Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants

The voiced alveolar lateral approximant is a type of consonantal sound used in many spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents dental, alveolar, and postalveolar lateral approximants is ⟨l⟩, and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is l.

"Dental lateral approximant", "Alveolar lateral approximant", and "Postalveolar lateral approximant" redirect here. For the voiceless consonants, see Voiceless dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants.

For consonants followed by superscript ˡ, see Lateral release (phonetics).

Voiced alveolar lateral approximant
l
IPA Number	155
Encoding
Entity (decimal)	l
Unicode (hex)	U+006C
X-SAMPA	l
Braille
Audio sample
source · help

Voiced postalveolar lateral approximant
l̠

Voiced dental lateral approximant
l̪

As a sonorant, lateral approximants are nearly always voiced. Voiceless lateral approximants, /l̥/ are common in Sino-Tibetan languages, but uncommon elsewhere. In such cases, voicing typically starts about halfway through the hold of the consonant. No language is known to contrast such a sound with a voiceless alveolar lateral fricative [ɬ].

In a number of languages, including most varieties of English, the phoneme /l/ becomes velarized ("dark l") in certain contexts. By contrast, the non-velarized form is the "clear l" (also known as: "light l"), which occurs before and between vowels in certain English standards.[1] Some languages have only clear l.[2] Others may not have a clear l at all, or have them only before front vowels (especially [i]).

Features

Features of the voiced alveolar lateral approximant:

• Its manner of articulation is approximant, which means it is produced by narrowing the vocal tract at the place of articulation, but not enough to produce a turbulent airstream.
• There are four specific variants of [l]:
  • Dental, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue at the upper teeth, termed respectively apical and laminal.
  • Denti-alveolar, which means it is articulated with the blade of the tongue at the alveolar ridge, and the tip of the tongue behind upper teeth.
  • Alveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue at the alveolar ridge, termed respectively apical and laminal.
  • Postalveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue behind the alveolar ridge, termed respectively apical and laminal.

• Its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation.

• It is an oral consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only.

• It is a lateral consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream over the sides of the tongue, rather than down the middle.

• The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, as in most sounds.

Occurrence

Languages may have clear apical or laminal alveolars, laminal denti-alveolars (such as French), or true dentals, which are uncommon. Laminal denti-alveolars tend to occur in Continental languages.[3] However, a true dental generally occurs allophonically before /θ/ in languages that have it, as in English health.

Dental or denti-alveolar

Language		Word	IPA	Meaning	Notes
Arabic	Gulf[4]	لين/leen	[l̪eːn]	'when'	Laminal denti-alveolar. See Arabic phonology
Hungarian[5]		elem	[ˈɛl̪ɛm]	'battery'	Laminal denti-alveolar. See Hungarian phonology
Italian[6][7][8]		molto	[ˈmol̪ːt̪o]	'much, a lot'	Laminal denti-alveolar. Allophone of /l/ before /t, d, s, z, t͡s, d͡z/.[6][7][8] See Italian phonology
Macedonian[9]		лево/levo	[l̪e̞vo̞]	'left'	Laminal denti-alveolar. See Macedonian phonology
Mapudungun[10]		ḻafkeṉ	[l̪ɐ̝fkën̪]	'sea, lake'	Interdental.[10]
Norwegian	Urban East[11]	anlegg	[²ɑnːl̪ɛg]	'plant (industrial)'	Allophone of /l/ after /n, t, d/.[11] See Norwegian phonology
Spanish[12]		altar	[äl̪ˈt̪äɾ]	'altar'	Laminal denti-alveolar. Allophone of /l/ before /t/, /d/. See Spanish phonology
Swedish	Central Standard[13]	allt	[äl̪t̪]	'everything'	Laminal denti-alveolar. See Swedish phonology
Tamil[14]		புலி/puli	[pul̪i]	'tiger'	See Tamil phonology
Uzbek[15]					Laminal denti-alveolar. Velarized between a non-front rounded vowel and a consonant or juncture phoneme.[15]
Vietnamese	Hanoi[16]	lửa	[l̪ɨə˧˩˧]	'fire'	See Vietnamese phonology

Alveolar

Language		Word	IPA	Meaning	Notes
Arabic	Standard[17]	لا‎/laa	[laː]	'no'	See Arabic phonology
Armenian	Eastern[18]	լուսին/lusin	[lusin]	'moon'
Catalan[19][20]		tela	[ˈt̪ɛlə]	'fabric'	Apical 'front alveolar'.[19][20] May also be velarized.[21] See Catalan phonology
Dutch	Standard[22]	laten	[ˈl̻aːt̻ə]	'to let'	Laminal. Some Standard Belgian speakers use the clear /l/ in all positions.[22] See Dutch phonology
	Some Eastern accents[23]	mal	[mɑl̻]	'mold'	Laminal; realization of /l/ in all positions.[23] See Dutch phonology
English	New York[24]	let	[lɛt]	'let'	Varies between apical and laminal, with the latter being predominant.[24]
	Irish, Geordie[25]	tell	[tɛl]	'tell'
Esperanto		luno	[ˈluno]	'moon'	See Esperanto phonology
Filipino		luto	[ˈluto]	'cook'	See Filipino phonology
Greek		λέξη/léksi	[ˈleksi]	'word'	See Modern Greek phonology
Italian[6][26][27]		letto	[ˈlɛt̪ːo]	'bed'	Apical.[7] See Italian phonology
Japanese		六 / roku	[lo̞kɯ̟ᵝ]	'six'	Apical.[28] More commonly [ɾ]. See Japanese phonology
Kashubian[29]
Kyrgyz[30]		көпөлөк/köpölök	[køpøˈløk]	'butterfly'	Velarized in back vowel contexts. See Kyrgyz phonology
Korean		랑 / rang	[lɐŋ]	'and'	It only appears in the initial consonant. See Korean phonology.
Mapudungun[10]		elun	[ëˈlʊn]	'to give'
Persian		لاما‎/lama	[lɒmɒ]	'llama'	See Persian phonology
Polish[31]		pole	[ˈpɔlɛ]	'field'	Contrasts with /ɫ/ for a small number of speakers; when it does, it is always palatalized [lʲ]. See Polish phonology
Romanian[32]		alună	[äˈlun̪ə]	'hazelnut'	Apical. See Romanian phonology
Scottish Gaelic[33]		maoil	[mɯːl]	'headland'	Contrasts with /ɫ̪/ and /ʎ/. See Scottish Gaelic phonology
Slovak[34]		mĺkvy	[ˈml̩ːkʋi]	'silent'	Syllabic form can be long or short. See Slovak phonology
Slovene[35]		letalo	[lɛˈt̪àːlɔ]	'airplane'	See Slovene phonology
Spanish[36]		hablar	[äˈβ̞läɾ]	'to speak'	See Spanish phonology
Ukrainian[37]		обличчя/oblichchya	[oˈblɪt͡ʃːɐ]	'face'	Contrasts with palatalized form. See Ukrainian phonology

Postalveolar

Language		Word	IPA	Meaning	Notes
Igbo	Standard[38]	lì	[l̠ì]	'bury'
Italian[7]		il cervo	[il̠ʲ ˈt͡ʃɛrvo]	'the deer'	Palatalized laminal; allophone of /l/ before /ʃ, t͡ʃ, d͡ʒ/.[7] See Italian phonology
Malayalam		പുലി	[pul̠i]	'tiger'	See Malayalam
Turkish[39][40]		lale	[l̠ʲäːˈl̠ʲɛ]	'tulip'	Palatalized; contrasts with a velarized dental lateral [ɫ̪].[39][40] See Turkish phonology
Zapotec	Tilquiapan[41]	lan	[l̠an]	'soot'

Variable

Language		Word	IPA	Meaning	Notes
Faroese[42]		linur	[ˈliːnʊɹ]	'soft'	Varies between dental and alveolar in initial position, whereas the postvocalic /l/ may be postalveolar, especially after back vowels.[42] See Faroese phonology
French[43]		il	[il]	'he'	Varies between laminal denti-alveolar and apical alveolar, with the latter being predominant.[43] See French phonology
German	Standard[44]	Liebe	[ˈliːbə]	'love'	Varies between denti-alveolar, laminal alveolar and apical alveolar.[44]
Norwegian	Urban East[45]	liv	[liːʋ]	'life'	In process of changing from laminal denti-alveolar to apical alveolar, but the laminal denti-alveolar is still possible in some environments, and is obligatory after /n, t, d/.[45] See Norwegian phonology
Portuguese	Most Brazilian dialects[46][47]	lero-lero	[ˈlɛɾʊ ˈlɛɾʊ]	'runaround'[48]	Dental to sometimes alveolar, always co-articulated in other dialects.[49] See Portuguese phonology

Velarized alveolar lateral approximant

Velarized L
lˠ
lˤ
ɫ
IPA Number	209
Encoding
Entity (decimal)	l​ˠ
Unicode (hex)	U+006C U+02E0
X-SAMPA	5 or l_G or l_?\
Audio sample
source · help

The velarized alveolar lateral approximant (a.k.a. dark l) is a type of consonantal sound used in some languages. It is an alveolar, denti-alveolar, or dental lateral approximant, with a secondary articulation of velarization or pharyngealization. The regular symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represent this sound are ⟨lˠ⟩ (for a velarized lateral) and ⟨lˤ⟩ (for a pharyngealized lateral), though the dedicated letter ⟨ɫ⟩, which covers both velarization and pharyngealization, is perhaps more common. The last symbol should never be confused with ⟨ɬ⟩, which represents the voiceless alveolar lateral fricative. However, some scholars use that symbol to represent the velarized alveolar lateral approximant anyway[50] – such usage is considered non-standard.

If the sound is dental or denti-alveolar, one could use a dental diacritic to indicate so: ⟨l̪ˠ⟩, ⟨l̪ˤ⟩, ⟨ɫ̪⟩.

Velarization and pharyngealization are generally associated with more dental articulations of coronal consonants, so dark l tends to be dental or denti-alveolar. Clear (non-velarized) l tends to be retracted to an alveolar position.[51]

The term dark l is often synonymous with hard l, especially in Slavic languages.

Features

Features of the dark l:

• Its manner of articulation is approximant, which means it is produced by narrowing the vocal tract at the place of articulation, but not enough to produce a turbulent airstream.
• There are four specific variants of [ɫ]:
  • Dental, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue at the upper teeth.
  • Denti-alveolar, which means it is articulated with the blade of the tongue at the alveolar ridge, and the tip of the tongue behind upper teeth.
  • Alveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or, more rarely,[51] the blade of the tongue at the alveolar ridge, termed respectively apical and laminal.
  • Postalveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue behind the alveolar ridge, termed respectively apical and laminal.
• It has a secondary articulation of velarization or pharyngealization, meaning that the back or root of the tongue approaches the soft palate (velum), or the back of the throat, respectively.

• Its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation.

• It is an oral consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only.

• It is a lateral consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream over the sides of the tongue, rather than down the middle.

• The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, as in most sounds.

Occurrence

Dental or denti-alveolar

Language		Word	IPA	Meaning	Notes
Bashkir		ҡала/qala	[qɑˈɫɑ]	'city'	Velarized dental lateral; occurs in back vowel contexts.
Belarusian[52]		Беларусь/belarus'	[bʲɛɫ̪äˈruɕ]	'Belarus'	Laminal denti-alveolar; contrasts with palatalized form. See Belarusian phonology
Catalan[21][53]		altres	[ˈaɫ̪t̪ɾəs̺]	'others'	Laminal denti-alveolar. Allophone of /l/ before /t, d/.[53] See Catalan phonology
Classical Armenian[21][53]		ղեկ/ġek	[ɫɛk]	'rudder'
Icelandic[54]		sigldi	[s̺ɪɫ̪t̪ɪ]	'sailed'	Laminal denti-alveolar; rare. See Icelandic phonology
Kashubian	Older southeastern speakers[29]				Laminal denti-alveolar; realized as [w] by other speakers.[29]
Lithuanian[55]		labas	[ˈɫ̪äːbɐs̪]	'hi'	Laminal denti-alveolar; contrasts with palatalized form. See Lithuanian phonology
Macedonian[56]		лук luk	[ɫ̪uk]	'garlic'	Laminal denti-alveolar. Present only before back vowels (/u, o, a/) and syllable-finally. See Macedonian phonology
Norwegian	Urban East[55][11]	tale	[ˈt̻ʰɑːɫ̪ə]	'speech'	Laminal denti-alveolar. Allophone of /l/ after /ɔ, oː, ɑ, ɑː/, and sometimes also after /u, uː/.[11] However, according to Endresen (1990), this allophone is not velarized.[57] See Norwegian phonology
Polish	Eastern dialects[31]	łapa	[ˈɫ̪äpä]	'paw'	Laminal denti-alveolar. Corresponds to /w/ in standard Polish. See Polish phonology
Russian[58]		малый/malyy	[ˈmɑ̟ɫ̪ɨ̞j]	'small'	Pharyngealized laminal denti-alveolar. See Russian phonology
Scottish Gaelic[59]		Mallaig	[ˈmäʊɫ̪ækʲ]	'Mallaig'	Contrasts with /l/ and /ʎ/. See Scottish Gaelic phonology
Turkish[39][40]		lala	[ɫ̪äˈɫ̪ä]	'servant'	Laminal denti-alveolar; contrasts with a palatalized postalveolar lateral [l̠].[39][40] See Turkish phonology

Alveolar

Language		Word	IPA	Meaning	Notes
Afrikaans	Standard[60][61]	tafel	[ˈtɑːfəɫ]	'table'	Velarized in all positions, especially non-prevocalically.[60][61] See Afrikaans phonology
Albanian	Standard	llullë	[ˈɫuɫə]	'smoking pipe'
Arabic	Standard[62]	الله‎ ʼAllah	[ʔɑɫˈɫɑːh]	'God'	Also transcribed as ⟨lˤ⟩. Many accents and dialects lack the sound and instead pronounce [l]. See Arabic phonology
Catalan[21]	Eastern dialects	cel·la	[ˈsɛɫːə]	'cell'	Apical. Can be always dark in many dialects. See Catalan phonology
	Western dialects	alt	[aɫ(t)]	'tall'
Dutch	Standard[63]	mallen	[ˈmɑɫ̻ə]	'molds'	Laminal; pharyngealized in northern accents, velarized or post-palatalised in southern accents. It is an allophone of /l/ before consonants and pauses, and also prevocalically when after the open back vowels /ɔ, ɑ/. Many northern speakers realize the final /l/ as a strongly pharyngealised vocoid [ɤˤ], whereas some Standard Belgian speakers use the clear /l/ in all positions.[63] See Dutch phonology
	Some Netherlandic accents[23]	laten	[ˈɫ̻aːt̻ə]	'to let'	Pharyngealized laminal; realization of /l/ in all positions.[23] See Dutch phonology
English[64]	Australian	feel	[fiːɫ]	'feel'	Most often apical; can be always dark in North America, Australia and New Zealand. See Australian English phonology and English phonology
	Canadian
	Dublin
	General American
	New Zealand
	Received Pronunciation
	South African
	Scottish	loch	[ɫɔx]	'loch'	Can be always dark except in some borrowings from Scottish Gaelic
Greek	Northern dialects[65]	μπάλα bálla	[ˈbaɫa]	'ball'	Allophone of /l/ before /a o u/. See Modern Greek phonology
Kurdish (Sorani)		gâlta	[gɑːɫˈtʲaː]	'joke'	See Kurdish phonology
Romanian	Bessarabian dialect[66]	cal	[kaɫ]	'horse'	Corresponds to non-velarized l in standard Romanian. See Romanian phonology
Serbo-Croatian[67]		лак / lak	[ɫâ̠k]	'easy'	Apical; may be syllabic; contrasts with /ʎ/. See Serbo-Croatian phonology
Uzbek[15]					Apical; between a non-front rounded vowel and a consonant or juncture phoneme. Non-velarized denti-alveolar elsewhere.[15]

Variable

Language		Word	IPA	Meaning	Notes
Portuguese	European[68]	mil	[miɫ̪]	'thousand'	When [lˠ ~ lʶ ~ lˤ ~ lˀ],[69] most often dental. Coda is now vocalized to [u̯ ~ ʊ̯] in most of Brazil (as in rural parts of Alto Minho and Madeira).[70] Stigmatized realizations such as [ɾ ~ ɽ ~ ɻ], the /ʁ/ range, [j] and even [∅] (zero) are some other coda allophones typical of Brazil.[71] Can be always dental and always dark (especially before back/rounded and close/unrounded vowels) in most dialects. See Portuguese phonology
	Most dialects[72]	Lituânia	[ɫ̪it̪uˈɐ̃ɲ̟ɐ]	'Lithuania'
	Older and conservative Brazilian[73][74][75][76]	álcool	[ˈäɫ̪ko̞ɫ̪]	'alcohol, ethanol'

See also

• Index of phonetics articles
• Lateral consonant
• Velarization
• l-vocalization
• Ł

Notes

1. Adjaye, Sophia (2005). Ghanaian English Pronunciation. Edwin Mellen Press. p. 198. ISBN 978-0-7734-6208-3. realization of /l/ is similar to that of RP: a 'clear' or non-velarized /l/ = [l] pre-vocalically and intervocalically; and a 'dark' or velarized /l/ = [ɫ] pre-consonantally and pre-pausally
2. Celce-Murcia, Marianne; et al. (2010). Teaching Pronunciation. Cambridge U. Press. p. 84. ISBN 978-0-521-72975-8. the light /l/ used in all environments in [standard] German (e.g., Licht “light,” viel “much, many”) or in French (e.g., lit "bed", île "island")
3. Schirmer's pocket music dictionary
4. Qafisheh (1977), pp. 2, 14.
5. Siptár & Törkenczy (2000), pp. 75–76.
6. Rogers & d'Arcangeli (2004), p. 117.
7. Canepari (1992), p. 89.
8. Bertinetto & Loporcaro (2005), p. 133.
9. Lunt (1952), p. 1.
10. Sadowsky et al. (2013), pp. 88–89.
11. Kristoffersen (2000), p. 25.
12. Martínez-Celdrán (2003), p. 255-259. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFMartínez-Celdrán2003 (help)
13. Engstrand (2004), p. 167.
14. Keane (2004), p. 111.
15. Sjoberg (1963), p. 13.
16. Thompson (1959), pp. 458–461.
17. Thelwall (1990), p. 38.
18. Dum-Tragut (2009), p. 20.
19. Wheeler (2005), pp. 10–11.
20. "Voiced Alveolar Lateral - Central". Els Sons del Català.
    "Voiced Alveolar Lateral - Nord Occidental". Els Sons del Català.
21. Recasens & Espinosa (2005), pp. 1, 20.
22. Collins & Mees (2003), pp. 197, 222.
23. Collins & Mees (2003), p. 197.
24. Wells (1982), p. 515.
25. Jones, Mark. "Sounds & Words Week 4 Michaelmas 2010 Lecture Notes" (PDF). Retrieved 7 March 2015.
26. Bertinetto & Loporcaro (2005), p. 132.
27. Canepari (1992), pp. 88–89.
28. Labrune (2012), p. 92.
29. Jerzy Treder. "Fonetyka i fonologia". Archived from the original on 2016-03-04.
30. Kara (2003), p. 11.
31. Rocławski (1976), p. 130.
32. Chițoran (2001), p. 10.
33. "The guide to reading Scottish Gaelic" (PDF).
34. Hanulíková & Hamann (2010), p. 374.
35. Pretnar & Tokarz (1980), p. 21.
36. Martínez-Celdrán, Fernández-Planas & Carrera-Sabaté (2003), p. 255.
37. Danyenko & Vakulenko (1995), p. 10.
38. Ikekeonwu (1999), p. 108.
39. Zimmer & Orgun (1999), pp. 154–155.
40. Göksel & Kerslake (2005), p. 8.
41. Merrill (2008), p. 108.
42. Árnason (2011), p. 115.
43. Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996), p. 192.
44. Mangold (2005), p. 49.
45. Kristoffersen (2000), pp. 24–25.
46. Depalatalization and consequential iotization in the speech of Fortaleza Archived 2011-11-01 at the Wayback Machine. Page 2. (in Portuguese)
47. Barbosa & Albano (2004), p. 229.
48. Runaround generator
49. Cruz-Ferreira (1995), p. 92.
50. For example Beal (2004).
51. Recasens & Espinosa (2005), p. 4.
52. Padluzhny (1989), pp. 50–51.
53. Rafel (1999), p. 14. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFRafel1999 (help)
54. Scholten (2000), p. 22.
55. Mathiassen (1996), p. 23.
56. Lunt (1952), pp. 11–12.
57. Endresen (1990:177), cited in Kristoffersen (2000:25)
58. Jones & Ward (1969), p. 168.
59. Ó Dochartaigh (1997).
60. Donaldson (1993), p. 17.
61. Lass (1987), p. 117.
62. Watson (2002), p. 16.
63. Collins & Mees (2003), pp. 58, 197, 222.
64. Roca & Johnson (1999), p. 73.
65. Northern Greek Dialects Portal for the Greek Language
66. Pop (1938), p. 30.
67. Gick et al. (2006), p. ?.
68. Cruz-Ferreira (1995), p. 93.
69. "Um caso de português tonal no Brasil?" – Centro de Comunicação e Expressão – Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina (in Portuguese). Page 52.
70. MELO, Gladstone Chaves de. "A língua do Brasil". 4. Ed. Melhorada e aum., Rio de Janeiro: Padrão, 1981
71. Português do sul do Brasil – variação fonológica Leda Bisol and Gisela Collischonn. Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul, 2009. Pages 153–156.
72. (in Italian) Accenti romanze: Portogallo e Brasile (portoghese) – The influence of foreign accents on Italian language acquisition Archived 2012-03-30 at the Wayback Machine
73. (in Portuguese) The process of Norm change for the good pronunciation of the Portuguese language in chant and dramatics in Brazil during 1938, 1858 and 2007 Archived 2016-02-06 at the Wayback Machine Page 36.
74. TEYSSIER, Paul. "História da Língua Portuguesa", Lisboa: Livraria Sá da Costa, pp. 81-83.
75. Bisol (2005:211)
76. "Um caso de português tonal no Brasil?" – Centro de Comunicação e Expressão – Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina (in Portuguese). Page 49.

External links

• Dark L

References

• Árnason, Kristján (2011), The Phonology of Icelandic and Faroese, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0199229314
• Barbosa, Plínio A.; Albano, Eleonora C. (2004), "Brazilian Portuguese", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 34 (2): 227–232, doi:10.1017/S0025100304001756
• Beal, Joan (2004), "English dialects in the North of England: phonology", in Schneider, Edgar W.; Burridge, Kate; Kortmann, Bernd; Mesthrie, Rajend; Upton, Clive (eds.), A handbook of varieties of English, 1: Phonology, Mouton de Gruyter, pp. 113–133, ISBN 3-11-017532-0
• Bertinetto, Marco; Loporcaro, Michele (2005). "The sound pattern of Standard Italian, as compared with the varieties spoken in Florence, Milan and Rome". Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 35 (2): 131–151. doi:10.1017/S0025100305002148.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
• Bisol, Leda (2005), "Introdução a estudos de fonologia do português brasileiro", Editora EDIPUCRS (4th ed.), Porto Alegre - Rio Grande do Sul, ISBN 85-7430-529-4
• Canepari, Luciano (1992), Il MªPi – Manuale di pronuncia italiana [Handbook of Italian Pronunciation] (in Italian), Bologna: Zanichelli, ISBN 88-08-24624-8
• Chițoran, Ioana (2001), The Phonology of Romanian: A Constraint-based Approach, Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter, ISBN 3-11-016766-2
• Collins, Beverley; Mees, Inger M. (2003) [First published 1981], The Phonetics of English and Dutch (5th ed.), Leiden: Brill Publishers, ISBN 9004103406
• Cruz-Ferreira, Madalena (1995), "European Portuguese", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 25 (2): 90–94, doi:10.1017/S0025100300005223
• Danyenko, Andrii; Vakulenko, Serhii (1995), Ukrainian, Lincom Europa, ISBN 9783929075083
• Donaldson, Bruce C. (1993), "1. Pronunciation", A Grammar of Afrikaans, Mouton de Gruyter, pp. 1–35, ISBN 9783110134261
• Dum-Tragut, Jasmine (2009), Armenian: Modern Eastern Armenian, Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company
• Endresen, Rolf Theil (1990), "Svar på anmeldelser av Fonetikk. Ei elementær innføring.", Norsk Tidsskrift for Sprogvidenskap, Oslo: Novus forlag: 169–192
• Engstrand, Olle (2004), Fonetikens grunder (in Swedish), Lund: Studenlitteratur, ISBN 91-44-04238-8
• Gick, Bryan; Campbell, Fiona; Oh, Sunyoung; Tamburri-Watt, Linda (2006), "Toward universals in the gestural organization of syllables: A cross-linguistic study of liquids", Journal of Phonetics, Vancouver: Department of Linguistics, University of British Columbia, 34 (1): 49–72, doi:10.1016/j.wocn.2005.03.005
• Göksel, Asli; Kerslake, Celia (2005), Turkish: a comprehensive grammar, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415114943
• Hanulíková, Adriana; Hamann, Silke (2010), "Slovak" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 40 (3): 373–378, doi:10.1017/S0025100310000162
• Ikekeonwu, Clara I. (1999), "Igbo", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association, Cambridge University Press, pp. 108–110, ISBN 9780521637510
• Jones, Daniel; Ward, Dennis (1969), The Phonetics of Russian, Cambridge University Press
• Kara, Dávid Somfai (2003), Kyrgyz, Lincom Europa, ISBN 3895868434
• Keane, Elinor (2004), "Tamil", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 34 (1): 111–116, doi:10.1017/S0025100304001549
• Kristoffersen, Gjert (2000), The Phonology of Norwegian, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-823765-5
• Labrune, Laurence (2012), The Phonology of Japanese, Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-954583-4
• Ladefoged, Peter; Maddieson, Ian (1996). The Sounds of the World's Languages. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-19815-4.
• Ladefoged, Peter (2005), Vowels and Consonants (Second ed.), Blackwell
• Lass, Roger (1987), "Intradiphthongal Dependencies", in Anderson, John; Durand, Jacques (eds.), Explorations in Dependency Phonology, Dordrecht: Foris Publications Holland, pp. 109–131, ISBN 9067652970
• Lunt, Horace G. (1952), Grammar of the Macedonian Literary Language, Skopje
• Mangold, Max (2005) [First published 1962], Das Aussprachewörterbuch (6th ed.), Mannheim: Dudenverlag, ISBN 978-3-411-04066-7
• Martínez-Celdrán, Eugenio; Fernández-Planas, Ana Ma.; Carrera-Sabaté, Josefina (2003), "Castilian Spanish", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 33 (2): 255–259, doi:10.1017/S0025100303001373
• Mathiassen, Terje (1996), A Short Grammar of Lithuanian, Slavica Publishers, Inc., ISBN 0-89357-267-5
• Merrill, Elizabeth (2008), "Tilquiapan Zapotec" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 38 (1): 107–114, doi:10.1017/S0025100308003344
• Ó Dochartaigh, C. (1997), Survey of the Gaelic Dialects of Scotland I-V, Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies, ISBN 1-85500-165-9
• Olson, Kenneth; Mielke, Jeff; Sanicas-Daguman, Josephine; Pebley, Carol Jean; Paterson, Hugh J., III (2010), "The phonetic status of the (inter)dental approximant" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 40 (2): 199–215, doi:10.1017/S0025100309990296
• Padluzhny, Ped (1989), Fanetyka belaruskai litaraturnai movy, ISBN 5-343-00292-7
• Pop, Sever (1938), Micul Atlas Linguistic Român, Muzeul Limbii Române Cluj
• Pretnar, Tone; Tokarz, Emil (1980), Slovenščina za Poljake: Kurs podstawowy języka słoweńskiego, Katowice: Uniwersytet Śląski
• Qafisheh, Hamdi A. (1977), A short reference grammar of Gulf Arabic, Tucson, Arizona: University of Arizona Press, ISBN 0-8165-0570-5
• Recasens, Daniel; Espinosa, Aina (2005), "Articulatory, positional and coarticulatory characteristics for clear /l/ and dark /l/: evidence from two Catalan dialects", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 35 (1): 1–25, doi:10.1017/S0025100305001878
• Roca, Iggy; Johnson, Wyn (1999), A Course in Phonology, Essex: Blackwell Publishing, ISBN 0-631-21346-5
• Rocławski, Bronisław (1976), Zarys fonologii, fonetyki, fonotaktyki i fonostatystyki współczesnego języka polskiego, Gdańsk: Wydawnictwo Uczelniane Uniwersytetu Gdańskiego
• Rogers, Derek; d'Arcangeli, Luciana (2004), "Italian", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 34 (1): 117–121, doi:10.1017/S0025100304001628
• Sadowsky, Scott; Painequeo, Héctor; Salamanca, Gastón; Avelino, Heriberto (2013), "Mapudungun", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 43 (1): 87–96, doi:10.1017/S0025100312000369
• Scholten, Daniel (2000), Einführung in die isländische Grammatik, Munich: Philyra Verlag, ISBN 3-935267-00-2, OCLC 76178278
• Siptár, Péter; Törkenczy, Miklós (2000), The Phonology of Hungarian, New York: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-823841-6
• Sjoberg, Andrée F. (1963), Uzbek Structural Grammar, Uralic and Altaic Series, 18, Bloomington: Indiana University
• Thelwall, Robin (1990), "Arabic", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 20 (2): 37–41, doi:10.1017/S0025100300004266
• Thompson, Laurence (1959), "Saigon phonemics", Language, 35 (3): 454–476, doi:10.2307/411232, JSTOR 411232
• Watson, Janet (2002), The Phonology and Morphology of Arabic, Oxford University Press
• Wells, John C. (1982), Accents of English, 3: Beyond the British Isles, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
• Wheeler, Max W. (2005), The Phonology Of Catalan, Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-925814-7
• Zimmer, Karl; Orgun, Orhan (1999), "Turkish" (PDF), Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 154–158, ISBN 0-521-65236-7

External links

• List of languages with [l] on PHOIBLE
• List of languages with [ɫ] on PHOIBLE