List of military occupations

This article presents a list of military occupations. Only military occupations since the customary laws of belligerent military occupation were first clarified and supplemented by the Hague Convention of 1907[1] are included In this article.

This article is about territorial occupations. For military ranks, see List of comparative military ranks.

Military occupation is a type of effective control of a certain power over a territory which is not under the formal sovereignty of that entity, without the volition of the actual sovereign, and provisional in nature.[2][3][4] Military occupation is distinguished from annexation[lower-alpha 1] by its intended temporary nature (i.e. no claim for permanent sovereignty), by its military nature, and by citizenship rights of the controlling power not being conferred upon the subjugated population.[5][6][7][8]

Contemporary occupations

Current military occupations and their occupying powers

	Territory	Since	Occupied state/territory	Occupying state	Declared state/territory	Status
	East Jerusalem[9][10][11][12]	1967	Palestinian territories;  Palestine (since 1988 declaration)[lower-alpha 2]	Israel	part of Jerusalem District (effectively annexed in 1980)	Occupation by a foreign power with illegal annexation[17][lower-alpha 3]
	West Bank[18]				N/A	Occupation by a foreign power[19][lower-alpha 4]
	Gaza Strip[lower-alpha 5]					Occupation by a foreign power[19][lower-alpha 6]
	Golan Heights[23][24][25]		Syria		part of Northern District (effectively annexed in 1981)	Occupation by a foreign power with illegal annexation[17][lower-alpha 7] Recognized by the United States as part of Israel.[26]
	Northern Cyprus[27]	1974	Cyprus	Turkey	Northern Cyprus	Occupation by an armed group under the influence of a foreign power[28][lower-alpha 8]
	Majority of Western Sahara[29]	1975	Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (declared in 1976)	Morocco	Southern Provinces since the 1991 ceasefire	Occupation by a foreign power with illegal annexation[17][lower-alpha 9]
	Transnistria	1992	Moldova	Russia	Transnistria	Occupation by an armed group under the influence of a foreign power[lower-alpha 10]
	Nagorno-Karabakh (and surrounding territories)	1994	Azerbaijan	Armenia	Artsakh	Occupation by an armed group under the influence of a foreign power[lower-alpha 11]
	Abkhazia	2008	Georgia	Russia	Abkhazia	Occupation by an armed group under the influence of a foreign power[lower-alpha 12]
	South Ossetia				South Ossetia
	Parts of Donetsk Oblast	2014	Ukraine		Donetsk People's Republic	Occupation by an armed group under the influence of a foreign power[28][lower-alpha 13]
	Parts of Luhansk Oblast				Lugansk People's Republic
	Crimea[30][31]				Republic of Crimea  Sevastopol Federal City (both annexed by Russia)	Occupation by a foreign power with illegal annexation[lower-alpha 14]
	Eastern Syria[32]	2015	Syria	United States	Rojava Al-Tanf (U.S. military base)	Occupation by an armed group under the influence of a foreign power[32][lower-alpha 15]
	Northern parts of Aleppo Governorate[33][34]	2016	Syria	Turkey	Syrian Interim Government	Occupation by an armed group under the influence of a foreign power[lower-alpha 16]

Historical occupations

Events before the Hague Convention of 1907 are out of scope.

1907–1914

Occupied territory	Years	Occupied state	Occupying state	Event	Part of war(s)	Subsequently annexed?
Korea	1905–1910	Korea	Japan	Japan–Korea treaties of 1905, 1907, and 1910	Russo-Japanese War	Yes
Libya	1911–1912	Ottoman Empire	Italy	Invasion of Libya	Italo-Turkish War	Yes
Albania	1912–1913[35]	Albania	Serbia	Occupation of Albania	Balkan Wars	No
Nicaragua	1912–1933	Nicaragua	United States	Occupation of Nicaragua	Banana Wars	No
Veracruz	1914	Mexico	United States	Occupation of Veracruz	Mexican Revolution	No

World War I and immediate aftermath

Occupied territory	Years	Occupied state	Occupying state	Event	Part of war(s)	Subsequently annexed?
Albania	1914–1918[36]	Albania	Austria-Hungary	Occupation of Albania	World War I	No
Eastern Galicia	1914–1915	Austria-Hungary	Russia	Occupation of Eastern Galicia		No
Belgium	1914–1918	Belgium	Germany	Occupation of Belgium		No
Northeastern France	1914–1918	France		Invasion of Northeastern France		No
Luxembourg	1914–1918	Luxembourg		Occupation of Luxembourg		No
Congress Poland	1914–1918	Russia	Austria-Hungary  Germany	Invasion of Russian Poland		No
Parts of the Baltic governorates and Vilna Governorate-General	1914–1919		Germany	Invasion of Baltic Russia		No
German South West Africa	1914–1915	Germany	South Africa	South West Africa campaign		Yes
Serbia	1915–1918	Serbia	Austria-Hungary  Germany  Bulgaria	Invasion of Serbia		No
Albania	1915–1917[36]	Albania	Bulgaria	Occupation of Albania		No
Montenegro	1916–1918	Montenegro	Austria-Hungary	Invasion of Montenegro		No
Haiti	1915–1934	Haiti	United States	Occupation of Haiti	Banana Wars	No
Dominican Republic	1916–1924	Dominican Republic		Occupation of the Dominican Republic		No
Cuba	1917–1922	Cuba		Sugar Intervention		No
Northeastern Italy	1917–1918	Italy	Austria-Hungary	Invasion of Northeastern Italy	World War I	No
parts of Russian Far East, Caucasus, parts of Northern Russia	1918–1925[lower-alpha 17]	Russian SFSR  Soviet Union	Czechoslovakia  United Kingdom  Canada  India  Australia  Japan  Greece  Poland  United States  France  Romania  Serbia  Italy China	Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War	Russian Civil War	No
Constantinople	1918–1923	Ottoman Empire	France  Italy  United Kingdom	Occupation of Constantinople	Aftermath of World War I	No
Smyrna	1919–1922		Greece	Occupation of Smyrna		No
Rhineland	1918–1930	Germany	France  United Kingdom  Belgium  United States	Occupation of the Rhineland		No
Eastern Galicia	1918–1919	West Ukrainian People's Republic	Poland	Polish–Ukrainian War		Yes
Volhynia	1918–1919	Ukrainian People's Republic				Partial
Ukraine	1918–1920	Ukrainian People's Republic	Russian SFSR	Ukrainian–Soviet War		Yes

1920–1939

Occupied territory	Years	Occupied state	Occupying state	Event	Part of war(s)	Subsequently annexed?
Transcaucasia	1920	Azerbaijan	Russia	Invasion of Azerbaijan	Russian Civil War	Yes
	1921	Georgia		Invasion of Georgia		Yes
Ruhr	1923–1924	Germany	Belgium  France	Occupation of the Ruhr	Aftermath of World War I	No
Manchuria / Manchukuo	1931–1945	China	Japan	Invasion of Manchuria	Second Sino-Japanese War	No
Xinjiang	1934		Soviet Union	Invasion of Xinjiang	Kumul Rebellion	No
Ethiopia	1935–1941	Ethiopia	Italy	Invasion of Ethiopia	Second Italo-Ethiopian War	No

World War II: build up and immediate aftermath

Occupied territory	Years	Occupied state	Occupying state	Event	Part of war(s)	Subsequently annexed?
Parts of China	1937–1945	China	Japan	Second Sino-Japanese War	World War II	No
Shanghai	1937–1945					No
Austria	1938	Austria	Germany	Anschluss	Events preceding World War II in Europe	Yes
Sudetenland	1938	Czechoslovakia		Munich Agreement		Yes
Bohemia and Moravia	1939–1945			Occupation of Czechoslovakia		No
Memel Territory	1939–1945	Lithuania		Occupation of Memel		Yes
Albania	1939–1945	Albania	Italy	Invasion of Albania		No
Carpathian Ruthenia	1938	Czechoslovakia	Hungary	First Vienna Award		Yes
Carpatho-Ukraine	1939–1944	Ukraine	Hungary	Invasion of Carpatho-Ukraine		Yes
Poland	1939–1945	Poland	Germany	Invasion of Poland	World War II	Partial
Eastern Poland	1939–1941		Soviet Union	Annexation of Polish territories		Partial
Parts of Finland	1939–1940	Finland		Winter War		Partial
Belgium	1940–1945	Belgium	Germany	Invasion of Belgium	World War II	No
Denmark	1940–1945	Denmark		Invasion of Denmark		No
Faroe Islands	1940–1945		United Kingdom	Occupation of the Faroe Islands		No
Greenland	1940–1945		United States	Greenland in World War II		No
Hankoniemi	1940–1941	Finland	Soviet Union	Winter War		No
Iceland[lower-alpha 18]	1940–1945	Kingdom of Iceland	United Kingdom	Occupation of Iceland		No
			United States[lower-alpha 19]			No
Northern France	1940–1944	France	Germany	Invasion of Northern France		No
Southeastern France	1940–1943		Italy	Italian invasion of France		No
Vietnam	1940–1945		Japan	Invasion of French Indochina		No
Baltic states	1940–1941[lower-alpha 20][lower-alpha 21]	Estonia	Soviet Union	Soviet occupation of the Baltic states		Yes
		Latvia
		Lithuania
Luxembourg	1940–1945	Luxembourg	Germany	Occupation of Luxembourg		No
Netherlands	1940–1945	Netherlands		Invasion of the Netherlands		No
Norway	1940–1945	Norway		Invasion of Norway		No
Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina	1940	Romania	Soviet Union	Occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina		Yes
Channel Islands	1940–1945	United Kingdom	Germany	Occupation of the Channel Islands		No
Cambodia	1941–1945	France	Japan	Invasion of Cambodia		No
Greece	1941–1944	Greece	Bulgaria  Italy  Germany	Occupation of Greece		No
Iran	1941–1946	Iran	Soviet Union  United Kingdom	Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran		No
Byelorussia	1941–1944	Soviet Union	Germany	Occupation of Byelorussia		No
Ukraine				Occupation of Ukraine
Baltic states				Occupation of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania (de jure independent, de facto under Soviet rule)
Parts of European Russia				Eastern Front
Eastern Karelia			Finland	Continuation War		No
Guam	1941–1944	United States	Japan	Occupation of Guam		No
Transnistria	1941–1944	Soviet Union	Romania	Operation Barbarossa		No
Borneo	1941–1945	United Kingdom	Japan	Occupation of British Borneo		No
Hong Kong	1941–1945			Occupation of Hong Kong		No
Malaya	1941–1945			Occupation of Malaya		No
Yugoslavia	1941–1945	Yugoslavia	Bulgaria  Hungary  Italy  Germany  Croatia	Military operations in the territory of Yugoslavia		No
New Guinea	1942–1945	Australia	Japan	New Guinea campaign		No
Nauru	1942–1945	Australia  New Zealand  United Kingdom		Occupation of Nauru		No
Andaman Islands	1942–1945	British Raj		Occupation of the Andaman Islands		No
Dutch East Indies	1942–1945	Netherlands		Occupation of Dutch East Indies		No
Philippines	1942–1945	Philippines		Occupation of the Philippines		No
Portuguese Timor	1942–1945	Portugal		Battle of Timor		No
Burma (Myanmar)	1942–1945	United Kingdom		Occupation of Burma		No
Singapore	1942–1945			Occupation of Singapore		No
Kiska	1942–1943	United States		Occupation of Kiska		No
Attu	1942–1943			Occupation of Attu		No
Italian Libya	1943–1951	Libya	United Kingdom  France	Allied occupation of Libya		No
Italy	1943–1945	Italy	Germany	Occupation of Italy		No
Hungary	1944–1945	Hungary		Occupation of Hungary		No
Baltic states	1944–1991[lower-alpha 20][lower-alpha 21]	Estonia	Soviet Union	1944 Soviet re-occupation, Baltic states under Soviet rule		Yes
		Latvia
		Lithuania
Bulgaria	1944–1947	Bulgaria		Occupation of Bulgaria		No
Romania	1944–1958	Romania		Occupation of Romania		No
Poland	1944–1956[lower-alpha 22]	Poland		Soviet presence in Poland		No
Hungary	1944–1949[lower-alpha 23]	Hungary		Occupation of Hungary		No
Porkkalanniemi	1944–1956	Finland		Continuation War		No
Carpathian Ruthenia	1944–1945	Czechoslovakia		Annexation of Carpathian Ruthenia		Yes
Manchuria	1945–1946	Manchukuo		Soviet–Japanese War		No
Austria	1945–1955	Austria	United Kingdom  United States  Soviet Union  France	Allied-occupied Austria	Aftermath of World War II	No
East Germany, incl. East Berlin	1945–1949	Germany	Soviet Union	Allied-occupied Germany		No
West Germany	1945–1949		United Kingdom  United States  France
West Berlin	1945–1990
Saarland	1945–1957		France	Saar Protectorate		No
Northern Iran	1945–1946	Iran	Soviet Union	Iran crisis of 1946		No
Japan (mainland)	1945–1951	Japan	United States	Occupation of Japan		No
Iwo Jima and the Bonin Islands	1945–1968
Ryukyu Islands[lower-alpha 24]	1945–1972
Taiwan, Pescadores, and Itu Aba	1945–1952[39]	Japan[39]	China	History of Taiwan since 1945		Yes
Korea	1945–1948	Korea	United States  Soviet Union	Occupation of Korea		No
Parts of Vietnam	1945–1946	Vietnam	United Kingdom	War of Vietnam		No

1947–1959

Occupied territory	Years	Occupied state	Occupying state	Event	Part of war(s)	Subsequently annexed?
Junagadh	1947–1948	Junagadh	India	Annexation of Junagadh	N/A	Yes
West Bank[lower-alpha 2]	1948–1967[40]	Post-Mandate Palestine	Jordan	Jordanian annexation of the West Bank	1948 Arab–Israeli War	Yes
Gaza Strip[lower-alpha 2]	1948–1956 1957–1967[lower-alpha 25]		Egypt	Occupation of the Gaza Strip by Egypt		No
Hyderabad	1948	Hyderabad	India	Annexation of Hyderabad	N/A	Yes
Sikkim	1949[41]–1950	Sikkim	India	Intervention in Sikkim		No
Tibet	1949–1951	Tibet	China	Annexation of Tibet		Yes
Dadra and Nagar Haveli	1954–1974	Portugal	India	Annexation of Dadra and Nagar Haveli	Decolonization of Portuguese India	Yes
Suez Canal Zone	1956	Egypt	France  United Kingdom	Suez Crisis	Arab–Israeli conflict	No
Sinai	1956–1957		Israel			No
Gaza Strip		All-Palestine				No
Hungary	1956	Hungary	Soviet Union	Hungarian Uprising	Hungarian Revolution of 1956	No
Laos	1959–1975	Laos	North Vietnam	Invasion of Laos	Laotian Civil War	No

1960–1979

Occupied territory	Years	Occupied state	Occupying state	Event	Part of war(s)	Subsequently annexed?
Goa, Daman and Diu	1961–1974	Portugal	India	Annexation of Goa	Decolonization of Portuguese India	Yes
Dominican Republic	1965–1966	Dominican Republic	United States	Invasion of the Dominican Republic	Dominican Civil War	No
Sinai	1967–1982[lower-alpha 26]	Egypt	Israel	Six-Day War	Arab–Israeli conflict	No
Czechoslovakia	1968–1989[lower-alpha 27]	Czechoslovakia	Soviet Union  Bulgaria  Poland  East Germany  Hungary	Invasion of Czechoslovakia	Prague Spring	No
East Pakistan (became Bangladesh)	1971	Pakistan	India	Indo-Pakistani War of 1971	Bangladesh Liberation War	No
Parts of Angola	1975–1976	Angola	South Africa	South African invasion of Angola	South African Border War	No
Tiris al-Gharbiyya	1975–1979	Western Sahara	Mauritania	Battles of La Güera and Tichla (1975)	Western Sahara War	No
East Timor	1975–1999	East Timor	Indonesia	Invasion of East Timor	Indonesian occupation of East Timor	Yes
Aouzou Strip	1976–1987	Chad	Libya	Occupation of the Aouzou Strip	Chadian–Libyan conflict	No
Parts of Lebanon	1976–2005	Lebanon	Syria	Syrian occupation of Lebanon	Lebanese Civil War	No
Kagera Region	1978	Uganda	Tanzania	Ugandan invasion of Kagera	Uganda–Tanzania War	No
Southern Lebanon	1978–1984	Lebanon	Free Lebanon State	1978 South Lebanon conflict	Lebanese Civil War	No
	1984–2000		Israel	1982 Lebanon War	1982 Lebanon War	No
Parts of Vietnam	1979	Vietnam	China	Invasion of Vietnam	Sino-Vietnamese War	No
Cambodia	1979–1989	Cambodia	Vietnam	Invasion of Kampuchea	Cambodian–Vietnamese War	No
Afghanistan	1979–1989	Afghanistan	Soviet Union	Invasion of Afghanistan	Soviet–Afghan War	No

1980–1999

Occupied territory	Years	Occupied state	Occupying state	Event	Part of war(s)	Subsequently annexed?
Falkland Islands	1982	United Kingdom	Argentina	Occupation of the Falkland Islands	Falklands War	No
Grenada	1983	Grenada	United States	Invasion of Grenada	Grenadian Revolution	No
Northern Province	1987–1990	Sri Lanka	India	Indian intervention in the Sri Lankan Civil War	Sri Lankan Civil War	No
Maldives	1988	Maldives		1988 Maldives coup d'état		No
Panama	1989–1990	Panama	United States	Invasion of Panama	War on Drugs	No
Kuwait	1990–1991	Kuwait	Iraq Kuwait Governorate Saddamiyat al-Mitla' District	Invasion of Kuwait	Gulf War	Yes
Haiti	1994–1995	Haiti	United States  Poland  Argentina	Operation Uphold Democracy	1991 Haitian coup d'état	No
Lesotho	1998–1999	Lesotho	South Africa  Botswana	Operation Boleas	Lesotho general election riots	No
Parts of the Democratic Republic of the Congo	1998–2002[42]	Democratic Republic of the Congo	Uganda  Rwanda  Zimbabwe  Angola  Namibia  Chad  Sudan	Foreign support to the DR Congo	Second Congo War	No
Kargil District	1999	India	Pakistan	Kargil War	Indo-Pakistani Wars	No

2000–present

Occupied territory	Years	Occupied state	Occupying state	Event	Part of war(s)	Subsequently annexed?
Gash-Barka, Southern, Northern Red Sea and Southern Red Sea regions of Eritrea	2000–2018	Eritrea	Ethiopia	Regions were seized at the end of the Eritrean–Ethiopian War in 2000, and subsequently delimited[43] and demarcated[44] by the Permanent Court of Arbitration at the Hague to be Eritrean territory. Ethiopia returned all occupied territories in July 2018 following a peace summit between the two states.	Eritrean–Ethiopian War	No
Afghanistan	2001–present	Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan	United States  United Kingdom  Canada  Australia  New Zealand and other troops	United States invasion of Afghanistan	War in Afghanistan (2001–present)	No
Iraq	2003–2011	Iraq	United States  United Kingdom  Australia  Poland and other troops[45]	2003 invasion of Iraq Occupation of Iraq	Iraq War	No
Parts of Somalia	2006–2009[46]	Somalia	Ethiopia	Somalia War (2006–2009)	Somali Civil War	No
Gori and Poti	2008	Georgia	Russia	Occupation of Gori and Poti	Russo-Georgian War	No
Perevi	2008–2010			Occupation of Perevi		No
Socotra	2018	Yemen	United Arab Emirates	Takeover of Socotra	Yemeni Civil War	No

See also

• Military occupations by the Soviet Union
• Peacekeeping – military deployments for peace-keeping purposes
• List of military and civilian missions of the European Union
• Annexation
• Revanchism
• For a list of states that have seceded unilaterally see List of states with limited recognition
• For a list of cases where territory is disputed between countries, see List of territorial disputes

Bibliography

• Secretariat of the European Parliament DG-EXPO (2015), Occupation/Annexation of a Territory: Respect for International Humanitarian Law and Human Rights and Consistent EU Policy (PDF)

Footnotes and references

Footnotes

1. Annexation refers to de jure annexation or annexation as defined under international law.
2. The West Bank (including East Jerusalem) was occupied by Jordan[13] and the Gaza Strip was occupied by Egypt[14] from 1948 to 1967 and have been occupied by Israel since 1967.[15] The State of Palestine, which claims these territories, did not declare its independence until 1988. See Palestinian Declaration of Independence. The State of Palestine is, as of November 2015, recognised by 136 countries and is a non-member observer state at the United Nations.[16]
3. Seized during the Six-Day War from Jordan; effectively annexed in 1980 via the Jerusalem Law.
4. The West Bank was seized during the Six-Day War from Jordan, and is administered by the Israeli Civil Administration. The Oslo II Accord, officially signed on 28 September 1995, divided the West Bank into the Area C administered by Israel and the Area A and B administered by the Palestinian National Authority.
5. Still considered occupied despite the 2005 Israeli disengagement from Gaza.[20] The system of control imposed by Israel has been described as an "indirect occupation".[21] Some other legal scholars have disputed the idea that Israel still occupies Gaza.
6. The Gaza Strip was seized during the Six-Day War from Egypt. In 2005, Israel disengaged its military forces from the strip and no longer considers itself to be occupying the territory. Gaza's border crossings with Israel and maritime and air space are controlled by Israel. As of 2012, the United Nations "continue to refer to the Gaza Strip as part of the Occupied Palestinian Territory until such time as either the General Assembly or the Security Council take a different view."[22]
7. Seized during the Six-Day War; effectively annexed in 1981 via the Golan Heights Law. Lebanon also claims the Shebaa farms and sees the territory as being under Israeli occupation.
8. Seized during the Turkish invasion of Cyprus; administered as the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, a state with limited international recognition
9. Seized during the Western Sahara War; de facto annexed; administered as the Southern Provinces; claimed by the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic, a state with limited international recognition.
10. Seized during the Transnistria War; administered as the Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic, a state with limited international recognition.
11. Seized during the Nagorno-Karabakh War; administered as the Republic of Artsakh, a state with limited international recognition.
12. Seized during the Russo-Georgian War; administered as states with limited international recognition.
13. See 2014 pro-Russian unrest in Ukraine, Russian military intervention in Ukraine, War in Donbass and Minsk Protocol.
14. See Russian military intervention in Ukraine and Annexation of Crimea.
15. See American-led intervention in the Syrian Civil War.
16. See Turkish military intervention in Syria and Syrian Civil War.
17. Most of the Allies had withdrawn by 1920, Japan continued to occupy Northern Sakhalin until 1925.
18. On 17 June 1944, Iceland dissolved its union with Denmark and the Danish monarchy and declared itself a republic.
19. On 7 July 1941, the defence of Iceland was transferred from Britain to the United States.
20. On March 26, 1949, the US department of State issued a circular letter stating that the Baltic countries were still independent nations with their own diplomatic representatives and consuls.[37]
21. From the Welles Declaration of July 23, 1940, "that we would not recognise the occupation, the United States acted with a consistency and a tenacity of which we can all be proud. We housed the exiled Baltic diplomatic delegations. We accredited their diplomats. We flew their flags in the State Department's Hall of Flags. We never recognised in deed or word or symbol the illegal occupation of their lands."[38]
22. A status of forces agreement was signed in December 1956 to formally regulate the position of Soviet troops in Poland, which had been there since the end of the Second World War. After the end of the country's Soviet-backed Communist regime in 1989, the last Soviet contingent would leave the country in 1993.
23. A status of forces agreement was signed in 1947 to regulate the position of Soviet troops in Hungary, which was further confirmed by Hungary's later membership in Comecon in 1949. Soviet troops would remain stationed in Hungary until 1991.
24. The Tokara Islands were restored to Japan in 1952. The Amami Islands were restored in 1953.
25. The All-Palestine Government was de facto controlled by Egypt. Formal occupation occurred only from 1959 to 1967 after that government was dissolved.
26. Israel withdrew from Taba in 1989.
27. Government control ended with the Velvet Revolution in late 1989, and stationed Soviet troops departed peacefully over 1990–1991.

References

1. "Laws and Customs of War on Land (Hague IV); October 18, 1907". Archived from the original on 1999-02-25. Retrieved June 20, 2015 – via The Avalon Project at the Yale Law School.
2. A Roberts (1990). "Prolonged Military Occupation: The Israeli-Occupied Territories Since 1967". Am. J. Int'l L. 84: 47. doi:10.2307/2203016.
3. Benvenisti, Eyal (2004). The International Law of Occupation. Princeton University Press. pp. xvi. ISBN 0-691-12130-3.
4. Eran Halperin; Daniel Bar-Tal; Keren Sharvit; Nimrod Rosler; Amiram Raviv (2005). "Socio-psychological implications for an occupying society: The case of Israel". Journal of Peace Research. 47: 47, 59. doi:10.1177/0022343309350013.
5. David M. Edelstein (2004). "Occupational Hazards: Why Military Occupations Succeed or Fail". International Security. 29: 49–91. doi:10.1162/0162288041762913.
6. Stirk, Peter (2009). The Politics of Military Occupation. Edinburgh University Press. p. 44. ISBN 978-0-7486-3671-6. The significance of the temporary nature of military occupation is that it brings about no change of allegiance. Military government remains an alien government whether of short or long duration, though prolonged occupation may encourage the occupying power to change military occupation into something else, namely annexation.
7. Benvenisti, Eyal (2004). The International Law of Occupation. Princeton University Press. p. 43. ISBN 0-691-12130-3. [...] under Article 47 of the Fourth Geneva Convention of 1949 (GCIV), the law of occupation continues to apply even if the annexation was legally effective.
8. Fourth Geneva Convention Article 47: "Protected persons who are in occupied territory shall not be deprived, in any case or in any manner whatsoever, of the benefits of the present Convention by any change introduced, as the result of the occupation of a territory, into the institutions or government of the said territory, nor by any agreement concluded between the authorities of the occupied territories and the Occupying Power, nor by any annexation by the latter of the whole or part of the occupied territory."
9. "Israel plans 1,300 East Jerusalem Jewish settler homes". BBC News. 9 November 2010. Retrieved 2019-10-11.
10. "Chapter 12: The status of Jerusalem" (PDF). The Question of Palestine & the United Nations (Brochure). United Nations Department of Public Information. March 2003. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2003-09-02.
11. "Israeli authorities back 600 new East Jerusalem homes". BBC News. 26 February 2010. Retrieved 2019-10-11.
12. "United Nations Security Council Resolution 298 (1971) of 25 September 1971". Archived from the original on 2013-08-19.
13. See also Jordanian annexation of the West Bank
14. See also Occupation of the Gaza Strip by Egypt
15. "Palestinian territories - Timeline". BBC News. 8 July 2015. Retrieved November 30, 2015.
16. "Amid violence, 'glaring lack of hope,' UN deputy chief urges action to break Israeli-Palestinian impasse". UN News. 23 November 2015. Archived from the original on 26 November 2015. Retrieved November 30, 2015.
17. Secretariat of the European Parliament DG-EXPO 2015, p. 14: "An occupied territory may also be illegally annexed [...] Annexation means that the territory is incorporated into another state and is being regarded by that state as a part of its territory. Among contemporary examples, one finds the Golan Heights, East Jerusalem, Western Sahara and Crimea. Under current international law, annexation can only be carried out after a peace treaty, and preferably after a referendum. Annexations which do not correspond to this requirement – like those just mentioned – are illegal."
18. "Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory" (PDF) (Advisory opinion). Reports of Judgments, Advisory Opinions and Orders. International Court of Justice. 2004. ISBN 92-1-070993-4. Retrieved 2019-10-11.
19. Secretariat of the European Parliament DG-EXPO 2015, p. 14: "Territory over which a foreign power has taken control is occupied. [...] An occupation is supposed to be a temporary status, but current reality shows that territory may be occupied for decades; the West Bank and Gaza have been occupied for 48 years."
20. • Sanger, Andrew (2011). M.N. Schmitt; Louise Arimatsu; Tim McCormack (eds.). "The Contemporary Law of Blockade and the Gaza Freedom Flotilla". Yearbook of International Humanitarian Law 2010. Springer Science & Business Media. 13: 429. doi:10.1007/978-90-6704-811-8_14. ISBN 978-90-6704-811-8. Israel claims it no longer occupies the Gaza Strip, maintaining that it is neither a Stale nor a territory occupied or controlled by Israel, but rather it has 'sui generis' status. Pursuant to the Disengagement Plan, Israel dismantled all military institutions and settlements in Gaza and there is no longer a permanent Israeli military or civilian presence in the territory. However the Plan also provided that Israel will guard and monitor the external land perimeter of the Gaza Strip, will continue to maintain exclusive authority in Gaza air space, and will continue to exercise security activity in the sea off the coast of the Gaza Strip as well as maintaining an Israeli military presence on the Egyptian-Gaza border. and reserving the right to reenter Gaza at will.
      Israel continues to control six of Gaza's seven land crossings, its maritime borders and airspace and the movement of goods and persons in and out of the territory. Egypt controls one of Gaza's land crossings. Troops from the Israeli Defence Force regularly enter pans of the territory and/or deploy missile attacks, drones and sonic bombs into Gaza. Israel has declared a no-go buffer zone that stretches deep into Gaza: if Gazans enter this zone they are shot on sight. Gaza is also dependent on Israel for water, electricity, telecommunications and other utilities, currency, issuing IDs, and permits to enter and leave the territory. Israel also has sole control of the Palestinian Population Registry through which the Israeli Army regulates who is classified as a Palestinian and who is a Gazan or West Banker. Since 2000 aside from a limited number of exceptions Israel has refused to add people to the Palestinian Population Registry.
      It is this direct external control over Gaza and indirect control over life within Gaza that has led the United Nations, the UN General Assembly, the UN Fact Finding Mission to Gaza, International human rights organisations, US Government websites, the UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office and a significant number of legal commentators, to reject the argument that Gaza is no longer occupied.
    • Scobbie, Iain (2012). Elizabeth Wilmshurst (ed.). International Law and the Classification of Conflicts. Oxford University Press. p. 295. ISBN 978-0-19-965775-9. Even after the accession to power of Hamas, Israel's claim that it no longer occupies Gaza has not been accepted by UN bodies, most States, nor the majority of academic commentators because of its exclusive control of its border with Gaza and crossing points including the effective control it exerted over the Rafah crossing until at least May 2011, its control of Gaza's maritime zones and airspace which constitute what Aronson terms the 'security envelope' around Gaza, as well as its ability to intervene forcibly at will in Gaza.
    • Gawerc, Michelle (2012). Prefiguring Peace: Israeli–Palestinian Peacebuilding Partnerships. Lexington Books. p. 44. ISBN 978-0-7391-6610-9. While Israel withdrew from the immediate territory, Israel still controlled all access to and from Gaza through the border crossings, as well as through the coastline and the airspace. In addition, Gaza was dependent upon Israel for water, electricity, sewage, communication networks, and for its trade (Gisha 2007. Dowty 2008). ln other words, while Israel maintained that its occupation of Gaza ended with its unilateral disengagement, Palestinians—as well as many human right organizations and international bodies—argued that Gaza was by all intents and purposes still occupied.
21. Slater, Jerome (October 2012). "Just War Moral Philosophy and the 2008–09 Israeli Campaign in Gaza" (PDF). International Security. 37 (2): 44–80. Retrieved 2019-10-11.
22. "Daily Press Briefing by the Office of the Spokesperson for the Secretary-General". United Nations. 19 January 2012. Retrieved 2019-10-11.
23. • "The international community maintains that the Israeli decision to impose its laws, jurisdiction and administration in the occupied Syrian Golan is null and void and without international legal effect." International Labour Office (2009). The Situation of Workers of the Occupied Arab Territories. Geneva: International Labour Office. p. 23. ISBN 978-92-2-120630-9.
    • In 2008, a plenary session of the United Nations General Assembly voted by 161–1 in favour of a motion on the "occupied Syrian Golan" that reaffirmed support for UN Resolution 497. ("General Assembly adopts broad range of texts, 26 in all, on recommendation of its fourth Committee, including on decolonization, information, Palestine refugees" (Press release). United Nations. 5 December 2008.)
    • "[...] the Golan Heights, a 450-square mile portion of southwestern Syria that Israel occupied during the 1967 Arab–Israeli war." Also, "[...] the Syrian Golan Heights territory, which Israel has occupied since 1967". (Prados, Alfred B. (19 January 2006). "CRS Issue Brief for Congress: Syria: U.S. Relations and Bilateral Issues" (PDF). Congressional Research Service. pp. 3, 4. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-03-23.)
24. Occupied territory:
    • "[...] Israeli-occupied Golan Heights [...]" (Central Intelligence Agency (2009). CIA World Factbook 2010. Skyhorse Publishing Inc. p. 339. ISBN 1-60239-727-9. OCCUPIED GOLAN.)
    • "[...] the United States considers the Golan Heights to be occupied territory subject to negotiation and Israeli withdrawal [...]" (Mark, Clyde R. (5 April 2002). "CRS Issue Brief for Congress: Israeli-United States Relations" (PDF). Congressional Research Service. p. 8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2003-04-24.)
    • "[...] Occupied Golan Heights." ("Israel and the Occupied Palestinian Territories travel advice". UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office. 5 August 2010. Archived from the original on 11 August 2010.)
    • "In the ICRC's view, the Golan is an occupied territory [...]" ("ICRC activities in the occupied Golan during 2007". International Committee of the Red Cross. 24 April 2008. Archived from the original on 2011-11-13.)
25. Korman, Sharon (1996). The Right of Conquest: The Acquisition of Territory by Force in International Law and Practice. Oxford University Press. p. 265. ISBN 0-19-828007-6. The continued occupation of the Syrian Golan Heights is recognized by many states as valid and consistent with the provisions of the United Nations Charter, on a self-defence basis. Israel, on this view, would be entitled to exact as a condition of withdrawal from the territory the imposition of security measures of an indefinite character—such as perpetual demilitarization, or the emplacement of a United Nations force—which would ensure, or tend to ensure, that the territory would not be used against it for aggression on future occasions. But the notion that Israel is entitled to claim any status other than that of belligerent occupant in the territory which it occupies, or to act beyond the strict bounds laid down in the Fourth Geneva Convention, has been universally rejected by the international community—no less by the United States than by any other state.
26. "Trump signs decree recognizing Israeli sovereignty over Golan Heights". Reuters. 25 March 2019. Retrieved 2019-10-11.
27. UN Security Council resolutions 353, 357, 358, 359, 360, and 365.
28. Secretariat of the European Parliament DG-EXPO 2015, p. 15: "Territory may further be controlled by an armed group. This could be a rebel group which wants to take over control of the government of the state in question or it could be a group that wants to secede from the state and form a new state or have the territory transferred to another state. [...] There is no term in international law for such territory. [...] In some cases, the armed group in power in such a territory may be under the control of or under the influence of a foreign power. As has been held by the European Court of Human Rights, Turkey is legally responsible for human rights violations committed in the non-recognised 'Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus' (TRNC). It is possible that the situation is similar in the self-proclaimed peoples' republics in Donetsk and Lugansk."
29. "Military occupation of Western Sahara by Morocco". Rule of Law in Armed Conflicts. Geneva Academy of International Humanitarian Law and Human Rights. Retrieved 2019-10-11.
30. Peter Bursens; Christ'l De Landtsheer; Luc Braeckmans; Barbara Segaert, eds. (2016). Complex Political Decision-Making: Leadership, Legitimacy and Communication. Taylor & Francis. p. 170.
31. Geiß, Robin (2015). "Russia's Annexation of Crimea: The Mills of International Law Grind Slowly but They Do Grind". International Law Studies. the Stockton Center for the Study of International Law. 91. Retrieved 2019-10-11.
32. "Syria vows to fight against 'occupiers' US, Turkey, Israel". Middle East Monitor. 20 May 2020. Retrieved 28 May 2020.
33. Kajjo, Sirwan (2 March 2017). "Skirmishes Mar Fight Against IS in Northern Syria". Voice of America. Turkish occupation "is an existential threat to the Assad government's ability to reclaim the entirety of its territory, which is a key argument that regime loyalists make in their support of Bashar al-Assad's government," Heras said.
34. Fisk, Robert (29 March 2017). "In northern Syria, defeated Isis fighters leave behind only scorched earth, trenches – and a crucifixion stand". The Independent. You can't mistake the front line between the Syrian army and Turkey's occupation force east of Aleppo.
35. "1913 I Leo Freundlich: Albania's Golgotha: Indictment of the Exterminators of the Albanian People". albanianhistory.net. Translated by Elsie, Robert. Archived from the original on 2012-05-04.
36. Kerchnawe, Hugo; Mitzka, Rudolf; Sobotka, Felix; Leidl, Hermann; Krauss, Alfred (1928). Die Militärverwaltung in den von den österreichisch-ungarischen Truppen besetzten Gebieten, Nide 4 (in German). Hölder-Pichler-Tempsky A.G.
37. Feldbrugge, F. J. M.; Van den Berg, G. P.; Simons, William B., eds. (1985). Encyclopedia of Soviet Law (2nd revised ed.). Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Dordrecht. p. 461. ISBN 90-247-3075-9.
38. "U.S.-Baltic Relations: Celebrating 85 Years of Friendship" (PDF) (Press release). U.S. Department of State. June 14, 2007. Archived from the original on August 19, 2012. Retrieved June 21, 2015.CS1 maint: unfit url (link)
39. "Far East (Formosa and the Pescadores)". Hansard. U.K. Parliament. 540 (cc1870–4). May 4, 1955. Retrieved 2010-09-01. The sovereignty was Japanese until 1952. The Japanese Treaty came into force, and at that time Formosa was being administered by the Chinese Nationalists, to whom it was entrusted in 1945, as a military occupation.
40. Benvenisti, Eyal (2012-02-23). The International Law of Occupation. OUP Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-958889-3.
41. Cohen, Stephen P. (1987). The Security of South Asia: American and Asian Perspectives. University of Illinois Press. pp. 38, 40.
42. "Africa :: Congo, Democratic Republic of the". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved June 20, 2015.
43. "Decision regarding delimitation of the border between Eritrea and Ethiopia" (PDF). Reports of International Arbitral Awards. 13 April 2002. pp. 83–195. Retrieved 2017-05-18.
44. "Eritrea-Ethiopia Boundary Commission". Permanent Court of Arbitration. Retrieved 2017-05-18.
45. "Coalition troops in Iraq". BBC News. 20 July 2004. Retrieved 2019-07-01.
46. "Ethiopia Marks Yearlong Occupation in Somalia". Voice of America. 1 November 2009. Archived from the original on 2015-06-21.