Nanobiotechnology

Nanobiotechnology, bionanotechnology, and nanobiology are terms that refer to the intersection of nanotechnology and biology.[1] Given that the subject is one that has only emerged very recently, bionanotechnology and nanobiotechnology serve as blanket terms for various related technologies.

This discipline helps to indicate the merger of biological research with various fields of nanotechnology. Concepts that are enhanced through nanobiology include: nanodevices (such as biological machines), nanoparticles, and nanoscale phenomena that occurs within the discipline of nanotechnology. This technical approach to biology allows scientists to imagine and create systems that can be used for biological research. Biologically inspired nanotechnology uses biological systems as the inspirations for technologies not yet created.[2] However, as with nanotechnology and biotechnology, bionanotechnology does have many potential ethical issues associated with it.

A ribosome is a biological machine.

The most important objectives that are frequently found in nanobiology involve applying nanotools to relevant medical/biological problems and refining these applications. Developing new tools, such as peptoid nanosheets, for medical and biological purposes is another primary objective in nanotechnology. New nanotools are often made by refining the applications of the nanotools that are already being used. The imaging of native biomolecules, biological membranes, and tissues is also a major topic for nanobiology researchers. Other topics concerning nanobiology include the use of cantilever array sensors and the application of nanophotonics for manipulating molecular processes in living cells.[3]

Recently, the use of microorganisms to synthesize functional nanoparticles has been of great interest. Microorganisms can change the oxidation state of metals. These microbial processes have opened up new opportunities for us to explore novel applications, for example, the biosynthesis of metal nanomaterials. In contrast to chemical and physical methods, microbial processes for synthesizing nanomaterials can be achieved in aqueous phase under gentle and environmentally benign conditions. This approach has become an attractive focus in current green bionanotechnology research towards sustainable development.[4]

Terminology

The terms are often used interchangeably. When a distinction is intended, though, it is based on whether the focus is on applying biological ideas or on studying biology with nanotechnology. Bionanotechnology generally refers to the study of how the goals of nanotechnology can be guided by studying how biological "machines" work and adapting these biological motifs into improving existing nanotechnologies or creating new ones.[5][6] Nanobiotechnology, on the other hand, refers to the ways that nanotechnology is used to create devices to study biological systems.[7]

In other words, nanobiotechnology is essentially miniaturized biotechnology, whereas bionanotechnology is a specific application of nanotechnology. For example, DNA nanotechnology or cellular engineering would be classified as bionanotechnology because they involve working with biomolecules on the nanoscale. Conversely, many new medical technologies involving nanoparticles as delivery systems or as sensors would be examples of nanobiotechnology since they involve using nanotechnology to advance the goals of biology.

The definitions enumerated above will be utilized whenever a distinction between nanobio and bionano is made in this article. However, given the overlapping usage of the terms in modern parlance, individual technologies may need to be evaluated to determine which term is more fitting. As such, they are best discussed in parallel.

Concepts

Kinesin walking on a microtubule. It is a molecular biological machine that uses protein domain dynamics on nanoscales

Most of the scientific concepts in bionanotechnology are derived from other fields. Biochemical principles that are used to understand the material properties of biological systems are central in bionanotechnology because those same principles are to be used to create new technologies. Material properties and applications studied in bionanoscience include mechanical properties (e.g. deformation, adhesion, failure), electrical/electronic (e.g. electromechanical stimulation, capacitors, energy storage/batteries), optical (e.g. absorption, luminescence, photochemistry), thermal (e.g. thermomutability, thermal management), biological (e.g. how cells interact with nanomaterials, molecular flaws/defects, biosensing, biological mechanisms such as mechanosensation), nanoscience of disease (e.g. genetic disease, cancer, organ/tissue failure), as well as computing (e.g. DNA computing) and agriculture (target delivery of pesticides, hormones and fertilizers.[8] [9] [10][11] The impact of bionanoscience, achieved through structural and mechanistic analyses of biological processes at nanoscale, is their translation into synthetic and technological applications through nanotechnology.

Nanobiotechnology takes most of its fundamentals from nanotechnology. Most of the devices designed for nano-biotechnological use are directly based on other existing nanotechnologies. Nanobiotechnology is often used to describe the overlapping multidisciplinary activities associated with biosensors, particularly where photonics, chemistry, biology, biophysics, nanomedicine, and engineering converge. Measurement in biology using wave guide techniques, such as dual-polarization interferometry, is another example.

Applications

Applications of bionanotechnology are extremely widespread. Insofar as the distinction holds, nanobiotechnology is much more commonplace in that it simply provides more tools for the study of biology. Bionanotechnology, on the other hand, promises to recreate biological mechanisms and pathways in a form that is useful in other ways.

Nanomedicine

Nanomedicine is a field of medical science whose applications are increasing more and more thanks to nanorobots and biological machines, which constitute a very useful tool to develop this area of knowledge. In the past years, researchers have made many improvements in the different devices and systems required to develop nanorobots. This supposes a new way of treating and dealing with diseases such as cancer; thanks to nanorobots, side effects of chemotherapy have been controlled, reduced and even eliminated, so some years from now, cancer patients will be offered an alternative to treat this disease instead of chemotherapy, which causes secondary effects such as hair loss, fatigue or nausea killing not only cancerous cells but also the healthy ones. At a clinical level, cancer treatment with nanomedicine will consist of the supply of nanorobots to the patient through an injection that will search for cancerous cells while leaving the healthy ones untouched. Patients that will be treated through nanomedicine will not notice the presence of these nanomachines inside them; the only thing that is going to be noticeable is the progressive improvement of their health. Nanobiotechanlogy is quite important for medicine formulation. It helps a lot in making vaccines as well.

Nanobiotechnology

Nanobiotechnology (sometimes referred to as nanobiology) is best described as helping modern medicine progress from treating symptoms to generating cures and regenerating biological tissues. Three American patients have received whole cultured bladders with the help of doctors who use nanobiology techniques in their practice. Also, it has been demonstrated in animal studies that a uterus can be grown outside the body and then placed in the body in order to produce a baby. Stem cell treatments have been used to fix diseases that are found in the human heart and are in clinical trials in the United States. There is also funding for research into allowing people to have new limbs without having to resort to prosthesis. Artificial proteins might also become available to manufacture without the need for harsh chemicals and expensive machines. It has even been surmised that by the year 2055, computers may be made out of biochemicals and organic salts.[12]

Another example of current nanobiotechnological research involves nanospheres coated with fluorescent polymers. Researchers are seeking to design polymers whose fluorescence is quenched when they encounter specific molecules. Different polymers would detect different metabolites. The polymer-coated spheres could become part of new biological assays, and the technology might someday lead to particles which could be introduced into the human body to track down metabolites associated with tumors and other health problems. Another example, from a different perspective, would be evaluation and therapy at the nanoscopic level, i.e. the treatment of Nanobacteria (25-200 nm sized) as is done by NanoBiotech Pharma.

While nanobiology is in its infancy, there are a lot of promising methods that will rely on nanobiology in the future. Biological systems are inherently nano in scale; nanoscience must merge with biology in order to deliver biomacromolecules and molecular machines that are similar to nature. Controlling and mimicking the devices and processes that are constructed from molecules is a tremendous challenge to face for the converging disciplines of nanobiotechnology.[13] All living things, including humans, can be considered to be nanofoundries. Natural evolution has optimized the "natural" form of nanobiology over millions of years. In the 21st century, humans have developed the technology to artificially tap into nanobiology. This process is best described as "organic merging with synthetic." Colonies of live neurons can live together on a biochip device; according to research from Dr. Gunther Gross at the University of North Texas. Self-assembling nanotubes have the ability to be used as a structural system. They would be composed together with rhodopsins; which would facilitate the optical computing process and help with the storage of biological materials. DNA (as the software for all living things) can be used as a structural proteomic system - a logical component for molecular computing. Ned Seeman - a researcher at New York University - along with other researchers are currently researching concepts that are similar to each other.[14]

Bionanotechnology

DNA nanotechnology is one important example of bionanotechnology.[15] The utilization of the inherent properties of nucleic acids like DNA to create useful materials is a promising area of modern research. Another important area of research involves taking advantage of membrane properties to generate synthetic membranes. Proteins that self-assemble to generate functional materials could be used as a novel approach for the large-scale production of programmable nanomaterials. One example is the development of amyloids found in bacterial biofilms as engineered nanomaterials that can be programmed genetically to have different properties.[16] Protein folding studies provide a third important avenue of research, but one that has been largely inhibited by our inability to predict protein folding with a sufficiently high degree of accuracy. Given the myriad uses that biological systems have for proteins, though, research into understanding protein folding is of high importance and could prove fruitful for bionanotechnology in the future.

Lipid nanotechnology is another major area of research in bionanotechnology, where physico-chemical properties of lipids such as their antifouling and self-assembly is exploited to build nanodevices with applications in medicine and engineering.[17] Lipid nanotechnology approaches can also be used to develop next-generation emulsion methods to maximize both absorption of fat-soluble nutrients and the ability to incorporate them into popular beverages.

Agriculture

Nanotechnology application to biotechnology leaves no field untouched by its groundbreaking scientific innovations for human wellness; the agricultural industry is no exception. Basically, nanomaterials are distinguished depending on the origin: natural, incidental and engineered nanoparticles. Among these, engineered nanoparticles have received wide attention in all fields of science, including medical, materials and agriculture technology with significant socio-economical growth. In the agriculture industry, engineered nanoparticles have been serving as nano carriers, containing herbicides, chemicals, or genes, which target particular plant parts to release their content.[18][19] Previously nanocapsules containing herbicides have been reported to effectively penetrate through cuticles and tissues, allowing the slow and constant release of the active substances. Likewise, other literature describes that nano-encapsulated slow release of fertilizers has also become a trend to save fertilizer consumption and to minimize environmental pollution through precision farming. These are only a few examples from numerous research works which might open up exciting opportunities for nanobiotechnology application in agriculture. Also, application of this kind of engineered nanoparticles to plants should be considered the level of amicability before it is employed in agriculture practices. Based on a thorough literature survey, it was understood that there is only limited authentic information available to explain the biological consequence of engineered nanoparticles on treated plants. Certain reports underline the phytotoxicity of various origin of engineered nanoparticles to the plant caused by the subject of concentrations and sizes . At the same time, however, an equal number of studies were reported with a positive outcome of nanoparticles, which facilitate growth promoting nature to treat plant.[20] In particular, compared to other nanoparticles, silver and gold nanoparticles based applications elicited beneficial results on various plant species with less and/or no toxicity.[21][22] Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) treated leaves of Asparagus showed the increased content of ascorbate and chlorophyll. Similarly, AgNPs-treated common bean and corn has increased shoot and root length, leaf surface area, chlorophyll, carbohydrate and protein contents reported earlier.[23] The gold nanoparticle has been used to induce growth and seed yield in Brassica juncea.[24]

Tools

This field relies on a variety of research methods, including experimental tools (e.g. imaging, characterization via AFM/optical tweezers etc.), x-ray diffraction based tools, synthesis via self-assembly, characterization of self-assembly (using e.g. MP-SPR, DPI, recombinant DNA methods, etc.), theory (e.g. statistical mechanics, nanomechanics, etc.), as well as computational approaches (bottom-up multi-scale simulation, supercomputing).

See also

• Colloidal gold
• Gold nanobeacons
• Gold nanoparticle
• Nanobiomechanics
• Nanomedicine
• Nanoparticle–biomolecule conjugate
• Nanosubmarine
• Nanozymes

References

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2. "Nanobiology". Nanotech-Now.com.
3. "Nanobiology". Swiss Nanoscience Institute.
4. Ng, CK; Sivakumar K; Liu X; Madhaiyan M; Ji L; Yang L; Tang C; Song H; Kjelleberg S; Cao B. (4 Feb 2013). "Influence of outer membrane c-type cytochromes on particle size and activity of extracellular nanoparticles produced by Shewanella oneidensis". Biotechnology and Bioengineering. 110 (7): 1831–7. doi:10.1002/bit.24856. PMID 23381725.
5. Bionanotechnology - Definition, wordiQ.com
6. Nolting B, “Biophysical Nanotechnology”. In: “Methods in Modern Biophysics”, Springer, 2005, ISBN 3-540-27703-X
7. NBTC Homepage | Nanobiotechnology Center
8. GarciaAnoveros, J; Corey, DP (1997). "The molecules of mechanosensation". Annual Review of Neuroscience. 20: 567–94. doi:10.1146/annurev.neuro.20.1.567. PMID 9056725.
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10. Langer, Robert (2010). "Nanotechnology in Drug Delivery and Tissue Engineering: From Discovery to Applications". Nano Lett. 10 (9): 3223–30. Bibcode:2010NanoL..10.3223S. doi:10.1021/nl102184c. PMC 2935937. PMID 20726522.
11. Thangavelu, Raja Muthuramalingam; Gunasekaran, Dharanivasan; Jesse, Michael Immanuel; s.u, Mohammed Riyaz; Sundarajan, Deepan; Krishnan, Kathiravan (2018). "Nanobiotechnology approach using plant rooting hormone synthesized silver nanoparticle as "nanobullets" for the dynamic applications in horticulture – an in vitro and ex vitro study". Arabian Journal of Chemistry. 11: 48–61. doi:10.1016/j.arabjc.2016.09.022.
12. "The future of nano-biology". ZD Net.
13. Nussinov, Ruth; Alemán, Carlos (2006). "Nanobiology: from physics and engineering to biology". Physical Biology. IOP Science. 3. doi:10.1088/1478-3975/3/1/E01.
14. "The Nanobiology Imperative". HistorianoftheFuture.com.
15. Zadegan, Reza M.; Norton, Michael L. (June 2012). "Structural DNA Nanotechnology: From Design to Applications". Int. J. Mol. Sci. 13 (6): 7149–7162. doi:10.3390/ijms13067149. PMC 3397516. PMID 22837684.
16. Nguyen, Peter; Botyanszki, Zsofia; Tay, Pei-Kun; Joshi, Neel (Sep 17, 2014). "Programmable biofilm-based materials from engineered curli nanofibres" (PDF). Nature Communications. 5: 4945. Bibcode:2014NatCo...5.4945N. doi:10.1038/ncomms5945. PMID 25229329.
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18. Raja; et al. (2016). "Nanobiotechnological approach using plant rooting hormones synthesized silver nanoparticle as a nanobullets for the dynamic applications in horticulture -An in vitro and ex vitro study". Arabian Journal of Chemistry. 11: 48–61. doi:10.1016/j.arabjc.2016.09.022.
19. thangavelu, Raja muthuramalingam. "Effect Of Deoxycholate Capped Silver nanoparticles In Seed Dormancy Breaking Of Withania Somnifera" (PDF). Current Science. 116: 952. doi:10.18520/cs/v116/i6/952-958.
20. Raja; et al. (2016). "Nanobiotechnological approach using plant rooting hormones synthesized silver nanoparticle as a "nanobullets" for the dynamic applications in horticulture -An in vitro and ex vitro study". Arabian Journal of Chemistry. 11: 48–61. doi:10.1016/j.arabjc.2016.09.022.
21. Raja; Chandrasekar, S.; Dharanivasan, G.; Nallusamy, D.; Rajendran, N.; Kathiravan, K. (2015). "Bioactive bile salt capped silver nanoparticle activity against destructive plant pathogenic fungi through in vitro system". RSC Advances. 5 (87): 71174–71182. doi:10.1039/c5ra13306h.
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External links

• What is Bionanotechnology?—a video introduction to the field
• Nanobiotechnology in Orthopaedic