Iranian languages

The Iranian or Iranic languages[2][3] are a branch of the Indo-Iranian languages in the Indo-European language family that are spoken natively by the Iranian peoples.

This article is about the language family. For languages spoken in Iran, see Languages of Iran. For the official language of Iran, see Persian language.

Iranian
Iranic
Ethnicity	Iranian peoples
Geographic distribution	West Asia, Caucasus, Central Asia, and South Asia
Linguistic classification	Indo-European Indo-Iranian Iranian
Proto-language	Proto-Iranian
Subdivisions	Western Avestan (Central) Eastern
ISO 639-2 / 5	ira
Linguasphere	58= (phylozone)
Glottolog	iran1269[1]
Countries and areas where an Iranian language has official status or is spoken by a majority

The Iranian languages are grouped in three stages: Old Iranian (until 400 BC), Middle Iranian (400 BC – 900 AD), and New Iranian (since 900 AD). The two directly attested Old Iranian languages are Old Persian (from the Achaemenid Empire) and Old Avestan (the language of the Avesta). Of the Middle Iranian languages, the better understood and recorded ones are Middle Persian (from the Sasanian Empire), Parthian (from the Parthian Empire), and Bactrian (from the Kushan and Hephthalite empires).

As of 2008, there were an estimated 150–200 million native speakers of the Iranian languages.[4] Ethnologue estimates that there are 86 Iranian languages,[5][6] the largest among them being Persian, Pashto, Kurdish, and the Balochi languages.[7]

Term

The term Iranian is applied to any language which descends from the ancestral Proto-Iranian language.[8]

Some scholars such as John Perry prefer the term Iranic as the anthropological name for the linguistic family and ethnic groups of this category (many of which exist outside Iran), while Iranian for anything about the country Iran. He uses the same analogue as in differentiating German from Germanic or differentiating Turkish and Turkic.[9]

This use of the term for the Iranian language family was introduced in 1836 by Christian Lassen.[10] Robert Needham Cust used the term Irano-Aryan in 1878,[11] and Orientalists such as George Abraham Grierson and Max Müller contrasted Irano-Aryan (Iranian) and Indo-Aryan (Indic). Some recent scholarship, primarily in German, has revived this convention.[12][13][14][15]

The Iranian languages are divided into the following branches:

• The Western Iranian languages subdivided into:
  • Southwestern, of which Persian is the dominant member;
  • Northwestern, of which the Kurdish languages are the dominant members.
• The Eastern Iranian languages subdivided into:
  • Southeastern, of which Pashto is the dominant member;
  • Northeastern, by far the smallest branch, of which Ossetian is the dominant member.

Proto-Iranian

Genetic division of Iranic languages

Historical distribution in 100 BC: shown are Sarmatia, Scythia, Bactria (Eastern Iranian, in orange); and the Parthian Empire (Western Iranian, in red)

The Iranian languages all descend from a common ancestor: Proto-Iranian which itself evolved from Proto-Indo-Iranian. This ancestor language is speculated to have origins in Central Asia, and the Andronovo Culture is suggested as a candidate for the common Indo-Iranian culture around 2000 BC.

It was situated precisely in the western part of Central Asia that borders present-day Russia (and present-day Kazakhstan). It was in relative proximity to the other satem ethno-linguistic groups of the Indo-European family, like Thracian, Balto-Slavic and others, and to common Indo-European's original homeland (more precisely, the Eurasian Steppe to the north of the Caucasus), according to the reconstructed linguistic relationships of common Indo-European.

Proto-Iranian thus dates to some time after Proto-Indo-Iranian break-up, or the early second millennium BCE, as the Old Iranian languages began to break off and evolve separately as the various Iranian tribes migrated and settled in vast areas of southeastern Europe, the Iranian plateau, and Central Asia.

Proto-Iranian innovations compared to Proto-Indo-Iranian include:[16] the turning of sibilant fricative *s into non-sibilant fricative glottal *h; the voiced aspirated plosives *bʰ, *dʰ, *gʰ yielding to the voiced unaspirated plosives *b, *d, *g resp.; the voiceless unaspirated stops *p, *t, *k before another consonant changing into fricatives *f, *θ, *x resp.; voiceless aspirated stops *pʰ, *tʰ, *kʰ turning into fricatives *f, *θ, *x, resp.

Old Iranian

The multitude of Middle Iranian languages and peoples indicate that great linguistic diversity must have existed among the ancient speakers of Iranian languages. Of that variety of languages/dialects, direct evidence of only two have survived. These are:

• Avestan, the two languages/dialects of the Avesta, i.e. the liturgical texts of Zoroastrianism.
• Old Persian, the native language of a south-western Iranian people known as Persians.[17]

Indirectly attested Old Iranian languages are discussed below.

Old Persian was an Old Iranian dialect as it was spoken in south-western Iran by the inhabitants of Parsa or Persia, who also gave their name to their region and language. Genuine Old Persian is best attested in one of the three languages of the Behistun inscription, composed circa 520 BC, and which is the last inscription (and only inscription of significant length) in which Old Persian is still grammatically correct. Later inscriptions are comparatively brief, and typically simply copies of words and phrases from earlier ones, often with grammatical errors, which suggests that by the 4th century BC the transition from Old Persian to Middle Persian was already far advanced, but efforts were still being made to retain an "old" quality for official proclamations.

The other directly attested Old Iranian dialects are the two forms of Avestan, which take their name from their use in the Avesta, the liturgical texts of indigenous Iranian religion that now goes by the name of Zoroastrianism but in the Avesta itself is simply known as vohu daena (later: behdin). The language of the Avesta is subdivided into two dialects, conventionally known as "Old (or 'Gathic') Avestan", and "Younger Avestan". These terms, which date to the 19th century, are slightly misleading since 'Younger Avestan' is not only much younger than 'Old Avestan', but also from a different geographic region. The Old Avestan dialect is very archaic, and at roughly the same stage of development as Rigvedic Sanskrit. On the other hand, Younger Avestan is at about the same linguistic stage as Old Persian, but by virtue of its use as a sacred language retained its "old" characteristics long after the Old Iranian languages had yielded to their Middle Iranian stage. Unlike Old Persian, which has Middle Persian as its known successor, Avestan has no clearly identifiable Middle Iranian stage (the effect of Middle Iranian is indistinguishable from effects due to other causes).

In addition to Old Persian and Avestan, which are the only directly attested Old Iranian languages, all Middle Iranian languages must have had a predecessor "Old Iranian" form of that language, and thus can all be said to have had an (at least hypothetical) "Old" form. Such hypothetical Old Iranian languages include Carduchian (the hypothetical predecessor to Kurdish) and Old Parthian. Additionally, the existence of unattested languages can sometimes be inferred from the impact they had on neighbouring languages. Such transfer is known to have occurred for Old Persian, which has (what is called) a "Median" substrate in some of its vocabulary.[18] Also, foreign references to languages can also provide a hint to the existence of otherwise unattested languages, for example through toponyms/ethnonyms or in the recording of vocabulary, as Herodotus did for what he called "Scythian".

Isoglosses

Conventionally, Iranian languages are grouped in "western" and "eastern" branches.[19] These terms have little meaning with respect to Old Avestan as that stage of the language may predate the settling of the Iranian peoples into western and eastern groups. The geographic terms also have little meaning when applied to Younger Avestan since it isn't known where that dialect (or dialects) was spoken either. Certain is only that Avestan (all forms) and Old Persian are distinct, and since Old Persian is "western", and Avestan was not Old Persian, Avestan acquired a default assignment to "eastern". Confusing the issue is the introduction of a western Iranian substrate in later Avestan compositions and redactions undertaken at the centers of imperial power in western Iran (either in the south-west in Persia, or in the north-west in Nisa/Parthia and Ecbatana/Media).

Two of the earliest dialectal divisions among Iranian indeed happen to not follow the later division into Western and Eastern blocks. These concern the fate of the Proto-Indo-Iranian first-series palatal consonants, *ć and *dź:[20]

• Avestan and most other Iranian languages have deaffricated and depalatalized these consonants, and have *ć > s, *dź > z.
• Old Persian, however, has fronted these consonants further: *ć > θ, *dź > *ð > d.

As a common intermediate stage, it is possible to reconstruct depalatalized affricates: *c, *dz. (This coincides with the state of affairs in the neighboring Nuristani languages.) A further complication however concerns the consonant clusters *ćw and *dźw:

• Avestan and most other Iranian languages have shifted these clusters to sp, zb.
• In Old Persian, these clusters yield s, z, with loss of the glide *w, but without further fronting.
• The Saka language, attested in the Middle Iranian period, and its modern relative Wakhi fail to fit into either group: in these, palatalization remains, and similar glide loss as in Old Persian occurs: *ćw > š, *dźw > ž.

A division of Iranian languages in at least three groups during the Old Iranian period is thus implied:

• Persid (Old Persian and its descendants)
• Sakan (Saka, Wakhi, and their Old Iranian ancestor)
• Central Iranian (all other Iranian languages)

It is possible that other distinct dialect groups were already in existence during this period. Good candidates are the hypothetical ancestor languages of Alanian/Scytho-Sarmatian subgroup of Scythian in the far northwest; and the hypothetical "Old Parthian" (the Old Iranian ancestor of Parthian) in the near northwest, where original *dw > *b (paralleling the development of *ćw).

Middle Iranian languages

What is known in Iranian linguistic history as the "Middle Iranian" era is thought to begin around the 4th century BCE lasting through the 9th century. Linguistically the Middle Iranian languages are conventionally classified into two main groups, Western and Eastern.

The Western family includes Parthian (Arsacid Pahlavi) and Middle Persian, while Bactrian, Sogdian, Khwarezmian, Saka, and Old Ossetic (Scytho-Sarmatian) fall under the Eastern category. The two languages of the Western group were linguistically very close to each other, but quite distinct from their eastern counterparts. On the other hand, the Eastern group was an areal entity whose languages retained some similarity to Avestan. They were inscribed in various Aramaic-derived alphabets which had ultimately evolved from the Achaemenid Imperial Aramaic script, though Bactrian was written using an adapted Greek script.

Middle Persian (Pahlavi) was the official language under the Sasanian dynasty in Iran. It was in use from the 3rd century CE until the beginning of the 10th century. The script used for Middle Persian in this era underwent significant maturity. Middle Persian, Parthian and Sogdian were also used as literary languages by the Manichaeans, whose texts also survive in various non-Iranian languages, from Latin to Chinese. Manichaean texts were written in a script closely akin to the Syriac script.[21]

New Iranian languages

See also: Persian literature, Pashto literature, Ossetian literature, Kurdish literature, and Tajik literature

Dark green: countries where Iranian languages are official.
Teal: regional co-official/de facto status.

Following the Islamic Conquest of Persia, there were important changes in the role of the different dialects within the Persian Empire. The old prestige form of Middle Iranian, also known as Pahlavi, was replaced by a new standard dialect called Dari as the official language of the court. The name Dari comes from the word darbâr (دربار), which refers to the royal court, where many of the poets, protagonists, and patrons of the literature flourished. The Saffarid dynasty in particular was the first in a line of many dynasties to officially adopt the new language in 875 CE. Dari may have been heavily influenced by regional dialects of eastern Iran, whereas the earlier Pahlavi standard was based more on western dialects. This new prestige dialect became the basis of Standard New Persian. Medieval Iranian scholars such as Abdullah Ibn al-Muqaffa (8th century) and Ibn al-Nadim (10th century) associated the term "Dari" with the eastern province of Khorasan, while they used the term "Pahlavi" to describe the dialects of the northwestern areas between Isfahan and Azerbaijan, and "Pârsi" ("Persian" proper) to describe the Dialects of Fars. They also noted that the unofficial language of the royalty itself was yet another dialect, "Khuzi", associated with the western province of Khuzestan.

Geographic distribution of modern Iranian languages

The Islamic conquest also brought with it the adoption of Arabic script for writing Persian and much later, Kurdish, Pashto and Balochi. All three were adapted to the writing by the addition of a few letters. This development probably occurred some time during the second half of the 8th century, when the old middle Persian script began dwindling in usage. The Arabic script remains in use in contemporary modern Persian. Tajik script, used to write the Tajik language, was first Latinised in the 1920s under the then Soviet nationality policy. The script was however subsequently Cyrillicized in the 1930s by the Soviet government.

The geographical regions in which Iranian languages were spoken were pushed back in several areas by newly neighbouring languages. Arabic spread into some parts of Western Iran (Khuzestan), and Turkic languages spread through much of Central Asia, displacing various Iranian languages such as Sogdian and Bactrian in parts of what is today Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan. In Eastern Europe, mostly comprising the territory of modern-day Ukraine, southern European Russia, and parts of the Balkans, the core region of the native Scythians, Sarmatians, and Alans had been decisively taken over as a result of absorption and assimilation (e.g. Slavicisation) by the various Proto-Slavic population of the region, by the 6th century AD.[22][23][24][25] This resulted in the displacement and extinction of the once predominant Scythian languages of the region. Sogdian's close relative Yaghnobi barely survives in a small area of the Zarafshan valley east of Samarkand, and Saka as Ossetic in the Caucasus, which is the sole remnant of the once predominant Scythian languages in Eastern Europe proper and large parts of the North Caucasus. Various small Iranian languages in the Pamir Mountains survive that are derived from Eastern Iranian.

Comparison table

English	Zaza	Sorani	Kurmanji	Pashto	Tati	Talyshi	Balochi	Mazanderani	Tat	Persian	Middle Persian	Parthian	Old Persian	Avestan	Ossetian
beautiful	rınd, xasek	nayab, cuwan	rind, delal, bedew, xweşik	x̌kūlay, x̌āista	xojir	ghašang	dorr, soherâ, mah rang, sharr, juwān	xoşgel, xojir	güzəl, ziba, qəşəng	zibā/xuš-čehr(e)/xoşgel(ak)/ghashanq/najib	hučihr, hužihr	hužihr	naiba	vahu-, srîra	ræsughd
blood	goni	xwên	xwîn, xwûn	wīna	xevn	xun	hon	xun	xun	xūn	xōn	gōxan		vohuni-	tug
bread	nan, non	nan	nan	ḍoḍəi, məṛəi	nun	nun	nān, nagan	nun	nun	nān	nān	nān			dzul
bring	ardene	/anîn, hawerdin	anîn, hînan	(rā)wṛəl	vârden, biyordon	varde	âurten, yārag, ārag	biyârden	avardən	āwurdan, biyār ("(you) bring!")	āwurdan, āwāy-, āwar-, bar-	āwāy-, āwar-, bar-	bara-	bara, bar-	xæssyn
brother	bıra	brader, bira	bra, brarg, brang, brat	wror	bərâr	bira, boli	brāt, brās	birâr	birar	barādar	brād, brâdar	brād, brādar	brātar	brātar-	æfsymær
come	ameyene	hatin, were	hatin, atin, were,	rā tləl	biyâmiyan	ome	āhag, āyag, hatin	biyamona, enen, biyâmuen	amarən	āmadan	āmadan, awar	awar, čām	āy-, āgam	āgam-	cæwyn
cry	bermayene	girîn, giryan	grîn, griyan	žəṛəl	bərma	berame, bame	greewag, grehten	birme	girəstən	gerīstan/gerīye	griy-, bram-	barmâdan			kæwyn
dark	tari	tarî/tarîk	tarî	skəṇ, skaṇ, tyara	ul, gur, târica, târek	toki	tār		tariki	tārīk, tār	tārīg/k	tārīg, tārēn	tārīk	sâmahe, sâma	tar
daughter	kêna/keyna, çêna/çêneke[26]	kîj, kiç, kenişk, düet (pehlewanî)	dot (daughter) keç(girl)	lūr	titiye, dətar	kinə, kila	dohtir, duttag	kîjâ(girl), deter (daughter)	duxtər	doxtar	duxtar	duxt, duxtar		duxδar	čyzg (Iron), kizgæ (Digor)
day	roce, roje, roze	řoj	roj	wrəd͡z (rwəd͡z)	revj, ruz	ruj	roç	ruz, ruj	ruz	rūz	rōz		raucah-	raocah-	bon
do	kerdene	kirdin	kirin	kawəl	kardan, kordan	karde	kanag, kurtin	hâkerden	saxtən	kardan	kardan	kartan	kạrta-	kәrәta-	kænyn
door	ber, keyber, çêber	derge/derke, derga	derî	wər	darvâca	bə	dar, gelo, darwāzag	dar, loş	dər	dar	dar	dar, bar	duvara-	dvara-	dwar
die	merdene	merden	mirin	mrəl	bamarden	marde	mireg, murten	bamerden	mürdən	mordan	murdan		mạriya-	mar-	mælyn
donkey	her	ker	ker	xər	astar, xar	hə, hər	har, her, kar	xar	xər	xar	xar				xæræg
eat	werdene	xwardin	xwarin, xwartin, xartin	xwāṛə, xurāk / xwaṛəl	harden	harde	warag, warâk, wārten	xerâk / baxârden	xardən	xordan / xurāk	parwarz / xwâr, xwardīg	parwarz / xwâr		hareθra / ad-, at-	xærinag
egg	hak, akk	hêk/hêlke, tum	hêk	hagəi	merqâna, karxâ	morqana, uyə	heyg, heyk, ā morg	merqâne, tîm, balî	xaykərg	toxm, xāya ("testicle")	toxmag, xâyag	taoxmag, xâyag		taoxma-	ajk
earth	erd	zemîn, zawî, ʿerz, erd	erd, zevî	d͡zməka (md͡zəka)	zemin	zamin	zemin, degār	zamîn, bene	xari	zamīn	zamīg	zamīg	zam-	zãm, zam, zem	zæxx
evening	şan, êre	êware	êvar	māx̌ām (māš̥ām)	nomâzyar, nomâšon	shav	begáh	nemâşun	şangum	begáh	ēvārag	êbêrag			izær
eye	çım	çaw/çaş	çav	stərga	coš	čaş,gelgan	cham, chem	çəş, bəj	çüm	čashm	čašm	čašm	čaša-	čašman-	cæst
father	pi, pêr	bawk, bab,baba	bav, bab	plār	piyar, piya, dada	piya, lala, po	pet, pes	pîyer, per	piyər	pedar, bābā	pidar	pid	pitar	pitar	fyd
fear	ters	tirs	tirs	wēra (yara), bēra	târs	tars	turs, terseg	taşe-vaşe, tars	tərsi	tars, harās	tars	tars	tạrsa-	tares-	tas
fiancé	waşti	dasgîran,xwşavest	dergîstî, xwestî	čənghol [masculine], čənghəla [feminine]	numzâ	nomja	nāmzād	numze	nükürdə	nāmzād	-	-			usag
fine	weş, hewl	xwş	xwaş, xweş, xaş,	x̌a (š̥a), səm	xojir, xar	xoş	wash, hosh	xâr, xeş, xojir	xuş, xas, xub	xoš, xūb, beh	dārmag			srîra	xorz, dzæbæx
finger	engışte/gışte, bêçıke	engust, pence,angus	tilî, pêçî	gwəta	anquš	anqiştə	changol, mordâneg, lenkutk	angus	əngüşt	angošt	angust			dišti-	ængwyldz
fire	adır	ager/awir, ahir,ayer	agir	wōr (ōr)	taš	otaş	âch, atesh, âs	taş	ataş	ātaš, āzar	âdur, âtaxsh	ādur	âç-	âtre-/aêsma-	art
fish	mase	masî	masî	kəb	mâyi	moy	māhi, māhig	mâhî	mahi	māhi	māhig	māsyāg		masya	kæsag
go	şiayene	çûn, řoştin, řoyiştin	çûn	tləl	šiyen, bišiyan	şe	shoten	şunen / burden	raftən	ro/şo	şow/row	ay-	ai-	ay-, fra-vaz	cæwyn
God	Homa/Huma/Oma, Heq	Yezdan, Xwedê, Xuda, Xodê, Xwa(y)	Xwedê, Xweda, Xwadê, Xudê	Xwədāi	Xədâ	Xıdo	Xoda, Hwdâ	Xedâ	Xuda	Xodā, Izad, Yazdān, Baq	Xudā/Yazdān		baga-	baya-	xwycaw
good	hewl, rınd, weş	baş, çak,xas	baş, rind	x̌ə (š̥ə)	xâr, xojir	çok	zabr, sharr, jowain	xâr, xeş, xojir	xub, xas	xub, nīkū, beh	xūb, nêkog, beh		vahu-	vohu, vaŋhu-	xorz
grass	vaş	giya/gya	gîya, çêre	wāx̌ə (wāš̥ə)	vâš	alaf	rem, sabzag	vâş	güyo	sabzeh, giyāh	giyâ	giya	viş	urvarâ	kærdæg
great	gırd/gırs, pil	gewre,mazen	mezin, gir	lōy, stər	pilla	yol, yal, vaz, dıjd	mastar, mazan,tuh	gat, pilla	kələ	bozorg	wuzurg, pīl, yal		vazraka-	uta-, avañt	styr
hand	dest	dast, das	dest	lās	bâl	dast	dast	das, bāl	dəs	dast	dast	dast	dasta-	zasta-	k'ux / arm
head	ser	ser	ser	sər	kalla	sə, sər	sar, sarag, saghar	kalle, sar	sər	sar	sar		kalli	sairi	sær
heart	zerri/zerre	dil/dił/dir(Erbil)/zil	dil	zṛə	dəl	dıl	dil, hatyr	del, zel, zil	dül	del	dil	dil		aηhuš	zærdæ
horse	estor/ostor/astor	asp/hesp/esp, hês(t)ir	esp, hesp	ās [male], aspa [female]	asb, astar	asp	asp	asp, as	əs	asb	asp, stōr	asp, stōr	aspa	aspa-	bæx
house	keye/çeye[27][28], ban	mał, xanu, xang, ghat	mal, xanî, ban	kor	kiya	ka	ges, dawâr, log	sere, xene	xunə	xāne	xânag			demâna-, nmâna-	xædzar
hungry	vêşan/veyşan	bersî	birçî	lwəga	vašnâ, vešir, gesnâ	vahşian	shudig, shud	veşnâ	gisnə	gorosne, goşne	gursag, shuy	veşnâg
language (also tongue)	zıwan, zon, zuan, zuon, juan, jüan	zeman, zuwan	ziman	žəba	zobun, zəvân	zivon	zewān, zobān	zivun, zebun	zuhun	zabān	zuwān	izβān	hazâna-	hizvā-	ævzag
laugh	huyayene	kenîn/pêkenîn, kenîn,xanda,xana	kenîn	xandəl/xənda	xurəsen, xandastan	sıre	hendag, xandag	rîk, baxendesten	xəndə	xande	xande, xand		karta	Syaoθnâvareza-	xudyn
life	cuye, weşiye	jiyan,gyian	jiyan	žwəndūn, žwənd	zindәgi	jimon	zendegih, zind	zindegî, jan	həyat	zendegi, jan	zīndagīh, zīwišnīh	žīwahr, žīw-		gaêm, gaya-	card
man	mêrdek, camêrd/cüamêrd	merd, pîyaw,	mêr, camêr	səṛay, mēṛə	mardak, miarda	merd	merd	mard(î)	mərd	mard	mard	mard	martiya-	mašîm, mašya	adæjmag
moon	aşme, menge (for month)	mang	meh, heyv	spūgməi (spōẓ̌məi)	mâng	mang, owşum	máh	ma, munek	ma	mâh, mâng, mânk	māh	māh	mâh-	måŋha-	mæj
mother	may, mar, dayîke, dadî [29]	dayek	dayik, mak	mōr	mâr, mâya, nana	moa, ma, ina	mât, mâs	mâr	may	mâdar	mâdar	dayek	mâtar	mâtar-	mad
mouth	fek	dam,kat,sardam,sat	dev	xūla (xʷəla)	duxun, dâ:ân	gəv	dap	dâhun, lâmîze	duhun	dahân	dahân, rumb			åŋhânô, âh, åñh	dzyx
name	name	naw, nêw	nav	nūm	num	nom	nâm	num	num	nâm	nâm		nâman	nãman	nom
night	şew	şaw	şev	špa	šö, šav	şav	šap, shaw	şow	şöü	shab	shab		xšap-	xšap-	æxsæv
open (v)	akerdene	kirdinewe	vekirin	prānistəl	vâz-kardan	okarde	pāch, pabozag	vâ-hekârden	vakardən	bâz-kardan, va-kardan	abâz-kardan, višādag		būxtaka-	būxta-	gom kænyn
peace	haşti/aşti	aştî, aramî	aştî, aramî	rōɣa, t͡sōkāləi	dinj	aşiş	ârâm	âştî	salaməti, dinci	âshti, ârâmeš, ârâmî, sâzish	âštih, râmīšn	râm, râmīšn	šiyâti-	râma-	fidyddzinad
pig	xoz/xonz, xınzır	beraz,goraz	beraz,	soḍər, xənd͡zir (Arabic), xug	xu, xuyi, xug	xug	khug, huk	xî	xug	xūk	xūk			hū	xwy
place	ca	je(jega), ga	cîh, geh	d͡zāi	yâga	vira	ja, jaygah, hend	jâ	cigə, cə	jâh/gâh	gâh	gâh	gâθu-	gâtu-, gâtav-	ran
read	wendene	xwendin/xwêndin	xwandin, xwendin, xandin	lwastəl, kōtəl	baxânden	hande, xwande	wánag, wānten	baxinden, baxundesten	xundən	xândan	xwândan				kæsyn
say	vatene	gutin, witin	gotin, bêtin	wayəl	vâten, baguten	vote	gushag, guashten	baowten	guftirən, gaf saxtən	goftan, gap(-zadan)	guftan, gōw-, wâxtan	gōw-	gaub-	mrû-	dzuryn
sister	waye	xweh, xweşk, xoşk, xuşk, xoyşk	xwîşk, xwarg, xwang, xang	xōr (xʷōr)	xâke, xâv, xâxor, xuâr	hova	gwhâr	xâxer	xuvar	xâhar/xwâhar	xwahar			x ̌aŋhar- "sister"	xo
small	qıc/qıyt, werdi	giçke, qicik, hûr	biçûk, hûr	kūčnay, waṛ(ū)kay	qijel, ruk	hırd	gwand, hurd	peçik, biçuk, xurd	küçük, küşkin, kişgələ, kəm	kuchak, kam, xurd, rîz	kam, rangas	kam	kamna-	kamna-	chysyl
son	lac, laj	law/kuř	Pes (son) law (boy)	d͡zoy (zoy)	pur, zâ	zoə, zurə	possag, baç	piser/rîkâ	kuk	pesar, pur	pur, pusar	puhr	puça	pūθra-	fyrt
soul	roh, gan	jan, giyan, rewan, revan	can	sā	rəvân	con	rawân	ro, jân	can	ravân, jân	rūwân, jyân	rūwân, jyân		urvan-	ud
spring	wesar/usar	bahar, wehar	behar	spərlay	vâ:âr	əvəsor, bahar	bārgāh	vehâr	vasal	bahâr	wahâr		vâhara-	θūravâhara-
tall	berz	bilind/berz	bilind/berz	lwəṛ, ǰəg	pilla	barz, bılınd	borz, bwrz	bilen(d)	bülünd	boland / bârz	buland, borz	bârež		barez-	bærzond
ten	des	deh/de	deh	ləs	da	da	dah	da	də	dah	dah		datha	dasa	dæs
three	hirê/hiri	sê	sê	drē	so, se	se, he	sey	se	sə	se	sê	hrē	çi-	θri-	ærtæ
village	dewe	gund, dêhat, dê	gund	kəlay	döh, da	di	dehāt, helk, kallag, dê	dih, male, kola	di	deh, wis	wiž	dahyu-	vîs-, dahyu-	vîs	qæw
want	waştene	xwastin, wîstin	xwastin, xastin	ɣ(ʷ)ux̌təl	begovastan, jovastan	piye	loath, loteten	bexâsten	xastən, vayistən	xâstan	xwâstan				fændyn
water	awe/awk, owe, ou	aw	av	obə/ūbə	âv, ö	ov, wat(orandian dialect)	âp	ow	ou	âb	âb/aw	aw	âpi	avô-	don
when	key	key	kengê, kîngê	kəla	key	keyna	kadi, ked	ke	key, çüvəxti	key	kay	ka		čim-	kæd
wind	va	ba, wa (pehlewanî)	ba	siləi	vâ	vo	gwáth	vâ	var	bâd	wâd	wa		vâta-	dymgæ / wad
wolf	verg	gurg,	guru	lewə, šarmux̌ (šarmuš̥)	varg	varg	gurk	verg	gürg	gorg	gurg		varka-	vehrka	birægh
woman	cıni/ceni	jin,zindage,gyian	jin	x̌əd͡za (š̥əd͡za)	zeyniye, zenak	jen, jiyan	jan, jinik	zan	zən	zan	zan	žan		gǝnā, γnā, ǰaini-,	sylgojmag / us
year	serre	sal/sał	sal	kāl	sâl	sor, sal	sâl	sâl	sal	sâl	sâl		θard	ýâre, sarәd	az
yes / no	ya, heya, ê / nê, ney, ni	bełê, a / na, ne	erê, arê, belê, a / na, no, ne	Hao, ao, wō / na, ya	ahan / na	ha / ne, na	ere, hān / na	are / nâ	həri, hə / nə	baleh, ârē, hā / na, née	ōhāy / ne	hâ / ney	yâ / nay, mâ	yâ / noit, mâ	o / næ
yesterday	vizêr	dwênê, duêka	duho	parūn	azira, zira, diru	zir, zinə	zí	dîruz	deydi	diruz	dêrûž		diya(ka)	zyō	znon
English	Zaza	Sorani	Kurmanji	Pashto	Tati	Talyshi	Balochi	Mazandarani	Tat	Persian	Middle Persian	Parthian\	Old Persian	Avestan	Ossetian

References

1. Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Iranian". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
2. Johannes Bechert; Giuliano Bernini; Claude Buridant (1990). Toward a Typology of European Languages. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-012108-7.
3. Gernot Windfuhr (1979). Persian Grammar: History and State of Its Study. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-90-279-7774-8.
4. Windfuhr, Gernot. The Iranian languages. Routledge Taylor and Francis Group.
5. "Ethnologue report for Iranian". Ethnologue.com.
6. Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (ed.) (2005). "Report for Iranian languages". Ethnologue: Languages of the World (Fifteenth ed.). Dallas: SIL International.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
7. Cardona, George. "Indo-Iranian languages". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 28 August 2018.
8. (Skjærvø 2006)
9. John R. Perry Iranian Studies Vol. 31, No. 3/4, A Review of the "Encyclopaedia Iranica" (Summer - Autumn, 1998), pp. 517-525
10. Lassen, Christian. 1936. Die altpersischen Keil-Inschriften von Persepolis. Entzifferung des Alphabets und Erklärung des Inhalts. Bonn: Weber. S. 182.
    This was followed by Wilhelm Geiger in his Grundriss der Iranischen Philologie (1895). Friedrich von Spiegel (1859), Avesta, Engelmann (p. vii) used the spelling Eranian.
11. Cust, Robert Needham. 1878. A sketch of the modern languages of the East Indies. London: Trübner.
12. Dani, Ahmad Hasan. 1989. History of northern areas of Pakistan. Historical studies (Pakistan) series. National Institute of Historical and Cultural Research.
    "We distinguish between the Aryan languages of Iran, or Irano-Aryan, and the Aryan languages of India, or Indo-Aryan. For the sake of brevity, Iranian is commonly used instead of Irano-Aryan".
13. Lazard, Gilbert. 1977. Preface in: Oranskij, Iosif M. Les langues iraniennes. Traduit par Joyce Blau.
14. Schmitt, Rüdiger. 1994. Sprachzeugnisse alt- und mitteliranischer Sprachen in Afghanistan in: Indogermanica et Caucasica. Festschrift für Karl Horst Schmidt zum 65. Geburtstag. Bielmeier, Robert und Reinhard Stempel (Hrg.). De Gruyter. S. 168–196.
15. Lazard, Gilbert. 1998. Actancy. Empirical approaches to language typology. Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-015670-9, ISBN 978-3-11-015670-6
16. Michael Witzel (2001): Autochthonous Aryans? The evidence from Old Indian and Iranian texts. Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies 7(3): 1–115.
17. Roland G. Kent: "Old Persion: Grammar Texts Lexicon". Part I, Chapter I: The Linguistic Setting of Old Persian. American Oriental Society, 1953.
18. (Skjaervo 2006) harv error: no target: CITEREFSkjaervo2006 (help) vi(2). Documentation.
19. Nicholas Sims-Williams, Iranica, under entry: Eastern Iranian languages
20. Windfuhr, Gernot (2009). "Dialectology and Topics". The Iranian Languages. Routledge. pp. 18–21.
21. Mary Boyce. 1975. A Reader in Manichaean Middle Persian and Parthian, p. 14.
22. Brzezinski, Richard; Mielczarek, Mariusz (2002). The Sarmatians, 600 BC-AD 450. Osprey Publishing. p. 39. (..) Indeed, it is now accepted that the Sarmatians merged in with pre-Slavic populations.
23. Adams, Douglas Q. (1997). Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. Taylor & Francis. p. 523. (..) In their Ukrainian and Polish homeland the Slavs were intermixed and at times overlain by Germanic speakers (the Goths) and by Iranian speakers (Scythians, Sarmatians, Alans) in a shifting array of tribal and national configurations.
24. Atkinson, Dorothy; et al. (1977). Women in Russia. Stanford University Press. p. 3. ISBN 9780804709101. (..) Ancient accounts link the Amazons with the Scythians and the Sarmatians, who successively dominated the south of Russia for a millennium extending back to the seventh century B.C. The descendants of these peoples were absorbed by the Slavs who came to be known as Russians.
25. Slovene Studies. 9–11. Society for Slovene Studies. 1987. p. 36. (..) For example, the ancient Scythians, Sarmatians (amongst others), and many other attested but now extinct peoples were assimilated in the course of history by Proto-Slavs.
26. http://turkcekurtcesozluk.com/legerin.php?legerin=k%C4%B1z&z=
27. http://turkcekurtcesozluk.com/peyv.php?peyv_id=keye
28. http://turkcekurtcesozluk.com/peyv.php?peyv_id=ceye
29. http://turkcekurtcesozluk.com/legerin.php?legerin=anne&z=

Bibliography

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• Schmitt, Rüdiger (ed.) (1989). Compendium Linguarum Iranicarum (in German). Wiesbaden: Reichert. ISBN 978-3-88226-413-5.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link)
• Sims-Williams, Nicholas (1996). "Iranian languages". Encyclopedia Iranica. 7. Costa Mesa: Mazda. pp. 238–245.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
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• Frye, Richard N. (1996). "Peoples of Iran". Encyclopedia Iranica. 7. Costa Mesa: Mazda.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
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• Henning, Walter B. (1954). "The Ancient language of Azarbaijan". Transactions of the Philological Society. 53 (1): 157–177. doi:10.1111/j.1467-968X.1954.tb00282.x.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
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• Toroghdar, Zia (2018). "From Astara to Fuman: Comparison words from dialects of different languages Talysh and Tatic". Farhang-e Ilia. pp. 38–172.

External links

• "Areal developments in the history of Iranic: West vs. East" (PDF). Martin Joachim Kümmel, department of Indo-European linguistics, University of Jena.
• Society for Iranian Linguistics
• Kurdish and other Iranic Languages
• Iranian EFL Journal
• Iranian language tree in Russian, identical with above classification.
• Old Iranian Online by Scott L. Harvey and Jonathan Slocum, free online lessons at the Linguistics Research Center at the University of Texas at Austin