Baklava

Baklava (Ottoman Turkish: باقلوا; /bɑːkləˈvɑː/, /ˈbɑːkləvɑː/,[1] or /bəˈklɑːvə/;[2] Turkish pronunciation: [baklaˈva]) is a rich, sweet dessert pastry made of layers of filo filled with chopped nuts and sweetened and held together with syrup, frosting or honey. It is characteristic of the cuisines of the Levant and the broader Middle East, along with South Caucasus, Balkans, the Maghreb and Central Asia.

For the Macedonian music group, see Baklava (band).

Baklava

An assortment of baklava purchased in Beirut, Lebanon
Course	Dessert
Place of origin	Ottoman Empire
Region or state	Middle East (notably Levant), Ethiopia, South Caucasus, Southeast Europe, Maghreb, Algeria, and Central Asia
Serving temperature	Cold, room temperature or re-warmed
Main ingredients	Filo pastry, nuts, sweetening
Variations	Multiple
Cookbook: Baklava   Media: Baklava

Etymology

The word baklava is first attested in English in 1650,[3] a borrowing from Ottoman Turkish باقلاوه /bɑːklɑvɑː/.[4][5] The name baklava is used in many languages with minor phonetic and spelling variations.

Historian Paul D. Buell argues that the word "baklava" may come from the Mongolian root baγla- 'to tie, wrap up, pile up' composed with the Turkic verbal ending -v;[6] baγla- itself in Mongolian is a Turkic loanword.[7] Sevan Nişanyan considers its oldest known forms (pre-1500) to be baklağı and baklağu, and labels it as being of Proto-Turkic origin.[8] Another form of the word is also recorded in Persian, باقلبا (bāqlabā).[9] Though the suffix -vā might suggest a Persian origin,[10][11] the baqla- part does not appear to be Persian and remains of unknown origin.[12] Lingusit Tuncer Gülensoy states that the origin of baklava is bakl-ı (feed) in proto-Turkish and suffixes -la-ğı are added. The word changes as bakılağı > bakılavı > baklava.[13]

The Arabic name بقلاوة baqlāwa likely originates from Turkish,[14] though a folk etymology, unsupported by Wehr's dictionary, connects it to Arabic بقلة /baqlah/ 'bean'.

History

Although the history of baklava is not well documented, its current form was probably developed in the imperial kitchens of the Topkapı Palace in Istanbul.[15] The Sultan presented trays of baklava to the Janissaries every 15th of the month of Ramadan in a ceremonial procession called the Baklava Alayı.[16][17]

There are three proposals for the pre-Ottoman roots of baklava: the Roman placenta cake, as developed through Byzantine cuisine, [18] the Central Asian Turkic tradition of layered breads,[19] or the Persian lauzinaq.[16]

The oldest (2nd century BC) recipe that resembles a similar dessert is the honey-covered baked layered-dough dessert placenta of Roman times, which Patrick Faas identifies as the origin of baklava: "The Greeks and the Turks still argue over which dishes were originally Greek and which Turkish. Baklava, for example, is claimed by both countries. Greek and Turkish cuisine both built upon the cookery of the Byzantine Empire, which was a continuation of the cooking of the Roman Empire. Roman cuisine had borrowed a great deal from the ancient Greeks, but placenta (and hence baklava) had a Latin, not a Greek, origin—please note that the conservative, anti-Greek Cato left us this recipe."[18][20]

Shape the placenta as follows: place a single row of tracta[21] along the whole length of the base dough. This is then covered with the mixture [cheese and honey] from the mortar. Place another row of tracta on top and go on doing so until all the cheese and honey have been used up. Finish with a layer of tracta. ... place the placenta in the oven and put a preheated lid on top of it ... When ready, honey is poured over the placenta.

— Cato the Elder, De Agri Cultura 160 BC[18]

Andrew Dalby identifies this, and surrounding dessert recipes in Cato, as coming from a "Greek tradition" and cites Antiphanes (fl. 3rd century BC) as quoted by Athenaeus.[22][23]

Several sources state that this Roman dessert continued to evolve during the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire into modern baklava.[24] In antiquity the Greek word plakous (Greek: πλακοῦς) was also used for Latin placenta,[25][23] and the American scholar Speros Vryonis describes one type of plakous, koptoplakous (Byzantine Greek: κοπτοπλακοῦς), as a "Byzantine favorite" and "the same as the Turkish baklava",[26] as do other writers.[27] Indeed, the Roman word placenta (Greek: πλατσέντα) is used today on the island of Lesbos in Greece to describe a baklava-type dessert of layered pastry leaves containing crushed nuts that is baked and then covered in honey.[28][29][30]

Muhammad bin Hasan al-Baghdadi was a compiler from the Abbasid period who described lauzinaq, a dessert said by some to have been similar to baklava, though others say it was not like baklava.[31] Lauzinaq, which derives from the Aramaic word for almond, refers to small pieces of almond paste wrapped in very thin pastry ("as thin as grasshoppers' wings") and drenched in syrup.[32] Al-Baghdadi's cookbook, Kitab al-Tabikh, was written in 1226 (in today's Iraq) and was based on a collection of 9th century Persian-inspired recipes.[16] According to Gil Marks, Middle Eastern pastry makers developed the process of layering the ingredients; he asserts that "some scholars said they were influenced by Mongols or Turks".[16] The only original manuscript of al-Baghdadi's book survives at the Süleymaniye Library in Istanbul (Turkey) and according to Charles Perry, "for centuries, it had been the favorite cookbook of the Turks," though Perry also notes that the manuscript has no recipe for baklava.[33] A further 260 recipes had been added to the original by Turkish compilers at an unknown date retitling it as Kitâbü’l-Vasfi’l-Et‘ime el-Mu‘tâde, and two of its known three copies can be found now at the Topkapı Palace Library in Istanbul. Eventually, Muhammad ibn Mahmud al-Shirwani, the physician of the Ottoman Sultan Murad II prepared a Turkish translation of the book, adding around 70 contemporary recipes.

Another recipe for a similar dessert is güllaç, a dessert found in the Turkish cuisine and considered by some as the origin of baklava.[34] It consists of layers of filo dough that are put one by one in warmed up milk with sugar. It is served with walnut and fresh pomegranate and generally eaten during Ramadan. The first known documentation of güllaç is attested in a food and health manual, written in 1330 that documents Mongol foods called Yinshan Zhengyao (飮膳正要, Important Principles of Food and Drink), written by Hu Sihui, an ethnic Mongol court dietitian of the Yuan dynasty.[6] Uzbek cuisine has pakhlava, puskal or yupka or in Tatar yoka, which are sweet and salty savories (börekler) prepared with 10–12 layers of dough.[14]

There are also some similarities between baklava and the Ancient Greek desserts gastris (γάστρις),[35] kopte sesamis (κοπτὴ σησαμίς), and kopton (κοπτόν) found in book XIV of the Deipnosophistae.[36][37] However, the recipe there is for a filling of nuts and honey, with a top and bottom layer of honey and ground sesame similar to modern pasteli or halva, and no dough, certainly not a flaky dough.[38]

Preparation

Large baking sheets are used for preparing baklava.

Baklava is normally prepared in large pans. Many layers of filo dough,[39] separated with melted butter and vegetable oil, are laid in the pan. A layer of chopped nuts—typically walnuts or pistachios, but hazelnuts are also sometimes used—is placed on top, then more layers of filo. Most recipes have multiple layers of filo and nuts, though some have only top and bottom pastry.

Before baking (180 °C, 356 °F, 30 minutes), the dough is cut into regular pieces, often parallelograms (lozenge-shaped), triangles, diamonds or rectangles. After baking, a syrup, which may include honey, rosewater, or orange flower water is poured over the cooked baklava and allowed to soak in.

Baklava is usually served at room temperature, and is often garnished with ground nuts.

Baklava, cut in a lozenge shape

Regional variations

Several types of Baklava

Azeri Baklava

Iraqi Baklava

In Turkey, baklava is traditionally made by filling between the layers of dough with pistachios, walnuts or almonds (in some parts of the Aegean Region). In the Black Sea Region hazelnuts are commonly used as a filling for baklava.[40] Hazelnuts are also used as a filling for the Turkish dessert Sütlü Nuriye, a lighter version of the dessert which substitutes milk for the simple syrup used in traditional baklava recipes.[41] Şöbiyet is a variation that includes fresh cream in the filling, in addition to the traditional nuts.[42]

The city of Gaziantep in southeast Turkey is famous for its pistachio baklava. The dessert was introduced to Gaziantep in 1871 by Çelebi Güllü, who had learned the recipe from a chef in Damascus.[43] In 2008, the Turkish patent office registered a geographical indication for Antep Baklava,[44] and in 2013, Antep Baklavası or Gaziantep Baklavası was registered as a Protected Geographical Indication by the European Commission.[45] In many parts of Turkey, baklava is often topped with kaymak or ice cream.

Armenian paklava is spiced with cinnamon and cloves.[46] Greek-style baklava is supposed to be made with 33 dough layers, referring to the years of Christ's life.[47] In Azerbaijani cuisine Azərbaycan Paxlavası, made with walnuts or almonds, is usually cut in a rhombus shape and is traditionally served during the spring holiday of Nowruz.[48][49][50] In Bosnian cuisine Ružice is the name of the regional variant of baklava.[51] In Crimean Tatar cuisine, the pakhlava is their variant of baklava.[52] In Lebanese, Syrian, Jordanian, Iraqi, Egyptian, Israeli and Palestinian cuisines, baklava prepared from phyllo dough sheets, butter, walnuts and sugar syrup is cut into lozenge-shaped pieces.[53] In the Maghreb, mainly Libyan, Tunisian, Algerian and Moroccan cuisines, the pastry was brought (along many others) by the Ottomans, and is prepared differently depending on the regions and cities.[54]

In Iranian cuisine, a drier version of baklava is cooked and presented in smaller diamond-shaped cuts flavored with rose water. The cities of Yazd and Qazvin are famous for their baklava, which is widely distributed in Iran.[55] Persian baklava uses a combination of chopped almonds and pistachios spiced with cardamom and a rose water-scented syrup and is lighter than other Middle Eastern versions.[10][56]

Azerbaijani pakhlava

Azerbaijani pakhlava

Course	Dessert
Place of origin	Azerbaijan/Iran
Main ingredients	Yeasty pastry, hazelnuts or Circassian walnut, milled carnation, cardamom, crocus
Variations	Multiple
Cookbook: Azerbaijani pakhlava   Media: Azerbaijani pakhlava

Azerbaijani pakhlava (Azerbaijani: Azərbaycan Paxlavası), or simply Pakhlava, are a type of baklavas are made in Azerbaijan[57][58] and Iranian Azerbaijan for Nowruz holiday, but it is not baked only for holidays. Yeasty pastry, hazelnuts or Circassian walnut, milled clove, cardamom, and saffron are used for the preparation of pakhlava. Milled nuts and sugar are used for stuffing.[59]

The diamond shape of pakhlava is commonly associated with a star or fire in Azerbaijan. Azerbaijani pakhlava is multilayered and commonly prepared with walnuts or almonds and flavored with saffron. It is generally made in a big baking tray. Pakhlava has some variations in different regions of Azerbaijan based on the ingredients and baking techniques.[60][61]

Recipe

A layer is rolled out from the pastry with thickness of not less than 2 mm, put into baking tray, oiled and lavishly filled with stuffing. This process is continued, until 9-10 layers are made. Another version uses 14 layers.[62] The last layer is greased with yolk, mixed up with saffron. Then pakhlava is cut into two rhombus, then either hazelnut or half of the kernel of Circassian walnut is placed on each piece. Then it is baked with 180°-200°C temperature pending 30-40 minutes.[63][64]

Varieties

Baku pakhlava. Baku pakhlava can be made of peeled almonds or walnuts. It consists of 8-10 layers. Its top layer is coated with saffron mixed with yolk. A half walnut or pistachio is placed on the center of the top layer of each diamond-shaped piece. Syrop or honey is poured on the surface of pakhlava 15 minutes before it is ready.[65]

Ganja pakhlava. Ganja pakhlava is characterized by its stuffing prepared of almond, sugar and cinnamon, baking on a copper tray over a campfire and consisting of 18 layers of pastry. 8 layers of almond stuffing are spread on every 3 buttered layers of pastry. The surface is coated with egg. Syrop is added to Ganja pakhlava 15-20 minutes before it is ready.[65] Infusion of rose petals (gulab) can also be added to the dough, and cardamom is added to the stuffing.[66][67]

Rishta pakhlava. This kind of pakhlava differs from the other types with its top layer which is covered with rishta. Rishta is made from wheat starch or rice flour. Grid-shaped rishta made by pouring knead liquid dough on hot griddle through a special funnel with 11 holes and baking it in a minute.[65]

Guba pakhlava. This type of pakhlava is characterized especially by its colour. The covering layer of Guba pakhlava is coated with a mixture of saffron and a red colour additive. Guba pakhlava consists of approximately 50 rishta layers.[68][69]

Sheki pakhlava. It is also called Sheki halva. It is made from rishta, stuffing (hazelnut, cardamom and coriander seeds) and syrop.[65][66]

Gallery

• 
  Ganja pakhlava
• 
  Sheki pakhlava
• 
  Guba pakhlava

See also

• Mille-feuille
• Azerbaijani cuisine
• Sheki halva
• Strudel
• Sfogliatelle
• List of desserts
• List of pastries

Notes

1. "Merriam-Webster". Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 2012-04-22.
2. "Oxford Dictionaries". Oxford Dictionaries. Retrieved 2012-04-22.
3. Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd edition
4. "Merriam-Webster Online, ''s.v.'' Baklava". M-w.com. Retrieved 2012-04-22.
5. "Dictionary.com Unabridged, ''s.v.'' Baklava". Dictionary.reference.com. Retrieved 2012-04-22.
6. Paul D. Buell, "Mongol Empire and Turkicization: The Evidence of Food and Foodways", p. 200ff, in Amitai-Preiss, 1999.
7. Sukhbaatar, O. (1997). A Dictionary of Foreign Words in Mongolian (in Mongolian). Ulaanbaatar. p. 25. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-09-25. Retrieved 2008-10-08.
8. Nişanyan, Sevan (2009) (in Turkish). Sözlerin Soyağacı - Çağdaş Türkçenin Etimolojik Sözlüğü [Words' Family Tree - An Etymological Dictionary of Contemporary Turkish]. İstanbul. http://nisanyansozluk.com/?k=baklava
9. loghatnaameh.com. "Dehkhoda Persian Dictionary, باقلبا". Loghatnaameh.com. Archived from the original on 2011-10-03. Retrieved 2012-04-22.
10. Batmanglij, Najmieh, A Taste of Persia: An Introduction to Persian Cooking, I.B.Tauris, 2007, ISBN 1-84511-437-X, 9781845114374; page 156.
11. Marks, Gil, Encyclopedia of Jewish Food, John Wiley and Sons, 2010, ISBN 0-470-39130-8, ISBN 978-0-470-39130-3; page 38.
12. "a derivation from balg, a common dialect form of barg "leaf", or from Ar. baql "herb" is unlikely", W. Eilers, Encyclopædia Iranica, s.v. 'bāqlavā'
13. Gülensoy, Tuncer (2007). Türkiye Türkcesindeki Türkçe Sözcüklerin Köken Bilgisi Sözlüğü - I. Turkey: Türk Dil Kurumu. p. 106. ISBN 975161970X.
14. Akın and Lambraki, Turkish and Greek Cuisine / Türk ve Yunan Mutfağı p. 248-249, ISBN 975-458-484-2
15. Perry 1994, 87
16. Marks, Gil (2010). Encyclopedia of Jewish Food. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 151. ISBN 978-0470391303.
17. Wasti, Syed Tanvir (2005). "The Ottoman Ceremony of the Royal Purse". Middle Eastern Studies. 41 (2): 193–200. doi:10.1080/00263200500035116.
18. Patrick Faas (2003). Around the Roman Table: Food and Feasting in Ancient Rome. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 185f.
19. Perry, Charles. "The Taste for Layered Bread among the Nomadic Turks and the Central Asian Origins of Baklava", in A Taste of Thyme: Culinary Cultures of the Middle East (ed. Sami Zubaida, Richard Tapper), 1994. ISBN 1-86064-603-4, page 87
20. "LacusCurtius • Cato On Agriculture — Sections 74‑90". Penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2017-01-28.
21. τρακτὸς, τρακτόν "dough drawn out or rolled for pastry," Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek–English Lexicon, on Perseus
22. Dalby, Andrew (1998). Cato on farming-De Agricultura-A modern translation with commentary. p. 21. We cannot be so sure why there is a section of recipes for bread and cakes (74-87), recipes in a Greek tradition and perhaps drawing on a Greek cookbook. Possibly Cato included them so that the owner and guests might be entertained when visiting the farm; possibly so that proper offerings might be made to the gods; more likely, I believe, so that profitable sales might be made at a neighbouring market.
23. Dalby, Andrew (1998). Cato on farming-De Agricultura-A modern translation with commentary. p. 155. Placenta is a Greek word (plakounta, accusative form of plakous 'cake'). '"The streams of the tawny bee, mixed with the curdled river of bleating she-goats, placed upon a flat receptacle of the virgin daughter of Demeter [honey, cheese, flour], delighting in ten thousand delicate toppings – or shall I simply say plakous?" "I'm for plakous"' (Antiphanes quoted by Athenaeus 449c).
24. John Ash, A Byzantine Journey, page 223
25. placenta, Charlton T. Lewis, Charles Short, A Latin Dictionary, on Perseus
26. Speros Vryonis The Decline of Medieval Hellenism in Asia Minor, 1971, p. 482
27. Rena Salaman, "Food in Motion the Migration of Foodstuffs and Cookery Techniques" from the Oxford Symposium on Food Cookery, Vol. 2, p. 184
28. ΠΟΛΙΤΙΣΤΙΚΟ ΙΔΡΥΜΑ ΟΜΙΛΟΥ ΠΕΙΡΑΙΩΣ, ΜΑΓΕΙΡΕΥΟΝΤΑΣ ΜΕ ΛΑΔΙ ΚΑΙ ΑΛΛΑ ΣΤΗΝ ΑΓΙΑ ΠΑΡΑΣΚΕΥΗ ΛΕΣΒΟΥ
29. Αποστολή με Email. "Πλατσέντα, από την Αγία Παρασκευή Λέσβου | Άρθρα | Bostanistas.gr : Ιστορίες για να τρεφόμαστε διαφορετικά". Bostanistas.gr. Retrieved 2017-01-28.
30. Λούβαρη-Γιαννέτσου, Βασιλεία (2014). "Πλατσέντα ή γλυκόπιτα". Τα Σαρακοστιανά 50 συνταγές για τη Σαρακοστή και τις γιορτές (Lent foods: 50 recipes for Lent and the holidays).
31. Perry, Charles. "What to Order in Ninth Century Baghdad," in Rodinson, Maxime, and Arthur John Arberry. "Medieval Arab Cookery." (2001). p. 222 "As for lauzinaj, it was not much like baklava."
32. Perry, Charles. "What to Order in Ninth Century Baghdad," in Rodinson, Maxime, and Arthur John Arberry. "Medieval Arab Cookery." (2001). p. 223
33. "Saudi Aramco World : Cooking with the Caliphs". Archive.aramcoworld.com. Retrieved 2017-01-28.
34. Husihui; Paul D. Buell; Eugene N. Anderson; Charles Perry (2010). A soup for the Qan: Chinese dietary medicine of the Mongol era as seen in Hu Szu-Hui's Yin-shan cheng-yao (2nd rev. and expanded ed.). Leiden: Brill. ISBN 90-04-18020-6.
35. γάστρις, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek–English Lexicon, on Perseus
36. κοπτός, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek–English Lexicon, on Perseus
37. Deipnosophists 14:647, discussed by Charles Perry, "The Taste for Layered Bread among the Nomadic Turks and the Central Asian Origins of Baklava", in A Taste of Thyme: Culinary Cultures of the Middle East (ed. Sami Zubaida, Richard Tapper), 1994. ISBN 1-86064-603-4. p. 88.
38. Charles Perry, "The Taste for Layered Bread among the Nomadic Turks and the Central Asian Origins of Baklava", in A Taste of Thyme: Culinary Cultures of the Middle East (ed. Sami Zubaida, Richard Tapper), 1994. ISBN 1-86064-603-4.
39. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Food and Drink in America, p. 111, at Google Books
40. "What is baklava—and where to find the best baklava in Istanbul?". Witt magazine. Archived from the original on 2013-10-04. Retrieved 2013-10-02.
41. "Ihtilal Tatlısı Sütlü Nuriye'nin Trajikomik Hikayesi". Milliyet Haber. Retrieved 2018-11-09.
42. "Şöbiyet". Arda'nın Mutfağı. Retrieved 2018-11-09.
43. Brunner, by Esther. "Sweet journey of Güllüoğlu baklava". Retrieved 2018-11-09.
44. "Bsanna News, February 21, 2008". Bsanna-news.ukrinform.ua. 2008-02-21. Archived from the original on 2011-10-04. Retrieved 2012-04-22.
45. "Publication of an application pursuant to Article 50(2)(a) of Regulation (EU) No 1151/2012 of the European Parliament and of the Council on quality schemes for agricultural products and foodstuffs". European Commission. 2009-10-07. Retrieved 2013-12-20.
46. The flower of paradise and other Armenian tales by Bonnie C. Marshall, Virginia A. Tashjian, Libraries Unlimited, 2007, p. 179, ISBN 1-59158-367-5
47. Theodore Kyriakou and Charles Campion, The Real Greek at Home, London 2004
48. Nazarli, Amina (19 April 2018). "Azerbaijanis welcome beloved Novruz holiday". AzerNews. AzerNews. Retrieved 23 April 2018.
49. Ismayilova, Laman (20 March 2018). "Delicious sweets for Novruz holiday". AzerNews. AzerNews. Retrieved 23 April 2018.
50. Gadimova, Nazrin (27 February 2018). "Celebrating Novruz? Try These 3 Pastries!". Caspian News. Caspian News. Retrieved 23 April 2018.
51. Manning, Anneka. "Bakeproof: Bosnian baking : SBS Food". Sbs.com.au. Retrieved 2017-01-28.
52. Olga Kovalenko (2015-11-24). "A taste of Crimea far from the frontline". Roads and Kingdoms.
53. "Baklava recipe on Cookpad". cookpad.com. Retrieved 2012-04-22.
54. "Sweet Treats around the World: An Encyclopedia of Food and Culture, p.248". ABC-CLIO. 2014-07-28. Missing or empty |url= (help)
55. N. Ramazani, "Bāqlavā", Encyclopaedia iranica, Volume 3, Issues 5–8, page 729.
56. Food and Booze: A Tin House Literary Feast, Michelle Wildgen, Nicole J. Georges, Tin House Books, 2007, ISBN 0-9773127-7-1, ISBN 978-0-9773127-7-1; page 200.
57. Ismayilova, Laman (20 March 2018). "Delicious sweets for Novruz holiday". AzerNews. AzerNews. Retrieved 23 April 2018.
58. Gadimova, Nazrin (27 February 2018). "Celebrating Novruz? Try These 3 Pastries!". Caspian News. Caspian News. Retrieved 23 April 2018.
59. "Азербайджанская пахлава". 2009-03-24.
60. Jeanne Jacob, Michael Ashkenazi (2014). The World Cookbook: The Greatest Recipes from Around the Globe. ABC-CLIO. pp. 82–83. ISBN 9781610694698.
61. Nikki Kazimova (2011). Azerbaijan - Culture Smart!: The Essential Guide to Customs & Culture. Kuperard. ISBN 9781857335484.
62. "Almond-Cardamom Baklava (Azeri Pakhlava)". Saveur. Saveur, Bonnier Corporation. Retrieved 23 April 2018.
63. "Довга, долма и пахлава: секреты азербайджанской кухни".
64. "АЗЕРБАЙДЖАНСКАЯ ПАХЛАВА".
65. Ahmedov, Ahmed-Jabir (1986). Azərbaycan kulinariyası, Азербайджанская кулинария, Azerbaijan Cookery - cookbook, in Azeri, Russian & English. Baku: Ishig.
66. "A tasty journey through Azerbaijan: Sheki and Ganja cuisine". Azerbaijan State News Agency. Retrieved 2018-11-07.
67. "Gəncə paxlavası". Website of Ganja city of Azerbaijan (in Azerbaijani). Retrieved 2019-02-27.
68. "Preparation of Guba pakhlava". Report Information Agency (in Azerbaijani). Retrieved 2019-02-27.
69. "Guba pakhlava". Azerbaijan State News Agency (in Azerbaijani). Retrieved 2019-02-27.

References

• Vryonis, Speros (1971). The Decline of Medieval Hellenism in Asia Minor and the Process of Islamization from the Eleventh through the Fifteenth Century. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-52-001597-5.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link).
• Salaman, Rena (1986). "The Case of the Missing Fish, or Dolmathon Prolegomena (1984)". In Davidson, Alan (ed.). Oxford Symposium on Food & Cookery 1984 & 1985, Cookery: Science, Lore and Books Proceedings. London: Prospect Books Limited. pp. 184–187.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link).
• Reuven Amitai-Preiss and David O. Morgan, eds., The Mongol Empire and Its Legacy Brill, 1999. ISBN 90-04-11946-9.
• Paul D. Buell, "Mongol Empire and Turkicization: The Evidence of Food and Foodways", p. 200ff, in Amitai-Preiss, 1999.
• Christian, David. Review of Amitai-Preiss, 1999, in Journal of World History 12:2:476 (2001).
• Perry, Charles. "The Taste for Layered Bread among the Nomadic Turks and the Central Asian Origins of Baklava", in A Taste of Thyme: Culinary Cultures of the Middle East (ed. Sami Zubaida, Richard Tapper), 1994. ISBN 1-86064-603-4.
• Roden Claudia, "A New Book of Middle Eastern Food" ISBN 0-14-046588-X
• Vryonis, Speros, The Decline of Medieval Hellenism in Asia Minor, 1971. Quoted in Perry (1994).
• Wasti, Syed Tanvir, "The Ottoman Ceremony of the Royal Purse", Middle Eastern Studies 41:2:193–200 (March 2005)