Pashto

Pashto (/ˈpʌʃtoʊ/,[9][10][11] /ˈpæʃtoʊ/;[Note 1] پښتو / Pax̌tō, [ˈpəʂtoː]), sometimes spelled Pukhto or Pakhto,[Note 2] is an Eastern Iranian language of the Indo-European family. It is known in Persian literature as Afghani (افغانی, Afghāni)[14].

Pashto
پښتو
Pax̌tō
The word Pax̌tō written in the Pashto alphabet
Pronunciation[ˈpəʂtoː], [ˈpʊxtoː]
Native toAfghanistan and Pakistan
EthnicityPashtuns
Native speakers
40 million (2000s)[1][2][3][4]
Standard forms
DialectsPashto dialects
Perso-Arabic script (Pashto alphabet)
Official status
Official language in
 Afghanistan[5]
Recognised minority
language in
Regulated byAcademy of Sciences of Afghanistan
Pashto Academy, Pakistan[7]
Language codes
ISO 639-1ps – Pashto, Pushto
ISO 639-2pus – Pushto, Pashto
ISO 639-3pus – inclusive code – Pashto, Pushto
Individual codes:
pst – Central Pashto
pbu – Northern Pashto
pbt – Southern Pashto
wne – Wanetsi
Glottologpash1269  Pashto[8]
Linguasphere58-ABD-a

Speakers of the language are called Pashtuns or Pukhtuns/Pakhtuns (historically known as ethnic Afghans).[15][16][17][18] Pashto and Dari (Persian) are the two official languages of Afghanistan.[19][5][20] Pashto is also the second-largest regional language of Pakistan, mainly spoken in the northwestern province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and northern districts of Balochistan province in south-west.[21][22] Pashto is the primary language of the Pashtun diaspora around the world. The total number of Pashto-speakers is at least 40 million,[4] although some estimates place it as high as 60 million.[2]

Pashto belongs to the eastern Iranian group of the Indo-Iranian branch,[23][24] but Ethnologue lists it as Southeastern Iranian.[25] Pashto has two main dialect groups, "soft" and "hard", the latter locally known as Pakhto or Paxto.[15]

Geographic distribution
Further information: Languages of Afghanistan and Languages of Pakistan

As a national language of Afghanistan,[26] Pashto is primarily spoken in the east, south, and southwest, but also in some northern and western parts of the country. The exact number of speakers is unavailable, but different estimates show that Pashto is the mother tongue of 45–60%[27][28][29][30] of the total population of Afghanistan.

In Pakistan, Pashto is spoken by 15% of its population,[31][32] mainly in the northwestern province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and northern districts of Balochistan province. Pashto-speakers are found in other major cities of Pakistan, most notably in Karachi, Sindh.[33]

Other communities of Pashto speakers are found in India, Tajikistan,[34] and northeastern Iran (primarily in South Khorasan Province to the east of Qaen, near the Afghan border).[35] In India most ethnic Pashtun (Pathan) peoples speak the geographically native Hindi-Urdu language instead of Pashto. However small numbers of Pashto speakers exist in India, namely the Sheen Khalai in Rajasthan,[36] and the Pathan community in the city of Kolkata, often nicknamed the Kabuliwala ("people of Kabul").[37][38]

In addition, sizable Pashtun diaspora also exist in Western Asia, especially in the United Arab Emirates,[39] Saudi Arabia. The Pashtun diaspora speaks Pashto in countries like the United States, United Kingdom,[40] Canada, Germany, the Netherlands, Sweden, Qatar, Australia, Japan, Russia, New Zealand, etc.

Afghanistan

Pashto is one of the two official languages of Afghanistan, along with Dari Persian.[41] Since the early 18th century, the monarchs of Afghanistan have been ethnic Pashtuns (except for Habibullāh Kalakāni in 1929).[42] Persian, the literary language of the royal court,[43] was more widely used in government institutions while the Pashtun tribes spoke Pashto as their native tongue. King Amanullah Khan began promoting Pashto during his reign (1926-1929) as a marker of ethnic identity and as a symbol of "official nationalism"[42] leading Afghanistan to independence after the defeat of the British Empire in the Third Anglo-Afghan War in 1919. In the 1930s a movement began to take hold to promote Pashto as a language of government, administration, and art with the establishment of a Pashto Society Pashto Anjuman in 1931[44] and the inauguration of the Kabul University in 1932 as well as the formation of the Pashto Academy Pashto Tolana in 1937.[45]

Although officially supporting the use of Pashto, the Afghan elite regarded Persian as a "sophisticated language and a symbol of cultured upbringing".[42] King Zahir Shah (reigned 1933-1973) thus followed suit after his father Nadir Khan had decreed in 1933 that officials were to study and utilize both Persian and Pashto.[46] In 1936 a royal decree of Zahir Shah formally granted to Pashto the status of an official language[47] with full rights to usage in all aspects of government and education - despite the fact that the ethnically Pashtun royal family and bureaucrats mostly spoke Persian.[45] Thus Pashto became a national language, a symbol for Pashtun nationalism.

The constitutional assembly reaffirmed the status of Pashto as an official language in 1964 when Afghan Persian was officially renamed to Dari.[48][49]

The lyrics of the national anthem of Afghanistan are in Pashto.

Pakistan

In Pakistan, Pashto is the first language of 15% of its population (as of 1998),[50][51] mainly in the northwestern province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and northern districts of Balochistan province. It is also spoken in parts of Mianwali and Attock districts of the Punjab province, areas of Gilgit-Baltistan and in Islamabad, as well as by Pashtuns who live in different cities throughout the country. Modern Pashto-speaking communities are found in the cities of Karachi and Hyderabad in Sindh.[33][52][53][54][54]

Urdu and English are the two official languages of Pakistan. Pashto has no official status at the federal level. On a provincial level, Pashto is the regional language of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and north Balochistan.[55] The primary medium of education in government schools in Pakistan is Urdu,[56] but from 2014 onwards, the Government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa has placed more emphasis on English as the medium of instruction.[57].This has caused growing resentment amongst Pashtuns, who also complain that Pashto is often neglected officially .[58][59].

.[60]

History


A number of linguists have argued that Pashto is descended from Avestan or a variety very similar to it.[18][23] However, the position that Pashto, or any other Iranian language, is a direct descendant of Avestan is not agreed upon. What scholars agree on is the fact that Pashto is an Eastern Iranian language sharing characteristics with Eastern Middle Iranian languages such as Khwarezmian, Sogdian and Bactrian.[61]

Strabo, who lived between 64 BC and 24 CE, explains that the tribes inhabiting the lands west of the Indus River were part of Ariana. This was around the time when the area inhabited by the Pashtuns was governed by the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom. From the 3rd century CE onward, they are mostly referred to by the name Afghan (Abgan).[62][63][64][14]

Scholars such as Abdul Hai Habibi and others believe that the earliest modern Pashto work dates back to Amir Kror Suri of the early Ghurid period in the eighth century, and they use the writings found in Pata Khazana. However, this is disputed by several modern experts such as David Neil MacKenzie and Lucia Serena Loi.[65][66] Pata Khazana is a Pashto manuscript[67] claimed to be written by Mohammad Hotak under the patronage of the Pashtun emperor Hussain Hotak in Kandahar. Pata Khazana claims to contain an anthology of Pashto poets from the early Ghurid period up to the Hotak period in the eighteenth century.[66]

From the 16th century, Pashto poetry become very popular among the Pashtuns. Some of those who wrote in Pashto are Bayazid Pir Roshan (a major inventor of the Pashto alphabet), Khushal Khan Khattak, Rahman Baba, Nazo Tokhi, and Ahmad Shah Durrani, founder of the modern state of Afghanistan or the Durrani Empire.

In modern times, noticing the incursion of Persian and Arabic vocabulary, there is a strong desire to "purify" Pashto by restoring its old vocabulary.[68][69][70]

Grammar
Main article: Pashto grammar

Pashto is a subject–object–verb (SOV) language with split ergativity. Adjectives come before nouns. Nouns and adjectives are inflected for two genders (masc./fem.),[71] two numbers (sing./plur.), and four cases (direct, oblique I, oblique II and vocative). There is also an inflection for the subjunctive mood. The verb system is very intricate with the following tenses: present, simple past, past progressive, present perfect, and past perfect. The sentence construction of Pashto has similarities with some other Indo-Iranian languages such as Prakrit and Bactrian. The possessor precedes the possessed in the genitive construction. The verb generally agrees with the subject in both transitive and intransitive sentences. An exception occurs when a completed action is reported in any of the past tenses (simple past, past progressive, present perfect, or past perfect). In such cases, the verb agrees with the subject if it is intransitive, but if it is transitive, it agrees with the object,[26] therefore Pashto shows a partly ergative behaviour. Like Kurdish, but unlike most other Indo-Iranian languages, Pashto uses all three types of adpositions – prepositions, postpositions, and circumpositions.

Phonology
Main article: Pashto phonology

Vowels
Front Central Back
Close iu
Mid e ə o
Open a ɑ

Consonants
Labial Denti-
alveolar		 Retroflex Post-
alveolar		 Palatal Velar Uvular Glottal
Nasal m n ɳ ŋ
Plosive p b t d ʈ ɖ k ɡ q
Affricate t͡s d͡z t͡ʃ d͡ʒ
Fricative f s z ʂ ~ ç ʐ ~ ʝ ʃ ʒ x ɣ h
Approximant l j w
Rhotic r ɺ̢ 

Phonemes that have been borrowed, thus non-native to Pashto, are colour-coded. The phonemes /q/ and /f/ tend to be replaced by [k] and [p] respectively.[72]

The retroflex lateral flap /ɭ̆/ (ɺ̢  or ) is pronounced as retroflex approximant [ɻ] when final.[73][74]

The retroflex fricatives /ʂ, ʐ/ and palatal fricatives /ç, ʝ/ represent dialectally different pronunciations of the same sound, not separate phonemes. In particular, the retroflex fricatives, which represent the original pronunciation of these sounds, are preserved in the southern/southwestern dialects (especially the prestige dialect of Kandahar), while they are pronounced as palatal fricatives in the west-central dialects. Other dialects merge the original retroflexes with other existing sounds: The southeastern dialects merge them with the postalveolar fricatives /ʃ, ʒ/, while the northern/northeastern dialects merge them with the velar phonemes in an asymmetric pattern, pronouncing them as /x, ɡ/ (not /ɣ/). Furthermore, according to Henderson (1983),[17] the west-central voiced palatal fricative /ʝ/ actually occurs only in the Wardak Province, and is merged into /ɡ/ elsewhere in the region.

The velars /k, ɡ, x, ɣ/ followed by the close back rounded vowel /u/ assimilate into the labialized velars [kʷ, ɡʷ, xʷ, ɣʷ].

Voiceless stops [p, t, t͡ʃ, k] are all unaspirated, like Spanish, other Romance languages, and Austronesian languages; they have slightly aspirated allophones prevocalically in a stressed syllable.

Vocabulary

In Pashto, most of the native elements of the lexicon are related to other Eastern Iranian languages. Some words are related to Ancient Greek dialects. However, a remarkably large number of words are unique to Pashto.[23] Post-7th century borrowings came primarily from Persian language and Hindi-Urdu, with Arabic words being borrowed through those two languages, but sometimes directly.[75][76] Modern speech borrows words from English, French, and German.[77]

Here is an exemplary list of Pure Pashto and borrowings:[78]

PashtoPersianArabicMeaning
چوپړ
chopaṛ		چاپار
chapar		خدمة
khidmah		service
هڅه
hatsa		کوشش
kušeš		جهد
jahd		effort/try
پرېکړه
prekṛa		گزیره
gazire		قرار
qarār		decision
ملګری, ملګرې
malgaray, malgare		دوست
dost		صديق
ṣadīq		friend

Writing system
Main article: Pashto alphabet

Pashto employs the Pashto alphabet, a modified form of the Perso-Arabic alphabet or Arabic script.[79] In the 16th century, Bayazid Pir Roshan introduced 13 new letters to the Pashto alphabet. The alphabet was further modified over the years.

The Pashto alphabet consists of 45 letters[80] and 4 diacritic marks. The following table gives the letters' isolated forms, along with the Latin equivalents and typical IPA values:

The Pashto Alphabet
ا
ā, ’
/ɑ, ʔ/		ب
b
/b/		پ
p
/p/		ت
t
/t̪/		ټ
ṭ
/ʈ/		ث
s
/s/		ج
j
/d͡ʒ/		ځ
ź
/d͡z/		چ
č
/t͡ʃ/		څ
c
/t͡s/		ح
h
/h/		خ
x
/x/
د
d
/d̪/		ډ
ḍ
/ɖ/		ﺫ
z
/z/		ﺭ
r
/r/		ړ
ṛ
/ɺ˞~ɻ/		ﺯ
z
/z/		ژ
ž
/ʒ/		ږ
ǵ (or ẓ̌)
/ʐ, ʝ, ɡ/		س
s
/s/		ش
š
/ʃ/		ښ
x̌ (or ṣ̌)
/ʂ, ç, x/
ص
s
/s/		ض
z
/z/		ط
t
/t̪/		ظ
z
/z/		ع
’
/ʔ/		غ
ğ
/ɣ/		ف
f
/f/		ق
q
/q/		ک
k
/k/		ګ
g
/ɡ/		ل
l
/l/
م
m
/m/		ن
n
/n/		ڼ
ṇ
/ɳ/		و
w, ū, o
/w, u, o/		ه
h, a
/h, a/		ۀ
ə
/ə/		ي
y, ī
/j, i/		ې
e
/e/		ی
ay, y
/ai, j/		ۍ
əi
/əi/		ئ
əi, y
/əi, j/

In January 2019, Anwar Wafi Hayat, Afghan researcher and writer proposed new Latin based alphabet for Pashto[81] His findings outline that the current Perso-Arabic script is a misfit for Pashto language and hinders literacy and economic development. Latin based Pashto alphabet, called Rumi Pashto script, consists of 42 letters and the writer believes if implemented, will make literacy and language acquisition easy.

No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
Latin Aa Āā Bb Cc Dd Ƌ̣ƌ̣ Ee Əə Ɛ̓ἐ Ff Gg Ġ̣ġ̣ Hh Ii Îî Jj J̈̇j̈̇ Kk Ll Mm Nn
Arabic َ زبر ا، آ ب څ د ډ ې ۀ غ ف ګ ږ ح ، ه ِ زېر ي ج ژ ک، ق ل م ن
No 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42
Latin N̥n̥ Oo Pp Rr ɺ̥ɹ̥ Ss S̈̇s̈̇ Ṩṩ Tt Ṭṭ Ꞇ́ ꞇ͘

/kh

 Ꞇ̴  ꞇ̴

/ch

 Uu Ūū Ww Yy Zz Z͑z͑ Ay ay Ai ai Əi əi
Arabic ڼ و پ ر ړ س، ص، ث ش ښ ت ټ خ چ ُ پیش وو و ی ذ، ز، ظ ځ ی ۍ، ئ ۍ

The following table contains Pashto text i-e Afghanistan National Anthem in the new Rumi alphabet.

Paṩto in Rūmî Script Pashto in Arabic Script
Millî Surūd ملي سرود
Dā watan Afgɛ̇ānistān day دا وطن افغانستان دی
Dā izzat də har Afɛ̇ān day دا عزت د هر افغان دی
Kor də sole kor də tūre کور د سولې کور د تورې
Har baꞇ̴ay ye kahramān day هر بچی یې قهرمان دی
Dā watan də ṭolo kor day دا وطن د ټولو کور دی
Də Baloc̈̇o, də uzbako د بلوڅو د ازبکو
Də Paṩtūn aw Hazārao د پښتون او هزاروو
Də Turkmano, Də Tājiko د ترکمنو د تاجکو
Wərsara Arab Gūjar dî ورسره عرب ګوجر دي
Pāmîrîyān, Nūristānyān پامیریان نورستانیان
Brāhawî dî, Kazalbās̈̇ dî, براهوی دي، قزلباش دي
Hum Aymāk, hum pas̈̇aîyān هم ایماق هم پشه ییان
Dā hewād ba təl z͑aleġ̣î دا هیواد به تل ځلیږي
Laka ləmar pər s̈̇nə āsmān لکه لمر پر شنه آسمان
Pə sîna ke də Asyā ba په سینه کې د آسیا به
Laka zɹ̥ə wî jāwedān لکه زړه وي جاویدان
Nūm də haq mo day rahbar نوم د حق مو دی رهبر
Wāyū Allāho Akbar, Wāyū Allāho Akbar وایو الله اکبر، وایو الله اکبر

Dialects
Main article: Pashto dialects

Pashto dialects are divided into two varieties, the "soft" southern variety Paṣ̌tō, and the "hard" northern variety Pax̌tō (Pakhtu).[15] Each variety is further divided into a number of dialects. The southern dialect of Wanetsi is the most distinctive Pashto dialect.

1. Southern variety

  • Durrani dialect (or Southern dialect)
  • Kakar dialect (or Southeastern dialect)
  • Shirani dialect
  • Mandokhel dialect
  • Marwat-Bettani dialect
  • Wanetsi dialect
  • Southern Karlani group

2. Northern variety

  • Central Ghilji dialect (or Northwestern dialect)
  • Northern dialect (or Eastern dialect)
  • Yusufzai dialect (or Northeastern dialect)
  • Northern Karlani group
  • Taniwola dialect
  • Khosti dialect
  • Zadran dialect
  • Bangash-Orakzai-Turi-Zazi-Mangal dialect
  • Afridi dialect
  • Khogyani dialect
  • Wardak dialect

Literature
Main article: Pashto literature and poetry

Pashto-speakers have long had a tradition of oral literature, including proverbs, stories, and poems. Written Pashto literature saw a rise in development in the 17th century mostly due to poets like Khushal Khan Khattak (1613–1689), who, along with Rahman Baba (1650–1715), is widely regarded as among the greatest Pashto poets. From the time of Ahmad Shah Durrani (1722–1772), Pashto has been the language of the court. The first Pashto teaching text was written during the period of Ahmad Shah Durrani by Pir Mohammad Kakar with the title of Maʿrifat al-Afghānī ("The Knowledge of Afghani [Pashto]"). After that, the first grammar book of Pashto verbs was written in 1805 under the title of Riyāż al-Maḥabbah ("Training in Affection") through the patronage of Nawab Mahabat Khan, son of Hafiz Rahmat Khan, chief of the Barech. Nawabullah Yar Khan, another son of Hafiz Rahmat Khan, in 1808 wrote a book of Pashto words entitled ʿAjāyib al-Lughāt ("Wonders of Languages").

Poetry example

An excerpt from the Kalām of Rahman Baba:

زۀ رحمان پۀ خپله ګرم يم چې مين يم
چې دا نور ټوپن مې بولي ګرم په څۀ

IPA: Zə ra.mɑn pə xpəl.a gram jəm t͡ʃe ma.jən jəm
t͡ʃe d̪ɑ nor ʈo.pan me bo.li gram pə t͡sə

Transliteration: Zə Rahmān pə xpəla gram yəm če mayən yəm
Če dā nor ṭopan me boli gram pə tsə

Translation: "I Rahman, myself am guilty that I am a lover,
On what does this other universe call me guilty."

Proverbs

Pashto also has a rich heritage of proverbs (Pashto matalūna, sg. matal).[82][83] An example of a proverb:

اوبه په ډانګ نه بېليږي

Transliteration: Uba pə ḍang na beliẓ̌i

Translation: "One cannot divide water by [hitting it with] a pole."

gollark: I mean, apart from the nice syntax.
gollark: > I wrap all my rust code inside an unsafe blockWHY EVEN PROGRAM RUST THENWHYWHYWHYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYY
gollark: > if unsafe = unlegal iirc the langauge becomes turing incompleteNope.
gollark: As I said, extremely unlegal.
gollark: `unsafe`: unlegal.

See also

Notes
  1. The only American pronunciation listed by Oxford Online Dictionaries is /ˈpæʃtoʊ/.[12]
  2. Sometimes spelled "Pushtu" or "Pushto",[10][11] and then either pronounced the same[13] or differently.[10][11] The spelling "Pakhto" is so rare that it is not even mentioned by any major English dictionaries nor recognized by major English–Pashto dictionaries such as Thepashto.com, and it is specifically listed by Ethnologue only as an alternative name for Northern Pashto, and not Southern or Central Pashto.

References
  1. Pashto at Ethnologue (22nd ed., 2019) (38 million)
  2. Penzl, Herbert; Ismail Sloan (2009). A Grammar of Pashto a Descriptive Study of the Dialect of Kandahar, Afghanistan. Ishi Press International. p. 210. ISBN 978-0-923891-72-5. Estimates of the number of Pashto speakers range from 40 million to 60 million...
  3. Nationalencyklopedin "Världens 100 största språk 2007" The World's 38 Largest Languages in 2007 (39 million)
  4. Pashto (2005). Keith Brown (ed.). Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics (2 ed.). Elsevier. ISBN 0-08-044299-4. (40 million)
  5. Constitution of Afghanistan – Chapter 1 The State, Article 16 (Languages) and Article 20 (Anthem)
  6. Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. 6 April 2010. pp. 845–. ISBN 978-0-08-087775-4.
  7. Sebeok, Thomas Albert (1976). Current Trends in Linguistics: Index. Walter de Gruyter. p. 705.
  8. Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Pashto". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
  9. "Pashto (less commonly Pushtu)". Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Merriam-Webster, Incorporated. Retrieved 18 July 2016.
  10. "Pashto (also Pushtu)". American Heritage Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. Retrieved 18 July 2016.
  11. "Pashto (also Pushtu)". Oxford Online Dictionaries, UK English. Oxford University Press.
  12. "Pashto (also Pushto or Pushtu)". Oxford Online Dictionaries, US English. Oxford University Press.
  13. "Pashto (also Pushtu)". Collins English Dictionary. HarperCollins Publishers. Retrieved 18 July 2016.
  14. John Leyden, Esq. M.D.; William Erskine, Esq., eds. (1921). "Events Of The Year 910 (1525)". Memoirs of Babur. Packard Humanities Institute. p. 5. Archived from the original on 14 November 2012. Retrieved 10 January 2012. To the south is Afghanistān. There are ten or eleven different languages spoken in Kābul: Arabic, Persian, Tūrki, Moghuli, Afghani, Pashāi, Parāchi, Geberi, Bereki, Dari and Lamghāni.
  15. Claus, Peter J.; Diamond, Sarah; Ann Mills, Margaret (2003). South Asian Folklore: An Encyclopedia : Afghanistan, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka. Taylor & Francis. p. 447. ISBN 9780415939195.
  16. Henderson, Michael. "The Phonology of Pashto" (PDF). Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 October 2012. Retrieved 20 August 2012.
  17. Henderson, Michael (1983). "Four Varieties of Pashto". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 103 (3): 595–8. doi:10.2307/602038. JSTOR 602038.
  18. Darmesteter, James (1890). Chants populaires des Afghans. Paris.
  19. "Article Sixteen of the 2004 Constitution of Afghanistan". 2004. Retrieved 13 June 2012. From among the languages of Pashto, Dari, Uzbeki, Turkmani, Baluchi, Pashai, Nuristani, Pamiri (alsana), Arab and other languages spoken in the country, Pashto and Dari are the official languages of the state.
  20. Banting, Erinn (2003). Afghanistan: The land. Crabtree Publishing Company. p. 4. ISBN 0-7787-9335-4. Retrieved 22 August 2010.
  21. Population by Mother Tongue, Population Census – Pakistan Bureau of Statistics, Government of Pakistan
  22. Proof-error. This article claims in text (A) this language spoken in West/Northwestern Afghanistan, but (B) map shows regions colored in East/Southeast. It's unclear which reference is inaccurate, the text or the map?
  23. "AFGHANISTAN vi. Paṧto". G. Morgenstierne. Encyclopaedia Iranica. Retrieved 10 October 2010. Paṧtō undoubtedly belongs to the Northeastern Iranic branch.
  24. Nicholas Sims-Williams, Eastern Iranian languages, in Encyclopaedia Iranica, Online Edition, 2010. "The Modern Eastern Iranian languages are even more numerous and varied. Most of them are classified as North-Eastern: Ossetic; Yaghnobi (which derives from a dialect closely related to Sogdian); the Shughni group (Shughni, Roshani, Khufi, Bartangi, Roshorvi, Sarikoli), with which Yaz-1ghulami (Sokolova 1967) and the now extinct Wanji (J. Payne in Schmitt, p. 420) are closely linked; Ishkashmi, Sanglichi, and Zebaki; Wakhi; Munji and Yidgha; and Pashto."
  25. Paul M. Lewis, ed. (2009). "Pashto Family Tree". SIL International. Dallas, Texas: Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Sixteenth edition. Archived from the original on 13 March 2015. Retrieved 2 April 2011.
  26. "Pashto language". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 7 December 2010.
  27. "Languages: Afghanistan". Central Intelligence Agency. The World Factbook. Retrieved 29 June 2020.
  28. Brown, Keith; Sarah Ogilvie (2009). Concise encyclopedia of languages of the world. Elsevie. p. 845. ISBN 978-0-08-087774-7. Retrieved 7 April 2012. Pashto, which is mainly spoken south of the mountain range of the Hindu Kush, is reportedly the mother tongue of 60% of the Afghan population.
  29. "Pashto". UCLA International Institute: Center for World Languages. University of California, Los Angeles. Archived from the original on 3 January 2009. Retrieved 10 December 2010.
  30. "AFGHANISTAN v. Languages". Ch. M. Kieffer. Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 10 October 2010. A. Official languages. Paṧtō (1) is the native tongue of 50 to 55 percent of Afghans...
  31. "Government of Pakistan: Population by Mother Tongue" (PDF). statpak.gov.pk. Pakistan Bureau of Statistics. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 February 2006. Retrieved 18 July 2016.
  32. http://www.pbs.gov.pk/sites/default/files/tables/POPULATION%20BY%20MOTHER%20TONGUE.pdf
  33. Sharmeen Obaid-Chinoy (17 July 2009). "Karachi's Invisible Enemy". PBS. Retrieved 24 August 2010.
  34. "Pashto, Southern". SIL International. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, 14th edition. 2000. Archived from the original on 26 June 2008. Retrieved 18 September 2010.
  35. "Languages of Iran". SIL International. Ethnologue: Languages of the World. Archived from the original on 4 February 2012. Retrieved 27 September 2010.
  36. https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tattooed-blue-skinned-hindu-pushtuns-look-back-at-their-roots/article22645932.ece
  37. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-32377276
  38. https://www.thebetterindia.com/155394/hindu-pashtun-shilpi-batra-sheenkhalai-afghanistan/
  39. "Languages of United Arab Emirates". SIL International. Ethnologue: Languages of the World. Retrieved 27 September 2010.
  40. "Languages of United Kingdom". SIL International. Ethnologue: Languages of the World. Retrieved 27 September 2010.
  41. Modarresi, Yahya: "Iran, Afghanistan and Tadjikistan, 1911–1916." In: Sociolinguistics, Vol. 3, Part. 3. Ulrich Ammon, Norbert Dittmar, Klaus J. Mattheier, Peter Trudgill (eds.). Berlin, De Gryuter: 2006. p. 1915. ISBN 3-11-018418-4
  42. Tariq Rahman. "Pashto Language & Identity Formation in Pakistan." Contemporary South Asia, July 1995, Vol 4, Issue 2, p151-20.
  43. Lorenz, Manfred. "Die Herausbildung moderner iranischer Literatursprachen." In: Zeitschrift für Phonetik, Sprachwissenschaft und Kommunikationsforschung, Vol. 36. Akademie der Wissenschaften der DDR. Akademie Verlag, Berlin: 1983. P. 184ff.
  44. Other sources note 1933, i.e. Johannes Christian Meyer-Ingwersen. Untersuchungen zum Satzbau des Paschto. 1966. Ph.D. Thesis, Hamburg 1966.
  45. Hussain, Rizwan. Pakistan and the emergence of Islamic militancy in Afghanistan. Burlington, Ashgate: 2005. p. 63.
  46. István Fodor, Claude Hagège. Reform of Languages. Buske, 1983. P. 105ff.
  47. Campbell, George L.: Concise Compendium of the world's languages. London: Routledge 1999.
  48. Dupree, Louis: "Language and Politics in Afghanistan." In: Contributions to Asian Studies. Vol. 11/1978. p. 131–141. E. J. Brill, Leiden 1978. p. 131.
  49. Spooner, Bryan: "Are we teaching Persian?" In: Persian Studies in North America: Studies in Honor of Mohammad Ali Jazayery. Mehdi Marashi (ed.). Bethesda, Iranbooks: 1994. p. 1983.
  50. "Government of Pakistan: Population by Mother Tongue" (PDF). statpak.gov.pk. Pakistan Bureau of Statistics. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 February 2006. Retrieved 18 July 2016.
  51. http://www.pbs.gov.pk/sites/default/files/tables/POPULATION%20BY%20MOTHER%20TONGUE.pdf
  52. "In a city of ethnic friction, more tinder". The National. 24 August 2009. Archived from the original on 16 January 2010. Retrieved 24 August 2010.
  53. "Columnists | The Pakhtun in Karachi". Time. 28 August 2010. Retrieved 8 September 2011.
  54. Archived 9 December 2012 at Archive.today, thefridaytimes
  55. Septfonds, D. 2006. Pashto. In: Concise encyclopedia of languages of the world. 845 – 848. Keith Brown / Sarah Ogilvie (eds.). Elsevier, Oxford: 2009.
  56. Rahman, Tariq (2004), Craig Baxter (ed.), Education in Pakistan a Survey, Pakistan on the Brink: Politics, Economics and Society, Lexington Books, p. 172, ISBN 978-0195978056
  57. Rahim, Bushra (28 September 2014). "Will change in medium of instruction improve education in KP?". dawn.com. Retrieved 18 July 2016.
  58. Daniel Hallberg (1992). Sociolinguistic Survey of Northern Pakistan (PDF). 4. Quaid-i-Azam University & Summer Institute of Linguistics. p. 36 to 37. ISBN 969-8023-14-3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 July 2018. Retrieved 6 October 2014.
  59. "د کرښې پرغاړه (په پاکستان کې د مورنیو ژبو حیثیت)". mashaalradio.org. Retrieved 18 July 2016.
  60. Hywel Coleman (2010). TEACHING AND LEARNING IN PAKISTAN: THE ROLE OF LANGUAGE IN EDUCATION (Report). British Council, Pakistan. Archived from the original on 4 November 2010. Retrieved 24 September 2012.
  61. Comrie, Bernard (2009). The world's major languages. Routledge.
  62. "Afghan and Afghanistan". Abdul Hai Habibi. alamahabibi.com. 1969. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
  63. "History of Afghanistan". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 22 November 2010.
  64. Noelle-Karimi, Christine; Conrad J. Schetter; Reinhard Schlagintweit (2002). Afghanistan – a country without a state?. University of Michigan, United States: IKO. p. 18. ISBN 3-88939-628-3. The earliest mention of the name 'Afghan' (Abgan) is to be found in a Sasanid inscription from the third century AD and their language as "Afghani".
  65. David Neil MacKenzie: David N. Mackenzie: The Development of the Pashto Script. In: Shirin Akiner (Editor): Languages and Scripts of Central Asia. School of Oriental and African Studies, Univ. of London, London 1997, ISBN 978-0-7286-0272-4.p. 142
  66. Lucia Serena Loi: Il tesoro nascosto degli Afghani. Il Cavaliere azzurro, Bologna 1987, p. 33
  67. "Pata Khazana" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 July 2011. Retrieved 27 September 2010.
  68. Ehsan M Entezar (2008). Afghanistan 101: Understanding Afghan Culture. Xlibris Corporation. p. 89. ISBN 978-1-4257-9302-9.
  69. Carol Benson; Kimmo Kosonen (13 June 2013). Language Issues in Comparative Education: Inclusive Teaching and Learning in Non-Dominant Languages and Cultures. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 64–. ISBN 978-94-6209-218-1.
  70. Muhammad Gul Khan Momand, Hewād Afghanistan
  71. Emeneau, M. B. (1962) "Bilingualism and Structural Borrowing" Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 106(5): pp. 430–442, p. 441
  72. Tegey, Habibullah; Robson, Barbara (1996). A Reference Grammar of Pashto (PDF). Washington: Center for Applied Linguistics. p. 15.
  73. D.N. MacKenzie, 1990, "Pashto", in Bernard Comrie, ed, The major languages of South Asia, the Middle East and Africa, p. 103
  74. Herbert Penzl, 1965, A Reader of Pashto, p 7
  75. Vladimir Kushev (1997). "Areal Lexical Contacts of the Afghan (Pashto) Language (Based on the Texts of the XVI-XVIII Centuries)". Iran and the Caucasus. 1: 159–166. doi:10.1163/157338497x00085. JSTOR 4030748.
  76. Census Commissioner, India (1937). "Census of India, 1931, Volume 17, Part 2". Times of India: 292. Retrieved 7 June 2009. At the same time Pashto has borrowed largely from Persian and Hindustani, and through those languages from Arabic.
  77. Herbert Penzl (January–March 1961). "Western Loanwords in Modern Pashto". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 81 (1): 43–52. doi:10.2307/594900. JSTOR 594900.
  78. Raverty, Henry George Rahman (1867). A dictionary of the Puk'hto, Pus'hto, or language of the Afghans (2 ed.). London: Williams and Norgate.
  79. John Hladczuk (1992). International Handbook of Reading Education. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 148. ISBN 9780313262531.
  80. Ullah, Noor (2011). Pashto Grammar. AuthorHouse. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-4567-8007-4.
  81. Hayat, Anwar. "The Impact of Arabic Orthography on Literacy and Economic Development in Afghanistan".
  82. Zellem, Edward (2014). Mataluna: 151 Afghan Pashto Proverbs. Cultures Direct Press. ISBN 978-0692215180.
  83. Bartlotti, Leonard and Raj Wali Shah Khattak, eds. (2006). Rohi Mataluna: Pashto Proverbs, (revised and expanded edition). First edition by Mohammad Nawaz Tair and Thomas C. Edwards, eds. Peshawar, Pakistan: Interlit and Pashto Academy, Peshawar University.

Bibliography
  • Schmidt, Rüdiger (ed.) (1989). Compendium Linguarum Iranicarum. Wiesbaden: Reichert. ISBN 3-88226-413-6.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link)
  • Georg Morgenstierne (1926) Report on a Linguistic Mission to Afghanistan. Instituttet for Sammenlignende Kulturforskning, Serie C I-2. Oslo. ISBN 0-923891-09-9
  • Daniel G. Hallberg (1992) Pashto, Waneci, Ormuri (Sociolinguistic Survey of Northern Pakistan, 4). National Institute of Pakistani Studies, 176 pp. ISBN 969-8023-14-3.
  • Herbert Penzl A Grammar of Pashto: A Descriptive Study of the Dialect of Kandahar, Afghanistan, ISBN 0-923891-72-2
  • Herbert Penzl A Reader of Pashto, ISBN 0-923891-71-4
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.