area known locally as Manshiyat naser.[140] Both are working together to pick up as much waste as possible within the city limits, though it remains a pressing problem.

Water pollution is also a serious problem in the city as the sewer system tends to fail and overflow. On occasion, sewage has escaped onto the streets to create a health hazard. This problem is hoped to be solved by a new sewer system funded by the European Union, which could cope with the demand of the city. The dangerously high levels of mercury in the city's water system has global health officials concerned over related health risks.

International relations

The Headquarters of the Arab League is located in Tahrir Square, near the downtown business district of Cairo.

Twin towns and sister cities
See also: List of twin towns and sister cities in Egypt

Cairo has sister city agreements with nine cities in seven different countries:

Notable people
gollark: ```We are not responsible for- headaches- rashes- persistent/non-persistent coughs- associated antimemetic effects- scalp psoriasis- seborrhoeic dermatitis- virii/viros/virorum/viriis- backdoors- lack of backdoors- actually writing documentation- this project's horrible code- spinal cord sclerosis- hypertension- cardiac arrest- regular arrest, by police or whatever- hyper-spudular chromoseizmic potatoripples- angry mobs with or without pitchforks- fourteenth plane politics- Nvidia's Linux drivers- death- obsession with list-reading- catsplosions- unicorn instability- BOAT™️- the Problem of Evil- computronic discombobulation- loss of data- SCP-076 and SCP-3125- gain of data- scheduler issues- frogs```
gollark: rot26 is a stateless keyless symmetric cipher used in many applications!
gollark: PotatOS supports transparent 5rot26 filesystem encryption.
gollark: Combine computable functions an infinite amount of times!
gollark: I had to disable saving the scope temporarily for it to work.

See also

Notes
  1. http://www.cairo.gov.eg/en/Pages/Governor.aspx?SubmID=106
  2. "الجهاز المركزي للتعبئة العامة والإحصاء". www.capmas.gov.eg. Archived from the original on 1 October 2018. Retrieved 27 October 2018.
  3. UNESCO World Heritage Centre. "Historic Cairo – UNESCO World Heritage Centre". Whc.unesco.org. Archived from the original on 5 June 2017. Retrieved 20 September 2017.
  4. Santa Maria Tours (4 September 2009). "Cairo – "Al-Qahira" – is Egypt's capital and the largest city in the Middle East and Africa". PRLog. Archived from the original on 30 November 2011. Retrieved 10 December 2011.
  5. "World's Densest Cities". Forbes. 21 December 2006. Archived from the original on 6 August 2010. Retrieved 6 March 2010.
  6. "The World According to GaWC 2016". Globalization and World Cities Research Network. Loughborough University. 24 April 2017. Archived from the original on 10 October 2013. Retrieved 26 May 2017.
  7. Egypt In Figures 2017, Governorate level, Population distribution by sex, Central Agency for Public Mobilisation and Statistics, archived from the original (xls) on 24 January 2009, retrieved 9 July 2009. Adjusted census result, as Helwan governorate was created on 17 April 2008 from a.o. parts of the Cairo governorate.
  8. "Cairo's third metro line beats challenges". Archived from the original on 3 July 2017. Retrieved 29 June 2015.
  9. "Cairo Metro Statistics". Archived from the original on 23 March 2012. Retrieved 4 September 2012.
  10. "The 150 Richest Cities in the World by GDP in 2005". Archived from the original on 18 September 2012. Retrieved 11 November 2010.
  11. "The 2010 Global Cities Index". Archived from the original on 2 December 2014.
  12. Behrens-Abouseif 1992, p. 8
  13. Golia 2004, p. 152
  14. Towards a Shi'i Mediterranean Empire: Fatimid Egypt and the Founding of Cairo. I.B. Tauris. 2009. p. 78. ISBN 978-0-85771-742-9.
  15. Cairo#Foundation and expansion
  16. "Talk:Wp/cop/ⲕⲁϣⲣⲱⲙⲓ – Wikimedia Incubator". incubator.wikimedia.org. Retrieved 2 July 2018.
  17. Casanova, Paul (1901). "Les noms coptes du Caire et localités voisines". BIFAO. 1: 20.
  18. Amélineau, Emile. La Geographie De l'Egypte A l'epoque Copte. p. 543.
  19. Good News for Me: بلال فضل يتفرغ لـ"أهل اسكندرية" بعد "أهل كايرو" Archived 5 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine‏ (in Arabic) (Belal Fadl frees himself [to write] Ahl Eskendereyya (the People of Alexandria) after Ahl Kayro (the People of Cairo))
  20. Hawass & Brock 2003, p. 456
  21. "Memphis (Egypt)". Encarta. Microsoft. 2009. Archived from the original on 6 October 2009. Retrieved 24 July 2009.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
  22. Glassé & Smith 2003, p. 96
  23. Meri & Bacharach 2006, p. 451
  24. Daly & Petry 1998, p. 213
  25. Daly & Petry 1998, pp. 213–15
  26. Daly & Petry 1998, p. 215
  27. Shillington 2005, p. 438
  28. Raymond 2000, p. 122
  29. Raymond 2000, pp. 120–28
  30. Shillington 2005, p. 199
  31. Ibn Battuta. The Travels of Ibn Battuta, p. 13, 225. Trans. Samuel Lee. Cosimo, 2009. Print.
  32. The Travels of Ibn Battuta. UC Berkeley: Berkeley ORIAS, 2018. Electronic.
  33. Shoshan 2002, p. 4
  34. Byrne 2004, pp. 104–05
  35. Shoshan 2002, p. 1
  36. Shillington 2005, p. 447
  37. Rose, Christopher; Linda Boxberger (1995). "Ottoman Cairo". Cairo: Living Past, Living Future. The University of Texas Centre for Middle Eastern Studies. Archived from the original on 6 June 2007. Retrieved 30 July 2009.
  38. Winter 1992, p. 225
  39. İnalcık et al. 1997, pp. 507–09
  40. Winter 2004, p. 115
  41. Daly & Petry 1998, pp. 94–95
  42. Winter 2004, pp. 115–7
  43. Mortada, Hisham (2003). Traditional Islamic principles of built environment. Routledge. p. viii. ISBN 978-0-7007-1700-2.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
  44. Winter 1992, p. 226
  45. Winter 1992, pp. 226–27
  46. Sicker 2001, p. 103
  47. Sicker 2001, p. 104
  48. Afaf Lutfi Sayyid-Marsot 1984, p. 39
  49. Sicker 2001, pp. 104–05
  50. "Cairo population". Archived from the original on 9 July 2019. Retrieved 12 August 2019.
  51. Afaf Lutfi Sayyid-Marsot 1984, p. 1
  52. McGregor 2006, p. 53
  53. Shillington 2005, p. 437
  54. Raymond 2000, pp. 291, 302
  55. Roman Adrian Cybriwsky, Capital Cities around the World: An Encyclopedia of Geography, History, and Culture, ABC-CLIO, USA, 2013, p. 76
  56. Raymond 2000, pp. 313–4
  57. Raymond 2000, pp. 311–3
  58. Abu-Lughod 1965, pp. 436–44
  59. Abu-Lughod 1965, pp. 429–31, 455–57
  60. Hourani, Khoury & Wilson 2004, p. 317
  61. Abu-Lughod 1965, p. 431
  62. Hourani, Khoury & Wilson 2004, p. 12
  63. Brill, “[ <http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1875-3922_q3_intro> Supplement II - Qurʾān Concordance]”, in: Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān, General Editor: Jane Dammen McAuliffe, Georgetown University, Washington DC. Consulted online on 10 July 2020
  64. Brockett, Adrian Alan, Studies in two transmissions of the Qur'an
  65. Peter G. Riddell, Early Malay Qur'anic exegical activity, p. 164. Taken from Islam and the Malay-Indonesian World: Transmission and Responses. London: C. Hurst & Co., 2001. ISBN 9781850653363
  66. Böwering, "Recent Research on the Construction of the Quran", 2008: p. 74
  67. Rippin, Andrew; et al. (2006). The Blackwell companion to the Qur'an ([2a reimpr.] ed.). Blackwell. ISBN 978140511752-4.
    • For the history of compilation see Introduction by Tamara Sonn pp. 5–6
  68. Melchert, Christopher (2000). "Ibn Mujahid and the Establishment of Seven Qur'anic Readings". Studia Islamica (91): 5–22. doi:10.2307/1596266. JSTOR 1596266.
  69. Aisha Geissinger, Gender and Muslim Constructions of Exegetical Authority: A Rereading of the Classical Genre of Qurʾān Commentary, pg. 79. Leiden: Brill Publishers, 2015. ISBN 9789004294448
  70. Reynolds, "Quranic studies and its controversies", 2008: p. 2
  71. Raymond 2000, pp. 326–29
  72. Raymond 2000, p. 319
  73. Raymond 2000, p. 322
  74. خسائر الحريق [The Fire Damage]. Al-Ahram (in Arabic). 12 May 2010. Archived from the original on 12 May 2011. Retrieved 4 February 2011.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
  75. Raymond 2000, p. 349
  76. Raymond 2000, pp. 343–45
  77. "NGDC page on the Cairo earthquake". Archived from the original on 1 September 2013. Retrieved 9 June 2010.
  78. "Egypt protests: Anti-Mubarak demonstrators arrested". BBC News. 26 January 2011. Archived from the original on 26 January 2011. Retrieved 26 January 2011.
  79. "Egyptians report poor communication services on Day of Anger". Almasry Alyoum. 25 January 2011. Archived from the original on 30 January 2011. Retrieved 25 January 2011.
  80. "Egypt protests: curfew defied in Cairo and other cities". BBC News. 29 January 2011. Archived from the original on 29 January 2011. Retrieved 29 January 2011.
  81. Chrisafis, Angelique; Black, Ian (15 January 2011). "Zine al-Abidine Ben Ali forced to flee Tunisia as protesters claim victory". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 15 January 2011. Retrieved 23 April 2018.
  82. "Egypt unveils plans to build new capital east of Cairo". BBC News. 13 March 2015. Archived from the original on 13 March 2015. Retrieved 14 March 2015.
  83. "Cairo to Suez". WolframAlpha. Wolfram Research. Archived from the original on 11 August 2011. Retrieved 10 September 2009.
  84. "Cairo Maps". Cairo Governorate. Archived from the original on 19 April 2009. Retrieved 10 September 2009.
  85. Brinkhoff, Thomas. "Egypt: Governorates & Cities". City Population. Archived from the original on 2 September 2013. Retrieved 12 September 2009.
  86. Collins 2002, p. 125
  87. Collins 2002, p. 126
  88. Amanda Briney (20 February 2011). "Ten Facts about Cairo, Egypt". Geography of Cairo. About.com. Archived from the original on 28 March 2012. Retrieved 14 July 2012.
  89. Leila, Reem (24–30 April 2008). "Redrawing the Map" (894). al-Ahram Weekly. Archived from the original on 10 August 2009. Retrieved 12 September 2009.
  90. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 29 May 2019. Retrieved 3 June 2019.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  91. "World Map of Köppen-Geiger Climate Classification". Köppen-Geiger. Archived from the original on 17 October 2011. Retrieved 22 January 2010.
  92. Samenow, Jason (13 December 2013). "Biblical snowstorm: Rare flakes in Cairo, Jerusalem paralyzed by over a foot". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 3 September 2015. Retrieved 22 August 2017.
  93. "Cairo (A) Climate Normals 1961–1990". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 14 April 2014.
  94. "Weather Information for Cairo". World Meteorological Organization. Retrieved 14 April 2014.
  95. Cappelen, John; Jensen, Jens. "Egypten - Cairo" (PDF). Climate Data for Selected Stations (1931-1960) (in Danish). Danish Meteorological Institute. p. 82. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 April 2013. Retrieved 14 April 2014.
  96. "Cairo Climate Guide: Monthly Weather, Egypt". Retrieved 29 June 2019.
  97. "To Catch Cairo Overflow, 2 Megacities Rise in Sand" Archived 11 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine article by Thanassis Cambanis in The New York Times 24 August 2010. Retrieved 25 August 2010
  98. Map of Greater Cairo & SODIC Developments Archived 20 September 2010 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 25 August 2010
  99. Travel Cairo. MobileReference. 2007. p. 44. ISBN 978-1-60501-055-7.
  100. "Al-Ahram Weekly | Features | Reaching an impasse". Weekly.ahram.org.eg. 1 February 2006. Archived from the original on 20 April 2009. Retrieved 5 May 2009.
  101. Tawfeek, Fahrah (21 December 2017). "Egypt to build country's first ever monorail in Cairo". www.egyptindependent.com. Archived from the original on 29 May 2019. Retrieved 29 May 2019.
  102. "Cairo monorail trains to be built in UK". BBC News. 28 May 2019. Archived from the original on 29 May 2019. Retrieved 29 May 2019.
  103. Planet, Lonely. "Eating in Cairo, Egypt". Lonely Planet. Retrieved 11 March 2020.
  104. Britannica, Egypt Archived 8 July 2019 at the Wayback Machine, britannica.com, USA, accessed on 7 July 2019
  105. "Arab American Vehicles Co". Aav.com.eg. Archived from the original on 12 November 2010. Retrieved 14 June 2010.
  106. "Ghabbourauto.com". Ghabbourauto.com. Archived from the original on 3 December 2011. Retrieved 10 December 2011.
  107. "Welcome to MCV Web Site". Mcv-eg.com. Archived from the original on 16 May 2010. Retrieved 14 June 2010.
  108. TradeHolding.com B2B Network. "Panda, Buy from Mod Car. Egypt – Ash Sharqiyah – Middle East Business B2B Directory – Saudi Arabia, UAE, Bahrain Companies, Middle East Businesses, Products & Trade Leads, Arab Business". Gulfbusiness.tradeholding.com. Archived from the original on 17 July 2011. Retrieved 14 June 2010.
  109. "Seoudi Group 1001 opportunities for investment in Egypt and Arab World". Seoudi.com. Archived from the original on 1 February 2011. Retrieved 14 June 2010.
  110. "اسبرانزا ايجيبت". Speranza Egypt. Archived from the original on 30 August 2009. Retrieved 14 June 2010.
  111. "Welcome to Daewoo Motor Website". Aboulfotouh.com. Archived from the original on 31 January 2010. Retrieved 14 June 2010.
  112. Sattin, Anthony. "Everything We Know About Cairo's New Grand Egyptian Museum". Condé Nast Traveler. Retrieved 10 March 2020.
  113. Keith, Lauren. "The Grand Egyptian Museum will finally open at the end of 2020". Lonely Planet. Retrieved 10 March 2020.
  114. Williams 2008, p. 43
  115. Williams 2008, p. 39
  116. Williams 2008
  117. e.g. O'Neill_et_al 2012
  118. Williams 2008, pp. 50–54
  119. Williams 2008, p. 50
  120. O'Neill_et_al 2012, p. 87
  121. Yeomans, Richard. 2006. The Art and Architecture of Islamic Cairo. Garnet Publishing, p 29.
  122. Raymond 1993, p. 62
  123. Williams 2008, p. 169
  124. Behrens-Abouseif, Doris. 2007. Cairo of the Mamluks: A History of Architecture and its Culture. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press.
  125. Raymond 1993, pp. 90–97
  126. O'Neill_et_al 2012, p. 81
  127. Williams 2008, p. 221
  128. Raymond 1993, p. 179
  129. Williams 2008, p. 179
  130. O'Neill_et_al 2012, pp. 74–75
  131. "Life in Modern Cairo". www.laits.utexas.edu. Retrieved 11 March 2020.
  132. Mitchell Hartman. On Rich and Poor in Egypt. Marketplace, 2011. Electronic.
  133. "Study on Ways and Methods to Eliminate Sexual Harassment in Egypt", UN Women (United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerement of Women). URL: https://www.eisf.eu/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/2172-UN-Women-2013-Study-on-Ways-and-Methods-to-Eliminate-Sexual-Harassment-in-Egypt.pdf
  134. "Egypt brings in new sex assault laws". BBC News. 5 June 2014. Retrieved 11 March 2020.
  135. "Cairo 'most dangerous' city for women". BBC News. 16 October 2017. Retrieved 11 March 2020.
  136. Khoder, M.I. (January 2007). "Ambient levels of volatile organic compounds in the atmosphere of Greater Cairo". Atmospheric Environment. 41 (3): 554–66. Bibcode:2007AtmEn..41..554K. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2006.08.051. ISSN 1352-2310.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
  137. Whittaker-Wood, Fran (25 July 2018). "The Most Polluted Cities in the World". The Eco Experts. Archived from the original on 1 July 2019. Retrieved 2 July 2019.
  138. Khoder, M (2007). "Black cloud reappears over Cairo". Middle East Online. 41 (3): 554. Bibcode:2007AtmEn..41..554K. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2006.08.051.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
  139. Lidsky, T. I.; Schneider, JS (January 2003). "Lead neurotoxicity in children: basic mechanisms and clinical correlates". Brain. 126 (1): 5–19. doi:10.1093/brain/awg014. PMID 12477693. Archived from the original on 7 October 2008. Retrieved 19 April 2008.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
  140. Epstein, Jack (3 June 2006). "From Cairo's trash, a model of recycling / Old door-to-door method boasts 85% reuse rate". Sfgate.com. Archived from the original on 10 October 2008. Retrieved 5 May 2009.
  141. "Educator From Egypt Will Pay Visit to City". Baton Rouge Morning Advocate (sec. B, p. 11). 10 February 1952.
  142. "Stuttgart Städtepartnerschaften". Landeshauptstadt Stuttgart, Abteilung Außenbeziehungen (in German). Archived from the original on 8 August 2013. Retrieved 27 July 2013.
  143. "NYC's Partner Cities". The City of New York. Archived from the original on 14 August 2013. Retrieved 16 December 2012.

References
  • Abu-Lughod, Janet (July 1965). "Tale of Two Cities: The Origins of Modern Cairo". Comparative Studies in Society and History. 7 (4). ISSN 0010-4175.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
  • Afaf Lutfi Sayyid-Marsot (1984). Egypt in the Reign of Muhammad Ali (illustrated, reprint ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-28968-9.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
  • Beattie, Andrew (2005). Cairo: A Cultural History (illustrated ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-517893-7.
  • Behrens-Abouseif, Doris (1992). Islamic Architecture in Cairo (2nd ed.). Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-09626-4.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
  • Butler, Alfred J. (2008). The Arab Conquest of Egypt – And the Last Thirty Years of the Roman Dominion. Portland, Ore: Butler Press. ISBN 978-1-4437-2783-9.
  • Byrne, Joseph Patrick (2004). The Black Death (illustrated, annotated ed.). Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-313-32492-5.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
  • Collins, Robert O. (2002). The Nile (illustrated ed.). New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-09764-1.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
  • Daly, M. W.; Petry, Carl F. (1998). The Cambridge History of Egypt: Islamic Egypt, 640–1517. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-47137-4.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
  • Glassé, Cyril; Smith, Huston (2003). The New Encyclopedia of Islam (2nd revised ed.). Singapore: Tien Wah Press. ISBN 978-0-7591-0190-6.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
  • Golia, Maria (2004). Cairo: city of sand. Reaktion Books. ISBN 978-1-86189-187-7.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
  • Hawass, Zahi A.; Brock, Lyla Pinch (2003). Egyptology at the Dawn of the Twenty-First Century: Archaeology (2nd ed.). Cairo: American University in Cairo. ISBN 978-977-424-674-6.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
  • Hourani, Albert Habib; Khoury, Philip Shukry; Wilson, Mary Christina (2004). The Modern Middle East: A Reader (2nd ed.). London: I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-86064-963-9.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
  • İnalcık, Halil; Faroqhi, Suraiya; Quataert, Donald; McGowan, Bruce; Pamuk, Sevket (1997). An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire (illustrated, reprinted ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-57455-6.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
  • McGregor, Andrew James (2006). A Military History of Modern Egypt: From the Ottoman Conquest to the Ramadan War. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-275-98601-8.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
  • Meri, Josef W.; Bacharach, Jere L. (2006). Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia. New York: Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-415-96692-4.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
  • O'Neill, Zora; Benanav, Michael; Lee, Jessica; Sattin, Anthony (2012). Lonely Planet Egypt (11ition ed.). Lonely Planet. ISBN 978-1-74179-959-0.
  • Raymond, André (1993). Le Caire (in French). Fayard. ISBN 978-2-213-02983-2.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) English translation: Raymond, André (2000). Cairo. Translated by Wood, Willard. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-00316-3.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
  • Sanders, Paula (2008). Creating Medieval Cairo: Empire, Religion, and Architectural Preservation in Nineteenth-Century Egypt. Cairo: American University in Cairo. ISBN 978-977-416-095-0.
  • Shillington, Kevin (2005). Encyclopedia of African History. New York: Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-57958-453-5.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
  • Shoshan, Boaz (2002). David Morgan (ed.). Popular Culture in Medieval Cairo. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-89429-6.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
  • Sicker, Martin (2001). The Islamic World in Decline: From the Treaty of Karlowitz to the Disintegration of the Ottoman Empire (illustrated ed.). Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-275-96891-5.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
  • Williams, Caroline (2008). Islamic Monuments in Cairo: The Practical Guide (6th, Revised ed.). The American University in Cairo Press. ISBN 978-977-416-205-3.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
  • Winter, Michael (1992). Egyptian Society Under Ottoman Rule, 1517–1798. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-02403-7.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
  • Winter, Michael (2004). Egyptian Society Under Ottoman Rule, 1517–1798. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-203-16923-0.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)

Further reading
See also: Bibliography of the history of Cairo
  • Alsayyad, Nezar (2011). Cairo. doi:10.4159/harvard.9780674060791. ISBN 9780674060791.
  • Artemis Cooper, Cairo in the War, 1939–1945, Hamish Hamilton, 1989 / Penguin Book, 1995. ISBN 0-14-024781-5 (Pbk)
  • Max Rodenbeck, Cairo– the City Victorious, Picador, 1998. ISBN 0-330-33709-2 (Hbk) ISBN 0-330-33710-6 (Pbk)
  • Wahba, Magdi (1990). Cairo Memories" in Studies in Arab History: The Antonius Lectures, 1978–87. Edited by Derek Hopwood. London: Macmillan Press.
  • "Rescuing Cairo's Lost Heritage". Islamica Magazine (15). 2006. Archived from the original on 2 April 2007. Retrieved 6 December 2006.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
  • Peter Theroux, Cairo: Clamorous heart of Egypt National Geographic Magazine April 1993
  • Cynthia Myntti, Paris Along the Nile: Architecture in Cairo from the Belle Epoque, American University in Cairo Press, 2003.
  • Cairo's belle époque architects 1900–1950, by Samir Raafat.
  • Antonine Selim Nahas, one of city's major belle époque (1900–1950) architects.
  • Nagib Mahfooz novels, all tell great stories about Cairo's deep conflicts.
  • Lewicka, Paulina (2011). Food and Foodways of Medieval Cairenes. doi:10.1163/ej.9789004194724.i-626. ISBN 9789004206465.
  • Jörg Armbruster, Suleman Taufiq (Eds.) مدينتي القاهرة (MYCAI – My Cairo Mein Kairo), text by different authors, photos by Barbara Armbruster and Hala Elkoussy, edition esefeld & traub, Stuttgart 2014, ISBN 978-3-9809887-8-0.

Photos and videos
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.