Household

A household consists of one or more people who live in the same dwelling and share meals. It may also consist of a single family or another group of people.[1] A dwelling is considered to contain multiple households if meals or living spaces are not shared. The household is the basic unit of analysis in many social, microeconomic and government models, and is important to economics and inheritance.[2]

This article is about an economic, social, or socioeconomic grouping. For the article on the author, see Geoffrey Household.

Familienidylle by Aimé Pez, 1839

Household models include families, blended families, shared housing, group homes, boarding houses, houses of multiple occupancy (UK), and single room occupancy (US). In feudal societies, the Royal Household and medieval households of the wealthy included servants and other retainers.

Government definitions

For statistical purposes in the United Kingdom, a household is defined as "one person or a group of people who have the accommodation as their only or main residence and for a group, either share at least one meal a day or share the living accommodation, that is, a living room or sitting room".[3] The introduction of legislation to control houses of multiple occupation in the UK Housing Act (2004)[4] required a tighter definition of a single household. People can be considered a household if they are related: full- or half-blood, foster, step-parent/child, in-laws (and equivalent for unmarried couples), a married couple or unmarried but "living as ..." (same- or different-sex couples).[5]

The United States Census definition also hinges on "separate living quarters": "those in which the occupants live and eat separately from any other persons in the building."[6] According to the U.S. census, a householder is the "person (or one of the people) in whose name the housing unit is owned or rented (maintained)"; if no person qualifies, any adult resident of a housing unit is considered a householder. The U.S. government formerly used "head of the household" and "head of the family", but those terms were replaced with "householder" in 1980.[7] In the census definition of a household, it

... includes all the persons who occupy a housing unit. A housing unit is a house, an apartment, a mobile home, a group of rooms, or a single room that is occupied (or if vacant, is intended for occupancy) as separate living quarters. Separate living quarters are those in which the occupants live and eat separately from any other persons in the building and which have direct access from the outside of the building or through a common hall. The occupants may be a single family, one person living alone, two or more families living together, or any other group of related or unrelated persons who share living arrangements. (People not living in households are classified as living in group quarters.)[8]

On July 15, 1998, Statistics Canada said: "A household is generally defined as being composed of a person or group of persons who co-reside in, or occupy, a dwelling."[9]

Economic definition

Although a one-income-stream economic theory simplifies modeling, it does not necessarily reflect reality. Many, if not most, households have several income-earning members. Most economic models do not equate households and traditional families, and there is not always a one-to-one relationship between households and families.

Social definitions

In social work, a household is defined similarly: a residential group in which housework is divided and performed by householders. Care may be delivered by one householder to another, depending upon their respective needs, abilities, and (perhaps) disabilities. Household composition may affect life and health expectations and outcomes for its members.[10][11] Eligibility for community services and welfare benefits may depend upon household composition.[12]

In sociology, household work strategy (a term coined by Ray Pahl in his 1984 book, Divisions of Labour)[13][14] is the division of labour among members of a household. Household work strategies vary over the life cycle as household members age, or with the economic environment; they may be imposed by one person, or be decided collectively.[15]

Feminism examines how gender roles affect the division of labour in households. In The Second Shift and The Time Bind, sociologist Arlie Russell Hochschild presents evidence that in two-career couples men and women spend about equal amounts of time working; however, women spend more time on housework.[16][17] Cathy Young (another feminist writer) says that in some cases, women may prevent the equal participation of men in housework and parenting.[18]

Models

Household models in the English-speaking world include traditional and blended families, shared housing, and group homes for people with support needs. Other models which may meet definitions of a household include boarding houses, houses in multiple occupation (UK), and single room occupancy (US).

History

In feudal or aristocratic societies, a household may include servants or retainers who derive their income from the household's principal income.

Housing statistics

Dwellings with bathrooms[19]

Country	1960	1970	1980
Belgium	23.6%	49.1%	73.9%
Denmark	39.4%	73.1%	85.4%
France	28.0%	48.9%	85.2%
Germany	51.9%	71.5%	92.3%
Greece	10.4%	-	69.3%
Ireland	33.0%	55.3%	82.0%
Italy	10.7%	64.5%	86.4%
Luxembourg	45.7%	69.4%	86.2%
Netherlands	30.3%	75.5%	95.9%
Portugal	18.6%	-	58%
Spain	24.0%	77.8%	85.3%
United Kingdom	78.3%	90.9%	98.0%

Indoor WC, bath/shower and hot running water (1988)[20]

Country	Indoor WC	Bath/shower	Hot running water
Belgium	94%	92%	87%
Denmark	97%	94%	N/A
France	94%	93%	95%
Germany	99%	97%	98%
Greece	85%	85%	84%
Ireland	94%	92%	91%
Italy	99%	95%	93%
Luxembourg	99%	97%	97%
Netherlands	N/A	99%	100%
Portugal	80%	N/A	N/A
Spain	97%	96%	N/A
UK	99%	100%	N/A

1981–82 censuses[19]

Country	Bath/shower	Indoor WC	Central heating
Belgium	73.9%	79.0%	-
Denmark	85.1%	95.8%	54.6%
France	85.2%	85.4%	67.6%
Germany	92.3%	96.0%	70.0%
Greece	69.3%	70.9%	-
Ireland	82.0%	84.5%	39.2%
Italy	86.4%	87.7%	56.5%
Luxembourg	86.2%	97.3%	73.9%
Netherlands	95.9%	-	66.1%
Portugal	58.0%	58.7%	-
Spain	85.3%	-	22.5%
United Kingdom	98.0%	97.3%	-

Average usable floor space, 1976[21]

Country	Area
Austria	86 m^2 (930 sq ft)
Belgium	97 m^2 (1,040 sq ft)
Bulgaria	63 m^2 (680 sq ft)
Canada	89 m^2 (960 sq ft)
Czechoslovakia	69 m^2 (740 sq ft)
Denmark	122 m^2 (1,310 sq ft)
Finland	71 m^2 (760 sq ft)
France	82 m^2 (880 sq ft)
East Germany	60 m^2 (650 sq ft)
West Germany	95 m^2 (1,020 sq ft)
Greece	80 m^2 (860 sq ft)
Hungary	65 m^2 (700 sq ft)
Ireland	88 m^2 (950 sq ft)
Luxembourg	107 m^2 (1,150 sq ft)
Netherlands	71 m^2 (760 sq ft)
Norway	89 m^2 (960 sq ft)
Poland	58 m^2 (620 sq ft)
Portugal	104 m^2 (1,120 sq ft)
Romania	54 m^2 (580 sq ft)
Soviet Union	49 m^2 (530 sq ft)
Spain	82 m^2 (880 sq ft)
Sweden	109 m^2 (1,170 sq ft)
Switzerland	98 m^2 (1,050 sq ft)
United Kingdom	70 m^2 (750 sq ft)
United States	120 m^2 (1,300 sq ft)
Yugoslavia	65 m^2 (700 sq ft)

Average usable floor space, 1994[22]

Country	Area
Austria	85.3 m^2 (918 sq ft)
Belgium	86.3 m^2 (929 sq ft)
Denmark	107 m^2 (1,150 sq ft)
Finland	74.8 m^2 (805 sq ft)
France	85.4 m^2 (919 sq ft)
East Germany	64.4 m^2 (693 sq ft)
West Germany	86.7 m^2 (933 sq ft)
Greece	79.6 m^2 (857 sq ft)
Ireland	88 m^2 (950 sq ft)
Italy	92.3 m^2 (994 sq ft)
Luxembourg	107 m^2 (1,150 sq ft)
Netherlands	98.6 m^2 (1,061 sq ft)
Spain	86.6 m^2 (932 sq ft)
Sweden	92 m^2 (990 sq ft)
United Kingdom	79.7 m^2 (858 sq ft)

Floor space, 1992–1993[23]

Country	Year	Area
Australia	1993	191 m^2 (2,060 sq ft)
United States	1992	153.2 m^2 (1,649 sq ft)
South Korea	1993	119.3 m^2 (1,284 sq ft)
United Kingdom	1992	95 m^2 (1,020 sq ft)
Germany	1993	90.8 m^2 (977 sq ft)
Japan	1993	88.6 m^2 (954 sq ft)

Households without an indoor WC, 1980[24]

Country	%
Belgium	19%
France	17%
West Germany	7%
Greece	29%
Ireland	22%
Italy	11%
Japan	54%
Norway	17%
Portugal	43%
Spain	12%
United Kingdom	6%

Households without a bath or shower

Country	%
Belgium	24%
France	17%
West Germany	11%
Italy	11%
Japan	17%
Norway	18%
Spain	39%
United Kingdom	4%

Households with an indoor WC[25]

Country	1960–61	1970–71	1978–79
Britain	87%	88%	95%
Germany	64%	85%	92.5%

Households with a bath or shower[25]

Country	1960–61	1970–71	1978–79
Britain	72%	91%	94.3%
Germany	51%	82%	89.1%

Principal residences in France lacking amenities:[21]

Year	Running water	WC	Bath or shower	Central heating
1962	21.6%	59.5%	71.1%	80.7%
1968	9.2%	45.2%	52.5%	65.1%
1975	2.8%	26.2%	29.8%	46.9%
1978	1.3%	20.9%	22.9%	39.7%

Households with central heating

Country	1970	1978
Great Britain	34%	53%
Germany	44%	64%

US dwellings with bathroom amenities, 1970[26]

Amenity	%
Bath/shower	95%
Flush toilet	96%

East German amenities[21]

Amenity	1961	1971	1979
Running water	66%	82.2%	89%
WC	33%	41.8%	50%
Bath/shower	22.4%	38.7%	50%
Central heating	2.5%	10.6%	22%

Amenities in European dwellings, 1970–71[27]

Country	Running water	WC	Bath/shower
Austria	84.2%	69.8%	52.9%
Belgium	88.0%	50.4%	47.8%
Czechoslovakia	75.3%	49.0%	58.6%
Denmark	98.7%	90.3%	76.5%
Finland	72.0%	61.4%	-
Greece	64.9%	41.2%	35.6%
Hungary	36.1%	27.2%	31.7%
Ireland	78.2%	69.2%	55.4%
Italy	86.1%	79.0%	64.5%
Netherlands	-	80.8%	81.4%
Norway	97.5%	69.0%	66.1%
Portugal	47.8%	33.7%	32.6%
Spain	70.9%	70.9%	46.4%
Sweden	97.4%	90.1%	78.3%
Switzerland	-	93.3%	80.9%
United Kingdom	-	86.3%	90.7%
Yugoslavia	33.6%	26.2%	24.6%

British households lacking amenities[28]

Year	Bath	Indoor/outdoor WC	Hot running water	Indoor WC
1951	37.6%	7.7%	-	-
1961	22.4%	6.5%	21.8%	-
1966	15.4%	1.7%	12.5%	18.3%
1971	9.1%	1.1%	6.5%	11.5%

British households sharing amenities[28]

Year	Bath	Indoor/outdoor WC	Hot running water	Indoor WC
1951	7.5%	14.9%	-	-
1961	4.4%	6.7%	1.8%	-
1966	4.1%	6.4%	2.0%	4.4%
1971	3.2%	4.1%	1.9%	3.1%

Households with durable goods, 1964–1971[29]

Country	Year	Washing machine	Refrigerator	Television	Telephone
Northern Ireland	1971	45.4%	40.1%	87.5%	27.0%
Scotland	1971	65.0%	53.2%	92.1%	36.1%
United Kingdom	1964	53.0%	34.0%	80.0%	2.2%
United Kingdom	1971	64.3%	68.8%	91.4%	37.8%
United States	1965	87.4%	99.5%	97.1%	85.0%
United States	1970	92.1%	99.85	98.7%	92.0%

EEC manual workers with durable goods, 1963–1964[29]

Country	Washing machine	Refrigerator	Television	Telephone
Belgium	74.7%	24.9%	47.6%	8.2%
France	39.6%	47.0%	34.4%	1.4%
West Germany	66.2%	62.1%	51.3%	1.8%
Italy	13.6%	50.2%	47.9%	20.0%
Luxembourg	82.3%	64.7%	27.9%	23.0%
Netherlands	80.4%	25.5%	58.0%	9.4%

EEC white-collar workers with durable goods, 1963–1964[29]

Country	Washing machine	Refrigerator	Television	Telephone
Belgium	68.5%	57.3%	48.3%	40.0%
France	48.2%	71.3%	43.3%	15.2%
West Germany	62.2%	79.1%	51.8%	19.6%
Italy	38.3%	81.9%	79.3%	57.9%
Luxembourg	82.3%	79.2%	25.2%	67.3%
Netherlands	73.9%	51.6%	56.2%	57.4%

Dwellings with amenities, 1960–71[29]

Country	Year	Running water	Indoor running water	Toilet	Flush toilet	Bath/shower
Austria	1961	100.0%	63.6%	-	-	29.6%
	1970	-	85.3%	69.7%	-	54.5%
Belgium	1961	76.9%	-	99.9%	47.6%	24.3%
Bulgaria	1965	28.5%	28.2%	100.0%	11.8%	8.7%
Canada	1961	89.1%	-	-	85.2%	80.3%
	1967	-	95.2%	93.5%	92.5%	89.8%
	1971	-	-	-	95.4%	93.4%
Czechoslovakia	1961	60.5%	49.1%	-	39.5%	33.3%
Denmark	1960	-	92.9%	100.0%	83.6%	48.3%
	1965	96.7%	96.7%	100.0%	90.9%	63.4%
England and Wales	1961	-	98.7%	93.4%	-	78.7%
	1966	-	-	-	98.2%	85.1%
Finland	1960	47.1%	47.1%	-	35.4%	14.6%
France	1962	-	77.5%	43.1%	39.3%	28.0%
	1968	92.8%	91.5%	56.2%	53.2%	48.9%
East Germany	1961	-	65.7%	33.7%	-	22.1%
West Germany	1965	-	98.2%	-	83.3%	64.3%
	1968	99.0%	-	-	86.5%	66.8%
Hungary	1960	-	-	100.0%	22.5%	-
	1963	32.5%	25.9%	-	-	18.5%
	1970	58.6%	36.4%	100.0%	32.7%	32.2%
Ireland	1961	57.2%	51.0%	64.9%	53.5%	33.2%
Italy	1961	71.6%	62.3%	89.5%	-	28.9%
Luxembourg	1960	98.8%	-	100.0%	81.6%	45.7%
Netherlands	1956	89.6%	-	99.9%	67.5%	26.8%
New Zealand	1960	-	90.0%	-	-	-
	1961	99.6%	87.8%	-	88.5%	-
	1966	99.7%	90.3%	-	94.0%	98.1%
Norway	1960	94.0%	92.8%	100.0%	57.9%	45.2%
Poland	1960	39.1%	29.9%	26.9%	18.9%	13.9%
	1966	-	46.8%	-	33.3%	-
Romania	1966	48.4%	12.3%	100.0%	12.2%	9.6%
Scotland	1961	-	94.0%	-	92.8%	69.9%
	1966	-	-	-	95.7%	77.4%
Sweden	1960	-	90.0%	-	76.2%	61.0%
	1965	95.2%	94.3%	99.7%	85.3%	72.9%
Switzerland	1960	-	96.1%	99.7%	-	68.8%
United States	1960	94.0%	92.9%	-	89.7%	88.1%
Yugoslavia (urban)	1961	-	42.4%	34.5%	-	22.5%

European households with at least one car, 1978[30]

Country	%
Belgium	69.9%
Denmark	57.0%
France	66.9%
West Germany	62.6%
Ireland	65.1%
Italy	69.1%
Netherlands	67.2%
United Kingdom	54.4%

Housing tenure, 1980–1990[31]

Country	Year	Public rental	Private rental	Owner-occupied
Australia	1988	5%	25%	70%
Belgium	1986	6%	30%	62%
Denmark	1990	21%	21%	58%
France	1990	17%	30%	53%
Germany	1990	25%	38%	37%
Ireland	1990	14%	9%	78%
Italy	1990	5%	24%	64%
Netherlands	1988	43%	13%	44%
Spain	1989	1%	11%	88%
United Kingdom	1990	27%	7%	66%
United States	1980	2%	32%	66%

EEC households with a garden, 1963–64[32]

Country	%
Belgium	58%
France	47%
Italy	17%
Netherlands	21%
Germany	45%
Luxembourg	81%

Households with durable goods, 1962[33]

Country	Television	Vacuum cleaner	Washing machine	Refrigerator	Car
France	25%	32%	31%	37%	33%
Great Britain	78%	71%	43%	22%	30%
United States	87%	75%	95%	98%	75%

Housing conditions

Belgium

A 1961–62 National Housing Institute survey estimated that 13.8 percent of Belgian dwellings were unfit and incapable of improvement. A further 19.5 percent were unfit but had the potential to be improved, and 54 percent were considered suitable (without alteration or improvement) for modern living standards. Seventy-four percent of dwellings lacked a shower or bath, 19 percent had inadequate sewage disposal, and 3.6 percent lacked a drinking-water supply; 36.8 percent had an indoor water closet.[34] According to a 1964 study, 13 percent of Belgium's housing consisted of slums.[35]

France

Between 1954 and 1973, the percentage of French homes with a shower or bath increased from 10 to 65 percent. During that period, the percentage of homes without flush toilets fell from 73 to 30 percent; homes without running water fell from 42 to 3.4 percent. A 1948 law permitted gradual, long-term rent increases for existing flats on the condition that part of the money was spent on repairs. According to John Ardagh, the law, "vigorously applied, was partly successful in its twofold aim: to encourage both repairs and new building."[36]

United Kingdom

After World War II, a large percentage of British housing was single-family housing. Seventy-eight percent of housing in 1961 consisted of single-family homes, compared to 56 percent in the Netherlands, 49 percent in West Germany and 32 percent in France.[37] In England and Wales in 1964, 6.6 percent of housing units had two or fewer rooms; 5.8 percent had seven or more rooms, 15.2 percent had six rooms, 35.1 percent had five rooms, 26.3 percent had four rooms, and 11.1 percent had three rooms. These figures included kitchens when they were used for eating meals. Fifty percent of 1964 housing had three bedrooms; 1.9 percent had five or more bedrooms, 6.2 percent had four bedrooms, 10.5 percent had one bedroom or none, and 31.3 percent had two bedrooms. A 1960 social survey estimated that 0.6 percent of households in England and Wales exceeded the statutory overcrowding standard; the 1964 percentage was 0.5 percent. In 1964, 6.9 of all households exceeded one person per room. The 1960 figure was 11 percent, with 1.75 percent having two or more bedrooms below the standard and 9.25 percent having one bedroom below the standard. This declined slightly by 1964 to 9.4 percent of households below the standard, with 8.1 percent having one bedroom below the standard and 1.3 percent having two bedrooms or more below the standard. According to local authorities in 1965, five percent of the housing stock in England and Wales was unfit for habitation.[38]

U.S. and Canada

Housing conditions improved in Canada and the U.S. after World War II. In the U.S., 35.4 percent of all 1950 dwellings did not have complete plumbing facilities; the figure fell to 16.8 percent in 1960 and 8.4 percent in 1968. In Canada from 1951 to 1971, the percentage of dwellings with a bath or shower increased from 60.8 to 93.4 percent; the percentage of dwellings with hot and cold running water increased from 56.9 to 93.5 percent.[29] In the United States from 1950 to 1974, the percentage of housing without full plumbing fell from 34 to three percent; during that period, the percentage of housing stock considered dilapidated fell from nine percent to less than four.[39]

See also

• Dwelling
• Oikos
• List of countries by number of households
• Household economics
• Household final consumption expenditure
• Household income in the United States
• Household production
• Family
• Intra-household bargaining
• Roommate
• Group home
• Hoju – South Korea
• Home
• Homemaker
• Medieval household
• Royal Household

Other sources

• The Economist Book Of Vital World Statistics: A Complete Guide To The World In Figures (introduction by Claus Moser). The Economist Books, fourth reprint, paperback edition, October 1992. Contains a section, "Consumer Durables", with estimates of household ownership of a wide range of consumer durables in OECD and East European countries.

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External links

• "Percentage of households living in a dwelling with central heating" (PDF). European System of Social Indicators (EUSI): Contains information on housing conditions in Europe from 1980 onwards
• The European Union Encyclopedia and Directory 1999. Psychology Press. 1999. ISBN 978-1-85743-056-1: Contains historical statistics on housing in Europe
• Housing Finance Markets in Transition Economies Trends and Challenges. OECD Publishing. 2005. ISBN 978-92-64-01017-8: Contains statistics on housing in various developing and developed countries
• World tables, 1976, from the data files of the World Bank (PDF). Baltimore: Published for the World Bank by Johns Hopkins University Press. 1976. ISBN 0-8018-1886-9. OCLC 2425366.
• Alber, Jens; Fahey, Tony; Saraceno, Chiara (2008). Handbook of Quality of Life in the Enlarged European Union. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-42467-7: Contains information on housing conditions in various countries
• Altman, Jon C.; Nieuwenhuysen, John (1979). The Economic Status of Australian Aborigines. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-29490-4: Contains historical statistics on housing conditions in Australia
• Berekoven, Ludwig (2013). Internationale Verbrauchsangleichung: Eine Analyse europäischer Länder (in German). Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-3-322-83888-9: Contains information on the percentage of homes in Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Holland, Italy, Switzerland, and Sweden owning certain household appliances from 1970 to 1975
• Dol, Kees; Haffner, Marietta, eds. (2010). Housing Statistics in the European Union 2010 (PDF). The Hague: Ministry of the Interior and Kingdom Relations.
• Flora, Peter (1986). Growth to Limits: The Western European Welfare States Since World War II. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-011131-6: Contains historical statistics on housing in Ireland
• Martinelli, Alberto; Chiesi, Antonio; Stefanizzi, Sonia (1999-03-30). Recent Social Trends in Italy, 1960–1995. McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP. ISBN 978-0-7735-6778-8.
• Norris, Michelle; Shiels, Patrick (2004). Regular National Report on Housing Developments in European Countries (Synthesis Report) (PDF). Dublin: Stationery Office. ISBN 0-7557-1999-9. OCLC 59712896: Contains statistics on housing conditions and housing policies in various countries
• Smitka, Michael (1998). Japan's Economic Ascent: International Trade, Growth, and Postwar Reconstruction. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-8153-2709-7: Contains information on the percentage of nonfarming households in Japan earning certain consumer durable goods from 1957 to 1975
• Stafford, D. C. (1978). The Economics of Housing Policy. Croom Helm. ISBN 978-0-85664-159-6: Contains historical statistics on housing conditions in the United Kingdom
• Tomka, Béla (2013). A Social History of Twentieth Century Europe. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-62843-3: Contains historical statistics on housing in Europe
• Tóth, István György (2008). "4. Housing and Material Conditions" (PDF). European social report, 2008. Translated by Babarczy, Anna. Budapest: TÁRKI. ISBN 978-963-06-5193-6. OCLC 1088165603. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-04-17: Contains statistics on housing and material conditions in Europe
• Trotman-Dickenson, D. I. (2014). Economic Workbook and Data: A Tutorial Volume for Students. Elsevier Science. ISBN 978-1-4831-5811-2: Contains information on the percentage of households in Great Britain and the EEC owning certain durable goods in 1963