Anglophone Crisis

The Anglophone Crisis (French: Crise anglophone), also known as the Ambazonia War,[10] or the Cameroonian Civil War,[11] is a conflict in the Southern Cameroons region of Cameroon, part of the long-standing Anglophone problem.[12] In September 2017, separatists in the Anglophone territories of Northwest Region and Southwest Region (collectively known as Southern Cameroons) declared the independence of Ambazonia and began fighting against the Government of Cameroon.[13] Starting as a low-scale insurgency, the conflict spread to most parts of the Anglophone regions within a year.[14] By the summer of 2019, the government controlled the major cities and parts of the countryside, while the separatists held parts of the countryside and regularly appeared in the major cities.[5]

Anglophone Crisis
Part of the Anglophone problem
Undisputed Cameroonian territory      Part of Cameroon claimed by Ambazonia
Date September 9, 2017[1] – present (2 years, 11 months and 1 week) Location Northwest Region and Southwest Region (Southern Cameroons), Cameroon (With occasional spillover into Littoral Region and West Region)[2] Status Ongoing
Belligerents
Cameroon	Ambazonia
Commanders and leaders
Paul Biya Philémon Yang Joseph Ngute René Claude Meka Valere Nka	Sisiku Ayuk Tabe Samuel Ikome Sako Ayaba Cho Lucas Ebenezer Akwanga
Units involved
FAC Vigilante groups[3]	ADF SOCADEF ASC Other groups
Strength
12,500 troops, 9,000 militia (total size of army)[4]	2,000–4,000 fighters (as of May 2019)[5]
Casualties and losses
800-1,000 killed (as of February 2020)[6]	~1,000 killed (as of June 2019)[7]
~3,000 killed in total (as of September 2019)[8] 679,000 internally displaced (as of January 2020)[9] 51,000 refugees in Nigeria (as of January 2020)[9]

The war has killed approximately 3,000 people[8] and forced more than half a million people to flee their homes.[5] Although 2019 saw the first known instance of dialogue between Cameroon and the separatists,[15] as well as a state-organized national dialogue and the granting of a special status to the Anglophone regions,[16] the war continued to intensify in late 2019.[17] The 2020 Cameroonian parliamentary election brought further escalation, as the separatists became more assertive while Cameroon deployed additional forces. While the COVID-19 pandemic saw one armed group declare a unilateral ceasefire to combat the spread of the virus, other groups and the Cameroonian government ignored calls to follow suit and kept on fighting.[18]

Limited attempts have been made at negotiating. Talks mediated by Switzerland in 2019 ultimately failed, and internal divisions among the separatists since the 2019 Ambazonian leadership crisis has complicated the situation.[19] The same year, separatist leaders who were extradited from Nigeria in 2018 were handed life sentences by a military tribunal. However, facing mounting international pressure for a global ceasefire, in July 2020 Cameroon began negotiating with these imprisoned leaders.[20] The talks were held between Sisiku Julius Ayuk Tabe and other imprisoned leaders and representatives of the Cameroonian government. The talks outlined a series of conditions for the Cameroonian government to accept that Ayuk Tabe said would create an "enabling environment" for substantial negotiations to occur.[21]

Background

Main article: Ambazonia § History

Further information: Bakassi conflict

Monument raised on the 150th anniversary of the establishment of Victoria at Ambas Bay, from which the name "Ambazonia" derives.

The name "Ambazonia" is taken from Ambas Bay and Ambozes, the local name of the mouth of the Wouri River.[22] This is where the English language was permanently established for the first time in Southern Cameroons, when missionary Alfred Saker founded a settlement of freed slaves by Ambas Bay in 1858, which was later renamed Victoria (present-day Limbe).[23] In 1884, the area became the British Ambas Bay Protectorate, with Victoria as its capital. Britain ceded the area to the German territory of Kamerun in 1887. Germany had some trouble establishing control over the hinterlands of Victoria, and fought the Bafut Wars against local fondoms until 1907.[24]

Following World War I and the Treaty of Versailles, Kamerun was divided between a French and a British League of Nations Mandate. The French mandate was known as Cameroun, and comprised most of the former German territory. The British mandate was an elongated strip of land along the border of Colonial Nigeria, consisting of Northern Cameroons and Southern Cameroons, including the historical Ambas Bay Protectorate. This territory was organized as British Cameroons.[25]

The British administered the territories through indirect rule, allowing native authorities to administer the population according to their own traditions. In 1953, the Southern Cameroons delegation at a conference in London asked for a separate region. The British agreed, and Southern Cameroons became an autonomous region with its capital still at Buea. Elections were held in 1954 and the parliament met on 1 October 1954, with E. M. L. Endeley as Premier.[26]

The United Nations organised a plebiscite in the region on 11 February 1961 which put two alternatives to the people: union with Nigeria or union with Cameroon. The third option, independence, was opposed by the British representative to the UN Trusteeship Council, Sir Andrew Cohen, and as a result was not listed. In the plebiscite, 60% of voters in the Northern Cameroons voted for union with Nigeria, while 70% of voters in the Southern Cameroons opted for union with Cameroon.[27] The results owed partly to a fear of domination by much larger Nigeria.[28] Endeley was defeated in elections on 1 February 1959 by John Ngu Foncha.[29]

Southern Cameroons became part of Cameroon on 1 October 1961 as "West Cameroon", with its own prime minister. However, the English-speaking peoples of the Southern Cameroons did not believe that they were fairly treated by the French-speaking government of the country. Then-president Ahmadou Ahidjo feared that Southern Cameroons would secede from the union, taking its natural resources with it. Following a French Cameroon unilateral referendum on 20 May 1972, a new constitution was adopted in Cameroon which replaced the federal state with a unitary state, and also gave more power to the president.[30] Southern Cameroons lost its autonomous status and became the Northwest Region and the Southwest Region of the Republic of Cameroon. Pro-independence groups claimed that this violated the constitution, as the majority of deputies from West Cameroon had not consented to legitimize the constitutional changes.[31] They argued that Southern Cameroons had effectively been annexed by Cameroon.[32] Shortly afterwards, French Cameroun's political leadership changed the constitution again, appointed French-speaking Paul Biya as Prime Minister and successor to Ahmadou Ahidjo ostensibly to deny the Speaker of the House of Assembly Salomon Tandeng Muna - an Anglophone the possibility of becoming president by succession.

In a memorandum dated 20 March 1985, Anglophone lawyer and President of the Cameroon Bar Association Fongum Gorji Dinka wrote that the Cameroonian government led by Paul Biya was unconstitutional and announced the former Southern Cameroons should become independent as the Republic of Ambazonia. Dinka was incarcerated the following January without trial.[33] Three years later, he escaped to Nigeria.[34]

In 1993, representatives of Anglophone groups convened the first All Anglophone Conference (AAC1) in Buea. The conference issued the "Buea Declaration", which called for constitutional amendments to restore the 1961 federation. This was followed by the second All Anglophone Conference (AAC2) in Bamenda in 1994. This conference issued the "Bamenda Declaration", which stated that if the federal state was not restored within a reasonable time, Southern Cameroons would declare its independence. The AAC was renamed the Southern Cameroons Peoples Conference (SCPC), and later the Southern Cameroons Peoples Organisation (SCAPO), with the Southern Cameroons National Council (SCNC) as the executive governing body. Younger activists formed the Southern Cameroons Youth League (SCYL) in Buea on 28 May 1995. The SCNC sent a delegation, led by John Foncha, to the United Nations, which was received on 1 June 1995 and presented a petition against the 'annexation' of the Southern Cameroons by French Cameroon. This was followed by a signature referendum the same year, which the organisers claim produced a 99% vote in favour of independence with 315,000 people voting.[35]

SCNC activities were routinely disrupted by police.[36] On March 23, 1997, about ten people were killed in a raid on a gendarme camp in Bamenda. The police arrested between 200 and 300 people, mostly SCNC supporters, but also members of the Social Democratic Front, an opposition party with significant support in the Anglophone regions.[37] In the subsequent trials, Amnesty International and the SCNC found substantive evidence of admissions through torture and force.[36] The raid and trial resulted in a shutdown of SCNC activities.[38] In response to this, in April 1998 a small faction elected Esoka Ndoki Mukete, a high-ranking member of the Social Democratic Front, as the new chair of the SCNC. In October 1999, when many of the accused were found guilty in the 1997 trial, the faction led by Mukete became more assertive. On 1 October 1999, militants took over Radio Buea to proclaim the independence of Southern Cameroons, but failed to do so before security forces intervened.[39] The leadership and many members of the SCNC were subsequently arrested.[38] After clashes with the police, the SCNC was officially declared illegal by the Cameroonian authorities in 2001.[40] In 2006, a faction of SCNC once again declared the independence of Ambazonia.[38]

In 2006, Nigeria ceded the Bakassi Peninsula to Cameroon, ending a decade-long territorial dispute. Local militias opposing the border change took up arms against the Cameroonian government, starting the Bakassi conflict. The conflict was a sea-based insurgency where the rebels used pirate tactics, attacking ships, abducting sailors and carrying out seaborne raids as far away as Limbe and Douala. While some movements (such as BAMOSD) sought to make Bakassi an independent state, others came to tie their cause to that of Ambazonia. In November 2007, the "Liberators of the Southern Cameroon People", a previously unknown group, killed 21 Cameroonian soldiers. Most militias in Bakassi laid down their arms in September 2009.[41]

Prelude

On October 6, 2016, the Cameroon Anglophone Civil Society Consortium, an organization consisting of lawyer and teacher trade unions in the Anglophone regions, initiated a strike.[42] Led by Barrister Agbor Balla, Fontem Neba, and Tassang Wilfred, they were protesting against the appointment of Francophone judges in the Anglophone regions.[43] They saw this as threatening the common law system in the Anglophone regions,[44] as well as part of the general marginalization of Anglophones.[45] The strikes were supported by peaceful protests in the cities of Bamenda, Buea and Limbe. The activists demanded protection of the law system of the Anglophone regions, and opposed the civil law system used by the Francophone magistrate replacing the common law system. They asked for several laws to be translated into English, and that the common law system should be taught at the University of Buea and the University of Bamenda.[46]

The Cameroonian government deployed security forces to crack down the protests. Protesters were attacked with tear gas, and protesters and lawyers were allegedly assaulted by soldiers.[47] Throughout November 2016, thousands of teachers in the Anglophone regions joined the lawyers' strike. All schools in the Anglophone regions were shut down.[48]

Two weeks into the protests, more than 100 protesters had been arrested, and six were reported dead. Unconfirmed videos released over social media showed various violent scenes, including the beating of protesters by policemen.[49]

In January 2017, the Cameroonian government set up a committee to initiate a dialogue with the lawyer activists. The lawyers refused to talk, demanding that all arrested activists be released before any dialogue. The lawyers submitted a draft for a federal state, and the government responded by banning their movements altogether. The protesters were now openly regarded as a security threat by the Cameroonian government, and more arrests followed.[50] The government also implemented an Internet blockade in cities across the Anglophone regions.[51]

At this point, the crisis began to attract international responses. More than 13,000 Anglophone Cameroonians living in Maryland protested against the Cameroonian government crackdown. On June 27, United States Congressman Anthony G. Brown filed a petition with the United States Secretary of State, Rex Tillerson, to call for the government of Cameroon to immediately show concern and solve the ongoing crises.[52] The United States condemned the loss of life and brutality against Anglophone protesters.[53]

The government crackdown on the protests contributed to mainstream separatist movements. In September 2017, Ambazonian separatists began to take up arms against the government.[54]

Timeline

Main article: Timeline of the Anglophone Crisis

2017

Main article: Timeline of the Anglophone Crisis (2017)

In early September, 2017, the Ambazonia Governing Council (AGovC), a separatist movement established in 2013 through the merger of several groups,[5] formally deployed the Ambazonia Defence Forces (ADF) in Southern Cameroons. On September 9, the ADF carried out its first military action, attacking a military base in Besongabang, Manyu. Three Cameroonian soldiers were killed in the attack, while the ADF claimed their soldiers managed to return to base unreduced.[1] Throughout September, separatists carried out two bombings; one targeting security forces in Bamenda,[55] and another targeting police officers. While the first bombing failed, the second injured three policemen.[56] On September 22, Cameroonian soldiers opened fire on protesters, killing at least five and injuring many more.[57]

Streets of Buea on a ghost town day, September 30.

On October 1, the Southern Cameroons Ambazonia Consortium United Front (SCACUF), an umbrella movement consisting of several independence movements, unilaterally declared the independence of Ambazonia. This declaration was followed by mass demonstrations across the Anglophone regions. The separatists strategically chose this date, as it is the anniversary for the unification of Cameroon and Southern Cameroons. SCACUF would later transform itself into the Interim Government of Ambazonia (IG). Several months into the war, the IG would reject the idea of an armed struggle, preferring instead a diplomatic campaign and civil disobedience. This stance would eventually change.[58]

The Cameroonian Army moved into the regions in force to fight the separatists and quell the demonstrations. Throughout the day, at least eight demonstrators were killed in Buea and Bamenda.[59] The Cameroonian military also reinforced the Nigerian border, and on October 9, it claimed to have stopped "hundreds of Nigerian fighters" from crossing into Cameroon.[60]

Throughout November, eight soldiers, at least 14 civilians and five fugitives were confirmed killed due to the conflict.[61] Separatists killed two gendarmes in Bamenda in the first week of the month.[62] On the last two days of November, five soldiers and five policemen were killed in two separate separatist attacks near Mamfe.[63] On December 1, the Cameroonian government ordered the evacuation of 16 villages in Manyu ahead of a military offensive,[64] and on December 4 it formally declared war on the separatists.[65] The Cameroonian Army moved into Manyu, retaking two villages on December 7[66] and securing Mamfe by December 15, partly with elite troops.[67] During the offensive, the ADF carried out guerrilla attacks on the Cameroonian Army,[68] killing at least seven soldiers throughout December.[69] On December 18, the Cameroonian Army began to destroy dozens of civilian homes in retaliation, and killed several civilians.[69] The December offensive also saw occasional spillover across the Nigerian border.[70]

By the end of 2017, several separatist militias had emerged, with the ADF standing out as the most prominent one.[71] During the guerrilla campaign in Manyu and Mezam, it had clashed with the army 13 times.[72] The separatists had also spread out, and by the end of the year, they were active in five departments.[14]

2018

Main article: Timeline of the Anglophone Crisis (2018)

The separatists suffered a major setback at the beginning of 2018. On January 5, members of the IG were detained by Nigerian authorities,[73] which proceeded to hand them over to Cameroon. A total of 69 leaders and activists were extradited to Cameroon and subsequently arrested, including President Sisiku Julius Ayuk Tabe. Since most of the individuals had submitted asylum claims,[74] the deportation immediately became controversial, as it possibly violated the Nigerian constitution.[75] They spent 10 months at a gendarme headquarters, before being transferred to a maximum security prison in Yaoundé.[75] Samuel Ikome Sako was announced as Acting President on February 4, replacing Tabe for the time being.[76]

January saw an escalation in guerrilla attacks on symbolic targets,[77] as well as repeated spillover into Nigeria.[78] The separatists began to target traditional village chiefs, as well as local administrators whom they accused of siding with the security forces.[79] Attacks on gendarmes intensified,[80] and gunmen also began to target schools to enforce a school boycott.[81] On February 24, separatists abducted the government's regional representative for social affairs in the Northwest Region, apparently looking to exchange him for imprisoned separatist activists.[82]

The Battle of Batibo was fought on March 3,[83] producing unprecedented casualties on both sides[84] and forcing over 4,000 locals to flee.[85] On March 20, Cameroonian soldiers freed two Cameroonian and one Tunisian hostage in Meme Department.[84] A similar operation freed seven Swiss, six Cameroonian and five Italian hostages on April 4, prompting the ADF to declare that it did not take hostages nor target foreigners.[86] On April 25, separatists forced the Cameroonian Army to retreat from the town of Belo.[87]

Throughout May, there were heavy clashes in Mbonge[88] and Muyuka, resulting in heavy casualties.[89] On May 20, in an effort to boycott celebrations of Cameroon's National Day, Ambazonian forces struck in several villages throughout Southern Cameroons, including Konye, Batibo and Ekona,[90] and abducted the mayor of the town of Bangem.[91] On May 24, Cameroonian soldiers killed at least 30 people while storming a hotel in Pinyin.[92] By the end of May, Cameroon had also retaken Belo, though fighting continued around the town, which was almost completely abandoned by its inhabitants.[93]

In mid-June, Ambazonian forces started a blockade of the Kumba-Buea highway at Ekona, a town located approximately 10 kilometers from Buea. A military assault on the separatists in Ekona failed to lift the blockade.[94] While casualties related to the battle of Ekona remain unconfirmed, the Cameroonian government later declared that more than 40 soldiers and policemen died in the later half of June across Southern Cameroons.[95] By now, the war had fully extended to Buea, with separatists mounting road blocks and attacking government soldiers on June 29.[96] Attacks in Buea intensified in July, with one invasion on July 1,[97] another on July 9[98] and another on July 30.[99]

Scorched vehicles left behind after clashes in Buea on September 11.

On August 16, separatists attacked a convoy transporting a member of parliament in Babungo, Ngo-Ketunjia Department, killing at least four soldiers. A civilian who got caught in the crossfire was also killed.[100] Eight days later, a successful guerrilla attack killed two gendarmes and wounded a brigade commander in Zhoa in Wum, Northwest Region.[101] As a response, the Cameroonian Army burned down the village.[102]

September saw some setbacks for the separatists, as the government launched attacks into the rural areas they controlled.[5] There was heavy fighting in Muyuka, where Cameroon launched an offensive.[103] The Cameroonian Army enjoyed some success in weeding out separatist camps. In a particularly lethal raid on September 4, Cameroonian soldiers killed 27 suspected separatists near Zhoa.[104] Another raid on separatist camps near Chomba killed at least 15 separatists.[105] The separatists also had their successes; On September 9, 50 or more separatists successfully carried out three coordinated attacks on multiple targets in Oku, burning down the police station, destroying the Assistant Division Officer's belongings, stealing a police van and abducting three police officers.[106] On September 11, separatists took control of two neighborhoods of Buea, blocking the main entrances to the city and killing a soldier from the Rapid Intervention Battalion (BIR).[107] An attempt was also made to abduct the Fon of Buea.[108] On September 27, separatists forced the police and gendarmes to retreat from Balikumbat, Ngo-Ketunjia.[109] Despite government offensives in September, the separatists remained in control of many rural and urban areas.[5]

On September 30, in anticipation of the first anniversary of Ambazonia's declaration of independence on October 1, the authorities imposed a 48-hour curfew throughout the Anglophone region. This was done to prevent a re-occurrence of the mass demonstrations that took place the year before. People were forbidden from moving across sub-division boundaries, and gatherings of four or more people in public were prohibited. Businesses were shut down and motor parks were closed as well. Meanwhile, in anticipation of the Cameroonian presidential election on October 7, the separatists started enforcing a lock-down of their own, blocking major highways with trees or car wrecks. Throughout the day, security forces and separatists clashed in Buea, Bamenda and other cities.[110]

By October, the conflict had spread to most of Southern Cameroons. The ADF alone had clashed with the army 83 times,[72] separatist militias were now active in 12 divisions, and attacks were now more lethal.[14] According to an International Crisis Group analyst, by October the war had reached a stalemate, with the army being unable to defeat the separatists, while the separatists were not militarily strong enough to expel the army.[72] Others described the separatists as severely outgunned and on the verge of defeat, mostly due to their lack of access to proper weapons.[111] On October 7, the day of the Cameroonian presidential election, there were clashes all over Southern Cameroons with both sides blaming the other; the Cameroonian government claimed that separatists moved to prevent what they considered a foreign election to take place in the Anglophone regions,[112] while the separatists blamed the government for instigating the violence.[113] This resulted in a very low turnout, as "more than 90 percent of residents" fled violence in some localities; and in many cases no officials showed up to man the polling stations.[114] In Bamenda, at least 20 separatist fighters moved around openly to prevent people from voting. Two separatists were killed by government troops while attacking a polling station.[115] Following the election, two people from Kumba were murdered for having voted.[116] On October 17, SDF President John Fru Ndi's house in Bamenda was set on fire by armed men.[117] On October 23, the Cameroonian Army launched simultaneous attacks on seven or more separatist camps in the Northwest Region, initiating battles that continued for more than 24 hours. At least 30 separatists were killed, as well as an unknown number of Cameroonian soldiers.[118]

In the beginning of November, 79 students and four staff members were kidnapped from a school in Nkwen, near Bamenda.[119] All 79 students were released without ransom three days later.[120] The Ambazonia Self-Defence Council claimed that they not only had nothing to do with the kidnappings, but had also sent its own fighters to try to locate the children.[121] November also saw several major confrontations. On November 11, according to the separatists, 13 Cameroonian soldiers and two separatists were killed when separatists carried out a successful ambush.[122] The next day, Cameroonian soldiers ambushed and killed at least 13 suspected separatists in Donga-Mantung,[123] and another 25 near Nkambé the next day.[124] On November 22, around 40 Ambazonian fighters and unarmed civilians were killed in Bali by government soldiers, who then set their corpses on fire. With no trace of bullet wounds on any of the bodies, unconfirmed reports alleged the use of chemicals by the soldiers.[125] On November 28, separatists blocked the Buea-Kumba Highway.[126] The month also saw the first major spillover into other parts of Cameroon; On November 29, at least 30 people were kidnapped by ten unidentified gunmen in Bangourain, West Region, and transported with canoes across the Lake Bamendjing reservoir.[127] A month later, two suspected separatists were lynched by the villagers, and the Cameroonian Army launched an offensive nearby.[128] Bangourain was attacked once more on December 22, prompting the separatists to accuse the government of carrying out a false flag operation to incite Cameroonian Francophones.[129] In Kembong, just south of Mamfe, a military vehicle hit a road bomb; no soldiers died, but the vehicle was destroyed.[130]

Cameroonian soldiers on a bridge, heading to Wum, December 2018.

December saw more burning of houses by government soldiers in Romajia,[131] Kikiakom and Ekona.[131] On December 15, at least five separatists were summarily executed, possibly by fellow separatists.[132] On December 21, ADF General Ivo Mbah was killed during a military raid in Kumba.[133]

On December 31, the presidents of Cameroon and Ambazonia addressed the ongoing conflict in their end of year speeches. President Paul Biya of Cameroon promised to "neutralize" all separatists who refused to disarm, while emphasizing that anyone who drops their guns can be reintegrated into society.[134] Interim President Sako of Ambazonia said that the separatists would switch from a defensive to an offensive strategy in the war, and announced that a Mobile Wing Police would be created to capture territory and defeat government militias. He also condemned anyone engaged in kidnappings of civilians, and promised to fight back against anyone involved in such practices.[135] The same night, separatist fighters attacked the convoy of the Governor of the Northwest Region, injuring at least one government soldier.[136] The Cameroonian Army also announced the killing of Lekeaka Oliver, Field Marshall of the Red Dragon militia, in Lebialem; the killing was denied by the IG,[137] and was also denied by sources within the Cameroonian Army. Oliver resurfaced in a video a week later, proving that reports of his death were false.[138]

2019

Main article: Timeline of the Anglophone Crisis (2019)

2019 started off with further escalation of the war. On January 6, Anglophone Cameroonians in the diaspora organized protests to mark the first anniversary of the arrest of the Ambazonian leadership. Throughout the day, armed clashes took place in Muyuka, Bafut. Mundum and Mamfe.[139] In Mamfe, two Ambazonian generals were killed when their camps were raided by the BIR.[140] On January 24, General Andrew Ngoe of SOCADEF was killed in Matoh, Mbonge.[141]

January also saw the start of the trials of the Ambazonian leaders, including Ayuk Tabe, who had spent a year in prison. The trial was complicated by all the Ambazonian leaders rejecting their Cameroonian nationality, which the court ultimately ignored. The leaders then refused to be tried by Francophone judges. On March 1, the trial took a diplomatic twist; a Nigerian court determined that the deportation of the Ambazonian leadership had been unconstitutional, and ordered their return to Nigeria. Nevertheless, the trial resumed.[142]

The separatists got bolder with enforcing lockdowns. The same day as the start of the trial, the streets of Buea were almost completely deserted.[143] On February 4, in anticipation of Youth Day on February 11, separatists declared a 10-day lockdown, telling people all across the Anglophone regions to stay at home from February 5–14.[144] The lockdown was a matter of controversy among the separatists, with a spokesperson of the Ambazonia Defence Forces arguing that it would be counterproductive.[145] The next day, large parts of Buea were closed down, while armed clashes took place in Muea and Muyuka. Most of Bamenda was also closed down, with smaller clashes taking place.[146] In Muyuka, an Ambazonian Colonel was killed alongside two other separatist fighters.[147] In Mbengwi, two separatists died while attacking the Divisional Office there.[148] As a result of the lockdown, Youth Day celebrations had negligible turnout in Southern Cameroons. In Bamenda, the Governor of Northwest Region, Adolph Lele l’Afrique, was escorted by soldiers to attend a small celebration. The military escort came under fire while driving to the ceremony, possibly resulting in casualties. The celebrations were boycotted in most major cities in the Anglophone regions, including Buea, Kumbo, Belo, Ndop, Ndu, Wum, Muyuka, Mamfe, Tombem, Mundemba and Lebialem, while there was a comparatively significant turnout in Nkambe.[149]

Early March saw two serious kidnapping incidents; one on the Kumba-Buea Highway, which was quickly foiled by the BIR,[150] and one at the University of Buea, where more than 15 students were kidnapped, beaten and released.[151] The separatists set up several road blocks, including an overnight mission where the Seven Karta militia blocked the Bafut-Bamenda Highway with concrete walls[152] On March 14, Cameroonian soldiers burned down several houses in Dunga Mantung and Menchum, and killed at least 12 people (several of whom were burned alive).[153] At the end of March, an ADF leader announced that they would take the war into the French-speaking parts of Cameroon. A week later, separatists – possibly the ADF – raided Penda Mboko, Littoral Region, and injured three gendarmes.[154] This was done in defiance of the IG.[155]

On March 31, various Ambazonian independence movements agreed to form the Southern Cameroons Liberation Council (SCLC), a united front consisting of both separatists and federalists.[156] On April 4, separatists imposed a 10-day lockdown on Buea.[157] On April 9, the newly established SCLC declared an early end to lockdown, citing how it mainly affected civilians. However, the Ambazonia Self-Defence Council (ASC), the armed wing of the IG, declared that the SCLC had no authority to call off the lockdown without consulting it first.[158]

Cameroonian soldiers in Bamenda in May, 2019.

On April 14, four Cameroonian soldiers and three separatist fighters were killed in Bali.[159] In Ekona, at least six people were killed in a government offensive.[160] The next day, security forces carried out mass arrests in Buea as they searched for separatist bases.[161] On April 24, gunmen burned down the house of the mayor of Fundong.[162] On April 27, SDF leader John Fru Ndi was kidnapped in Kumbo by separatists, but was released the same day. Fru Ndi had travelled to Kumbo to attend the funeral of Joseph Banadzem, the Parliamentary group leader of the SDF. Local separatist fighters had consented to the funeral taking place, provided that no Francophone Cameroonians attended it.[163] On April 30, government soldiers killed one person and burned at least 10 houses in Kikaikelaiki, Bui.[164]

May saw the Anglophone Crisis get some international attention. On May 5, following appeals by the European Union Parliament, it was announced that the Anglophone Crisis would be debated at the United Nations Security Council.[165] Days later, the Cameroonian government announced it was ready for an "inclusive" dialogue where anything except Ambazonian independence could be discussed.[166] Meanwhile, a leadership crisis erupted within the IG, forcing smaller separatist movements to pick their loyalties.[167]

In June, the separatists announced that they had started producing their own weapons in the warzone. Shortly afterwards, a mine killed four policemen and wounded another six,[168] convincing many that the separatists were no longer outgunned, but indeed well-armed.[169] The same month, it was revealed that the government of Cameroon and separatist movements would enter negotiations.[170] On June 27, John Fru Ndi was kidnapped for the second time in two months.[171]

Heavy fighting took place in July. On July 3, separatists ambushed a military boat carrying 13 Cameroonian soldiers on the Ekpambiri river, Manyu Division. Three soldiers managed to escape, two were rescued, one was found dead after five days, and seven remain unaccounted for. The Cameroonian Army declared that they knew which base the attackers had come from, and that an operation would be launched to destroy it.[172] On July 8, at least two gendarmes were killed and several more were wounded in an ambush in Ndop.[173] On July 11, at least seven separatist fighters were killed in Esu.[174] The next day, armed men kidnapped 30 bus passengers passing through Belo, in an apparent case of infighting among local separatist militias.[175] One Cameroonian soldier and three separatists were killed in Buea on July 14,[176] and at least one Cameroonian soldier and at least five separatists were killed in Mbiame three days later.[177]

Police forces depoly at Kondengui Central Prison, Yaounde, during the July 2019 Cameroon prison riots.

Towards the end of July, two major prison riots took place. On July 22, separatist inmates at Kondengui Central Prison took part in staging a protest against the prison conditions. The protest escalated into a riot, which was eventually quelled violently. A similar protest and crackdown took place at Buea Central Prison a few days later.[178] More than 100 inmates were moved to undisclosed locations for detention,[179] some of whom were subjected to torture,[180] and there were speculations that some had been killed during the riots. The IG demanded that the Cameroonian government account for the missing inmates, threatening to impose a lockdown encompassing the entire Anglophone regions if it failed to do so.[181] The lockdown started on July 29.[182] Midnight to July 31, the ten detained members of the IG, including Ayuk Tabe, went on a hunger strike over the missing convicts.[183]

On August 4, separatist fighters ambushed and killed a soldier and his civilian driver in Penda Mboko, Littoral Region, the second attack there since March.[184] On August 14, in an effort to sabotage the new school year, separatist militias announced that region-wide lockdowns would be enforced on September 2–6 and 9–13, covering the first two weeks of the academic year.[185] On August 15, at least seven soldiers from the BIR were injured when their vehicle skidded off the road in Kumba; while separatists claimed responsibility for the incident, the army claimed it was simply a road accident.[186]

On August 20, the ten detained members of the IG, including Ayuk Tabe, were sentenced to life imprisonment by the Yaoundé Military Tribunal.[187] This was followed by a military escalation and a series of lockdowns, crushing hopes that the school year could start as normal in early September. Within a week, violence and uncertainty had triggered tens of thousands of people to flee from the Anglophone regions.[188] Due to the escalation, a government-led effort to reopen at least 4,500 schools by September 2 ultimately failed.[189]

In September, President Paul Biya announced the Major National Dialogue, a political dialogue that would be held before the end of the month.[190] While separatists were quick to reject the initiative, citing the recent life sentences handed to the separatist leaders,[191] opposition parties in Cameroon showed interest in the initiative and started submitting proposals.[192] Meanwhile, the war continued; on September 20, separatist fighters launched a failed attack on a hotel in Bamenda where several government officials were staying.[193] While the Major National Dialogue was happening, a significant number of Anglophones celebrated Ambazonia's third independence day on October 1. Nine people were killed in clashes all across the Anglophone regions that day,[194] while "Field Marshall" Lekeaka Oliver of the Red Dragon militia used the occasion to declare himself Paramout Ruler of Lebialem.[195] October also saw the public surrender of Ambazonian general Ekeom Polycarp, who was subsequently assassinated by other separatists.[196] The separatists also started opening "community schools" across the Anglophone regions, providing an alternative to the government-run schools which they had boycotted for years.[197]

On December 1, separatist fighters carried out their first attack on an airplane, firing at a Camair-Co passenger plane while it was landing at Bamenda Airport. No one was wounded in the attack, although several bullets penetrated into the cabin. This incident was the first of its kind, and possibly indicated that the separatists would take on larger government targets.[198] The AGovC announced that the airline in question often transported soldiers, and that they thus considered their aircraft to be legitimate targets.[199] The separatists also started their campaign to sabotage the upcoming 2020 Cameroonian parliamentary election, and within a week they abducted some 40 politicians, including two mayors and at least 19 councilors.[200] A separatist attack on a civilian truck with a military escort left some three civilians dead on December 19.[201] Cameroon also launched a series of operations in Mezam, Boyo, Donga Mantung, Bui, Ngo Ketunjia and Boyo that would, over six days, force around 5,500 people to flee their homes.[202] In their respective New Year speeches on December 31, President Paul Biya of Cameroon and Samuel Ikome Sako of Ambazonia both promised to intensify the war in 2020.[203]

2020

Main article: Timeline of the Anglophone Crisis (2020)

Cameroonian gendarmes arrive in Buea, 9 January 2020.

Separatist forces started the new year by declaring a five-day lockdown for February, intended to prevent the upcoming parliamentary election from taking place in the Anglophone regions.[204] Clashes took place in Buea and Muyuka, where separatists burned down the office of the Divisional Officer.[205] On January 6, after failing to listen to demands from fellow separatists not to terrorize civilians, separatist commander "General Divine" was assassinated by his own men.[206] Following instances of popular uprisings against the separatists in Balikumbat and Babungo, the ADF ordered its fighters to take action against anyone caught terrorizing civilians.[207] January also saw what was possibly the most serious instance of separatist infighting to date; the Southern Cameroons Restoration Forces (loyal to the IG) abducted 40 fighters from the Ambazonia Defence Forces, six of whom were subsequently murdered.[208] "General Chacha", the separatist commander responsible for the abduction, was captured and summarily executed by Cameroonian soldiers a week later.[209]

A parliamentary election was held in February, and was marked by unprecedented escalation on both sides. Hundreds of additional troops were deployed to combat separatist attempts to sabotage the election, while the separatists abducted 120 politicians within the two weeks preceding the election. Efforts by the Cameroonian government to prevent a repeat of the debacle surrounding the 2018 presidential election ultimately failed, as the turnout in the Anglophone regions was very low. The Ambazonians, who claimed that 98 percent of the population boycotted the election, hailed this as a great victory.[210] The results in 11 constituencies were later nullified due to separatist activities, triggering a partial re-election in March. The results were largely the same, with a marginal turnout and clashes taking place throughout the day.[211] Less than a week after the February election, Cameroonian soldiers and armed Fulani carried out the Ngarbuh massacre, killing at least 23 civilians in Ntumbo, Northwest Region and drawing international condemnation.[212]

On March 7, around 20 separatist fighters carried out attacks on a police station and gendarmerie in Galim, West Region, killing two gendarmes, two police officers and four civilians. This was the third separatist attack in West Region.[213] The next day, an improvised explosive device killed one soldier and injured four soldiers, two police officers and one civilian in Bamenda.[214] Cameroon subsequently carried out an offensive in Ngo-Ketunjia, where it claimed to have destroyed 10 separatist camps and killed at least 20 fighters, including some of those who had participated in the Galim raid.[215]

On March 26, SOCADEF declared a two-week ceasefire to give people time to get tested for coronavirus,[216] a move that was welcomed by the United Nations.[217] The IG and the AGovC declared their willingness to have their armed groups follow suit, but conditioned it on international monitoring and Cameroonian troops being confined to their bases.[218] The same day as SOCADEF's unilateral ceasefire went into effect and, coincidentally, the same day as the first COVID-19 case was confirmed in the Anglophone regions, President Sako declared the shutting of Ambazonia's borders and restriction of movement and public gatherings in order to limit the spreading of the virus, effective from April 1.[219] However, the danger posed by COVID-19 did not bring about an immediate end of hostilities on the ground; just the day before Sako's declaration, separatists attacked an armored car, killing a soldier and 11 officials, including two deputy mayors.[220] On April 8, responding to claims by the Cameroonian government that the war was nearing an end, separatists attacked military bases and destroyed infrastructure in villages all across the Anglophone regions.[18] While SOCADEF extended its unilateral ceasefire,[221] separatists carried out coordinated attacks on several villages,[222] assassinated members of a traditional council[223] and abducted three government officials.[224] Towards the end of the month, Cameroon initiated Operation Free Bafut, a series of raids in and around Bafut that aimed at completely rooting out separatist presence in the area. On May 1, Cameroon announced the deaths of two separatist commanders known as General Alhaji and General Peace Plant; separatists confirmed the loss.[225] There were also civilian casualties; one person was killed by soldiers on the first day of the operation.[226] Local villagers claimed that 13 civilians were killed in the fighting; this was denied by the Cameroonian Army.[227]

On May 10, separatist fighters assassinated the newly elected mayor of Mamfe, Ashu Priestly Ojong,[228] and hours later the chief of the Babeke Telecentre, Kimi Samson, was murdered as well by suspected separatists.[229] Tribal clashes took place in Ndu, where armed Fulani killed two civilians.[230]

On May 19, one of the imprisoned members of the original cabinet of the IG, Barrister Shufai, who had been transferred to a hospital four days prior, was chained up and mistreated by guards. Shufai had been transferred to the hospital following 10 days of deteriorating health, and was unconscious when he arrived.[231] He was then sent back to Kondengui Central Prison, despite the fact that he was immunocompromised and the risk of getting COVID-19 in a crowded prison. His treatment was condemned by his lawyers and by Human Rights Watch.[232]

The next day, Cameroon celebrated its annual Unity Day. Separatists had already announced a lockdown from May 19-21, and fighters partrolled public places during the holiday to enforce the lockdown.[233] According to the Cameroonian military, six people were killed in clashes in the preceding week. Separatists claimed to have abducted nine or more people who had watched the celebrations on TV.[234] In Bamenda, the Cameroonian Army claimed to have discovered and disarmed several improvised explosive devices.[235]

On May 24, the Cameroonian military set up a military base in Ngarbuh, with the stated aim of cutting off a separatist supply route from Nigeria. Within a week, more than 300 villagers had fled, fearing the presence of soldiers and a repeat of the Ngarbuh massacre.[236] Four days later, Cameroonian soldiers killed four unarmed men in Buea.[237] Another person was killed by soldiers in Mbiame.[238] Towards the end of the month, separatists drew condemnation from Human Rights Watch for abducting and maltreating a humanitarian worker and members of a non-profit organization. All were eventually released.[239]

On June 1, at least five Cameroonian soldiers were killed in a separatist ambush in Otu, Manyu. An unspecified number of soldiers were also wounded in the ambush.[240] The next day, it was reported that Pidgin journalist Samuel Wazizi, who had been arrested on August 3, 2019 over alleged ties with separatists, had died at a military hospital after being tortured by Cameroonian soldiers.[241] Cameroonian authorities confirmed Wazizi's death three days after the initial reports, reiterated the original accusation against Wazizi, and attributed his death to "severe sepsis".[242] In Malende, Kumba, the Cameroonian Army carried out an operation to expel separatists from the area. According to Cameroon, seven separatists were killed as the Cameroonian Army overran their base.[243] On June 5, separatist figthers killed a gendarmerie commander in Njikwa.[244] In mid-June, the Cameroonian Army launched two separate operations that killed a total of 24 separatists over four days; 11 in Mbokam, and 13 in Bali, Batibo and Widikum. Cameroon claimed to have suffered one dead and one wounded during the battles.[245] During the four days of fighting, the Cameroonian Army lifted a blockade of the Bamenda-Enugu Road, where rebels had extorted money from travellers. Separatists condemned the blockade and denied having anything to do with it.[246]

In June, Cameroon planned to start rebuilding the Anglophone regions with the support of the UNDP. In response, separatists declared a three-day lockdown all across the Anglophone regions.[247] Meanwhile, two explosive devices detonated in Yaoundé, raising suspicions that the separatists were now taking the war to Cameroon's capital; the Cameroonian police had warned about this back in January.[248] Another explosion in the beginning of July wounded two people.[249] Following the explosions, security forces started raiding houses in neighborhoods where displaced Anglophones were living. In the following days, many Anglophones accused the authorities of abuses.[250] In early July, Cameroon launched "Operation Ngoke-Bui", a series of raids on separatist camps in Ngo-Ketunjia, in which 17 separatists and at least one Cameroonian soldier were killed.[251]

By the end of June, The Africa Report reported that Cameroon had largely pushed the separatists out of Buea (although they later clashed with the army there in early-July[252]), where there had been much fighting back in 2018. Separatist militias in Northwest Region suffered heavy losses during operations in June, and a source in the Cameroonian military claimed that Cameroon was close to winning the war.[253] Other sources claimed that neither side was winning, and that internal discontent was forcing Cameroon towards a ceasefire. International calls for a global ceasefire to deal with the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic also put pressure on the Cameroonian government.[19] On July 2, Cameroonian officials met with the imprisoned leaders of the IG to discuss a ceasefire.[254] Ayuk Tabe listed three conditions for a ceasefire; that it would be announced by President Paul Biya, that the Cameroonian military would pull out of the Anglophone regions, and a general amnesty for separatists.[20] According to an article published in The New Humanitarian "The two rounds of “pre-talks” – the last reportedly on 2 July – have been held outside the Kondengui Central Prison where Sisiku is being held and are seen as “confidence-building” steps."[255] These talks were condemned by other factions of the Ambazonia independence movement, who argued that Ayuk Tabe had been corrupted by the Cameroonian government.[256]

Strategy

Military strategy

Cameroonian soldiers during a skirmish against Ambazonian fighters.

The Cameroonian Army is fighting a counter-insurgency war, aiming to hit the separatists' support base. This includes burning houses where weapons are found and, according to locals but denied by the army, carrying out revenge attacks.[257] In August 2018, the Defence Minister of Cameroon announced that the army would be expanded with 2,600 new recruits, 2,000 of whom would go to the BIR.[258] In addition to expanding the army, the government has supported local vigilante groups, which there were more than 30 of as of October 2019.[3] The government has also set up rehab centers in Bamenda and Buea to reintegrate separatists who have surrendered into civil society.[259] With no military victory in sight, the Cameroonian Army has sought to at least contain the conflict to rural areas. As of late-2018, the Cameroonian Army aimed to control all urban areas as well as strategic points on the countryside, and did not seek to recapture the entire Anglophone regions.[5] This strategy began to yield results during the first half of 2020. By June, the separatists had been largely pushed out of Buea.[253]

Weapons of separatist fighters in Bamenda, seized by the Cameroonian military in February 2019

The Ambazonian separatists are fighting a guerrilla war. Numerically and materially disadvantaged, the separatists carry out hit-and-run attacks, ambushes and raids. According to the ADF, as of June 2018 there were 1,500 soldiers in the ADF, spread across 20 camps throughout Southern Cameroons.[260] In May 2019, independent sources measured the total number of separatist fighters to be between 2,000 and 4,000, a figure that included numerous ex-soldiers and ex-policemen, a significant number of female combatants, and dozens of Nigerian mercenaries. The Nigerians among the rebels mostly consisted of criminals and ex-insurgents who had previously taken part in the conflict in the Niger Delta.[5] Many separatist militias, including the ADF and SOCADEF, are directly commanded by diaspora leaders in the United States, Norway, Germany and other countries; aid agencies have oftentimes had to negotiate with these leaders over the phone, rather than with separatists on the ground.[261]

At the start of the war, the separatists struggled with gaining access to firearms, having to rely on hunting rifles and in some cases single-shot pistols. As the war went on, they gradually gained limited access to some more sophisticated weapons, capturing some from the Cameroonian Army and buying some in Nigeria (where they enjoyed the support of officers in the Nigerian Army). They also benefitted from fundraising campaigns (including the introduction of their own cryptocurrency, the AmbaCoin), launched by diaspora activists to purchase guns for the separatist militias. This began to yield visible results in the first half of 2019.[262] From being severely outgunned in the fall of 2018,[111] by the summer of 2019 the separatists had become well-armed.[169] They also declared that they had started producing their own weapons within Southern Cameroons, a declaration followed shortly by an explosion in Mamfe that killed four policemen.[168]

The militias enjoy significant local support, with civilians giving them food, informing them on troop movements, or outright assisting them in carrying out attacks.[72] The IG has stressed that the war will take place solely within Southern Cameroons, and claims that attacks across the border have been false flag operations by the Cameroonian government.[263] In March 2019, the ADF announced that it would take the war into the French-speaking parts of Cameroon, defying the IG.[264]

Unlike most Cameroonian soldiers deployed in the region, the separatists are locals, and are thus more familiar with the terrain. Cameroonian General Melingui stated that the separatists have a leverage over the army when it comes to familiarity with the battleground; "They know the terrain. These are youths from local villages. We try to seek them out but we can't find them. Our men aren't familiar with the forest." Cameroonian authorities have admitted that they have little control over the security situation outside the cities.[257] Journalist Emmanuel Freudenthal, who spent a week with ADF rebels in 2018, stated that the separatists control much of the countryside because the infrastructure in Southern Cameroons is so poorly developed, making it hard for the Cameroonian government to access those areas.[260]

AGovC leader Ayaba Cho Lucas summed up the ADF strategy in the following way: "60% of the GDP of Cameroon is earned in Ambazonia. [...] We must try to raise the cost of the occupation to higher than the profits they get here."[93]

Retired American diplomat Herman Jay Cohen has argued that Cameroon's military approach to the conflict plays straight into the strategy of the separatists. Drawing parallels to the Eritrean War of Independence, he has claimed that the growing bitterness resulting from prolonged warfare will only serve to close the window of opportunity where reconciliation and territorial integrity is still an option, thereby - ironically - increasing the likelihood of Ambazonian secession.[265]

Political, diplomatic and propaganda strategy

According to Millan Atam, chairperson of the Southern Cameroonians Congress of the People, the separatists are building up support for their cause through two distinct phases. The first phase was to build internal capability to resist the Cameroonian Army and raise faith in the cause. Once a significant portion of the population of Southern Cameroons clearly wanted separation, the separatists would approach the international community with their cause.[266]

The Cameroonian government has tried to limit the extent of which the conflict affects everyday life in Southern Cameroons, and portrays the war as a battle between chaos and stability in which the government represents the latter. To this end, local authorities have penalized businesses that respected "ghost towns" declared by the separatists.[267] The government has fired and replaced local administrators who fled from the region, despite their fears of kidnappings.[268] In September 2018, the army physically prevented people from fleeing their homes.

In August 2018, Minister of Territorial Administration Atanga Nji offered amnesty to separatists who surrender their weapons, saying they would "be received as prodigal sons". The minister also announced a plan to rebuild infrastructure that had been destroyed due to the conflict.[269]

Both sides have used WhatsApp to spread propaganda.[257] Cameroonian authorities have arrested journalists on the accusation of propagating false information, the punishment for which is six months to two years in prison.[270]

War crimes

By Cameroon

There is photographic evidence that shows a consistent strategy of burning down villages. The army has claimed that the soldiers who were filmed were separatists wearing stolen Cameroonian Army uniforms, a claim that has been denied by local residents. Satellite images show extensive damage to villages. Journalists have been denied entry to the conflict zones, and soldiers have been forbidden from carrying mobile phones.[271] In August 2018, the Centre for Human Rights and Democracy in Africa published a list of 106 villages that had been raided by government forces since October 2017. Citing eyewitness accounts, videos and photos as evidence, the Centre claimed that 71 of these villages had been completely destroyed and depopulated, while the remaining 34 had been partially deserted.[272]

By Ambazonia

A destroyed bilingual high school in Fontem.

At the end of 2017, the separatists declared a school boycott, and have attacked and burnt down schools that refused to shut down. Between February 2017 and May 2018, at least 42 schools were targeted.[271] Some separatists consider schools to be legitimate targets because the French language is taught as a mandatory subject.[260] As of July 2019, close to 6,000 schools had shut down across the Anglophone regions, affecting more than 600,000 children.[273] In October 2019, separatists began opening their own schools.[197]

In their effort to make the Anglophone regions ungovernable, separatist elements have maimed employees at state-owned corporations.[274] Kidnapping for ransom has also occurred frequently,[275] as well as blackmailing of civilians into transferring money to fund the struggle.[276] Owing to the obscure nature of many of the separatist militias (see list), some attacks attributed to separatists may as well be the acts of local criminals. Notwithstanding, it is beyond doubt that separatist elements have carried out numerous such acts,[277] sometimes drawing condemnation from the Interim Government of Ambazonia.[274]

Throughout 2017, there were no reports of ADF using violence against civilians. As of October 2018, five such incidents had been reported, though these attacks were for the most part not lethal; one civilian death was attributed to an ADF attack. Other separatist groups had attacked civilians 25 times within the same time frame, and were responsible for 13 civilian deaths.[14] Separatists have also been accused of using schools and churches as military barracks;[278] in July 2019, Cameroon accused the separatists of occupying more than 50 schools.[279] The Ambazonian forces have also engaged in widespread extortion if the civilian population in the two Anglophone regions of Cameroon.[280]

Casualties

Between September 2017 and February 2018, Cameroon claimed to have lost 22 soldiers and policemen in the conflict.[281] By May, at least 44 soldiers and policemen had been killed.[7] In June 2018, the official figure rose to 84 dead.[282] Within two weeks in the later half of June, the official figure went up to more than 120 dead.[95] By October 2018, the military and police had lost at least 175 servicemen. Separatist losses were estimated to be in the hundreds.[283]

The war intensified in early 2019. By June, Cameroonian military and police casualties were estimated to be around 500 dead. The separatists had lost around 1,000 fighters.[7] While civilian casualties are hard to determine, in May 2019 they were estimated by independent sources to be around 650 killed.[5] In January the same year, the Diocese of Kumbo had been able to document 385 civilian deaths in Kumbo alone within the past seven months.[284] In September 2019, independent sources stated that the conflict had claimed the lives of around 3,000 people, counting both combatants and civilians.[8] By February 2020, between 800 and 1,000 Cameroonian soldiers had been killed.[6] In addition, at least 250 ethnic Mbororos had been killed as of July 2020, counting both civilians and pro-Cameroonian militants.[285]

Anglophone groups have disputed these figures. While federalist movements claimed that the conflict had taken 3,000–5,000 lives as of the summer of 2019, separatists claimed that between 5,000 and 10,000 people had been killed.[7]

Humanitarian consequences

Internally displaced person from Southern Cameroons, in Douala, Cameroon, March 2020.

By January 2018, 15,000 people had fled from Southern Cameroons to Nigeria.[12] This number increased to at least 40,000 people by February.[286] By August 2018, more than 180,000 people had been displaced due to the war.[287] As of May 2019, 530,000 people had been internally displaced, and 35,000 had fled to Nigeria.[5] In June 2019, UNICEF said that 1.3 million people in the Anglophone regions needed humanitarian aid.[288]

Other consequences

The conflict has severely harmed the local economy. In June 2018, Cameroon Development Corporation, a state-owned company with 22,000 employees, declared the conflict could lead to the loss of 5,000 jobs on the short term.[289] In July 2018, Cameroonian NGO Human Is Right reported that the war had caused a 70 percent increase in unemployment in the agricultural sector. The palm oil and cocoa sectors in Southwest Region had taken a severe blow, with state-owned company Pamol abandoning plantations in some areas. The private company Telcar Cocoa reported that the cocoa production had fallen 80 percent. The NGO suggested that companies make deals with the separatists in order to safeguard their facilities.[290] The separatists aim to prevent the Cameroonian state from getting any income from the Anglophone regions, in order to make cost of controlling the region surpass the benefits.[93]

The conflict has triggered an exodus of the Nigerian business community from Southern Cameroons, as well as Nigerian traders who used to run key markets.[291]

Thousands of displaced people have fled to protected natural areas, endangering the wildlife there.[292]

Reactions

Southern Cameroonian expats marching in support of the Ambazonian cause

Within Cameroon

The Anglophone Crisis has become a divisive question in Cameroonian politics. The Cameroon People's Democratic Movement (CPDM), the ruling party, regards the separatists as terrorists and supports a military solution to the conflict.[293] The CPDM supported both the carrying out and conclusion of the Major National Dialogue, which was organized by the Cameroonian government.[190]

Meanwhile, the opposition has been vocal in its criticism of the government's handling of the conflict. In January 2019, the Social Democratic Front announced it would oppose any future elections in the country while the war is still ongoing. The party supports a negotiated solution to the conflict, and has demanded a ceasefire, the opening of a dialogue, amnesty for everyone jailed because of the crisis, the establishment of a truth and reconciliation commission, and decentralization of the country.[294] In March 2019, the SDF accused members of the Cameroonian government of supporting certain armed elements in the Anglophone regions.[295] In May 2019, the SDF announced it would boycott National Day celebrations in sympathy with people in Southern Cameroons living in a state of civil war.[296]

Smaller opposition parties, such as the Cameroon Renaissance Movement (MRC), also blame the government for failing to solve the Anglophone Crisis.[297] On January 26, 2019, supporters of the MRC invaded the Cameroonian embassy in Paris, citing – among other reasons – the Anglophone Crisis.[298] In May 2019, the MRC joined the SDF in boycotting National Day celebrations.[296] The Cameroon People's Party has taken a nuanced approach, condemning both the government and the separatists. Party leader Kah Walla has said that the crisis can be solved by turning Cameroon into a federation.[299]

Countries and international organizations

Main article: International reactions to the Anglophone Crisis

The Anglophone Crisis has become a diplomatic challenge to Cameroon, and has damaged the country's relations with some of its allies. While member states of the African Union[300] and France[301] have taken either a neutral stance or sided with the Cameroonian government, several European countries and the United States have criticized Cameroon.[302] The United States have been particularly vocal in its criticism; In July 2019, following a fact-finding mission by some of its members to the country, the House of Representatives called for a reintroduction of a federal system in Cameroon.[303]

In June 2019, Switzerland announced that both the Cameroonian government and the separatists had asked it to act as a mediator, and that negotiations would take place. This was the first known case of talks between the two warring sides, and was met with international endorsement.[304] However, the talks ultimately failed.[19] The talks were referred to as the "Swiss Process" but were only supported by one faction of the independence movement. Sisiku Julius Ayuk Tabe and Ayaba Cho Lucas both opposed the talks, and the Cameroonian Government also did not buy into the talks, rendering them ineffective. Regardless, the faction of the movement aligned with Samuel Ikome Sako have continued to insist that the talks facilitated by Switzerland are the only means of resolving the conflict.[305]

References

1. Explosions in Bamenda and Killings in Besongabang Military Base, ADF Claims Responsibility Archived 2019-12-23 at the Wayback Machine, Daily News Cameroon, Sept 14, 2017. Accessed Apr 19, 2018.
2. Cameroon:Anglophone crisis has spilled over Francophone zones-SDF Archived 2018-12-31 at the Wayback Machine, Journal du Cameroun, Dec 31, 2018. Accessed Dec 31, 2018.
3. Cameroon sees more vigilante groups against insecurity in Anglophone regions, XinhuaNet, Oct 15, 2019. Accessed Oct 15, 2019.
4. International Institute for Strategic Studies. (2014). Chapter Ten: Country comparisons – commitments, force levels and economics. The Military Balance, 114(1), 471–492. doi:10.1080/04597222.2014.871887
5. Cameroon’s Anglophone Crisis: How to Get to Talks?, Crisis Group, May 2, 2019. Accessed May 2, 2019.
6. Briefing: Cameroon's intensifying conflict and what it means for civilians, The New Humanitarian, Feb 6, 2020. Accessed Feb 8, 2020.
7. Cameroon-unfolding catastrophe’ evidence of human rights violations and crimes against humanity, Centre for Human Rights and Democracy in Africa (CHRDA), Jun 3, 2019.
8. Cameroon’s Anglophone Dialogue: A Work in Progress, CrisisGroup, Sep 26, 2019. Accessed Oct 28, 2019.
9. Escalation of the Anglophone crisis, ReliefWeb, Jan 21, 2020. Accessed Apr 12, 2020.
10. ‘Ambazonia War’ drowns SDF 28th Anniversary Archived 2018-10-25 at the Wayback Machine, Journal du Cameroun, May 28, 2018. Accessed Oct 25, 2018.
11. Cameroon on Brink of Civil War as English Speakers Recount ‘Unbearable’ Horrors, The New York Times, Oct 6, 2018. Accessed Apr 27, 2019.
12. "Cameroon's Anglophone crisis is threatening to spin out of control". Quartz Africa. 14 January 2018. Archived from the original on 31 May 2018. Retrieved 22 April 2018.
13. "Deadly clashes between troops, ADF forces leave Nguti on the brink". Journal du Cameroun. 13 March 2018. Archived from the original on 21 April 2018. Retrieved 22 April 2018..
14. Picking a Fight: The Rise of Armed Separatists in Cameroon, ACLED. Accessed Nov 17, 2018.
15. Cameroon: Ambazonia leaders endorse Swiss-led dialogue to solve Anglophone crisis, Journal du Cameroun, Jun 28, 2019. Accessed Jun 28, 2019.
16. Cameroon grants special status to Anglophone regions, Reuters, Dec 20, 2019. Accessed Dec 22, 2019.
17. Cameroon's Separatists Intensify Attacks to Protest Dialogue, Voice of America, Sep 24, 2019. Accessed Sep 26, 2019.
18. Cameroon's Separatists Relaunch Attacks to Reject State Reconstruction Plan, Voice of America, Apr 9, 2020. Accessed Apr 9, 2020.
19. Cameroon holds first peace talks with main separatist insurgents, Reuters, Jul 4, 2020. Accessed Jul 4, 2020.
20. Cameroon: Government is secretly negotiating with the Ambazonians, The Africa Report, Jul 6, 2020. Accessed Jul 7, 2020.
21. Bone, R. Maxwell. "Ahead of peace talks, a who's who of Cameroon's separatist movements". The New Humanitarian.
22. Victor T. Le Vine (2004). Politics in Francophone Africa. Lynne Rienner Publishers. pp. 6–. ISBN 9781588262493. Retrieved 9 May 2011.
23. "The Early Times in Victoria (Limbe)". Archived from the original on 7 March 2016. Retrieved 26 October 2016.
24. The Cameroon Tribune, No. 600, p. 2, December 26, 1996
25. Lee, Alexander, and Kenneth A. Schultz. Comparing British and French colonial legacies: A discontinuity analysis of Cameroon, p. 10 APSA 2011 Annual Meeting Paper. 2011.
26. DeLancey, Mark W., and Mark Dike DeLancey (2000): Historical Dictionary of the Republic of Cameroon (3rd ed.). Lanham, Maryland: The Scarecrow Press.
27. Nohlen, D, Krennerich, M & Thibaut, B (1999) Elections in Africa: A data handbook, p177 ISBN 0-19-829645-2
28. Amaazee, Victor Bong. The ‘Igbo scare’in the British Cameroons, c. 1945–61. The Journal of African History 31.2 (1990): 281–293.
29. Ndi, Anthony (16 March 2014). Southern West Cameroon Revisited (1950–1972) Volume One: Unveiling Inescapable Traps. Langaa RPCIG. pp. 217–. ISBN 978-9956-791-44-6.
30. Elections in Cameroon Archived 2011-09-03 at the Wayback Machine African Elections Database
31. Roger, Jules, and Sombaye Eyango. Inside the Virtual Ambazonia: Separatism, Hate Speech, Disinformation and Diaspora in the Cameroonian Anglophone Crisis, p. 28 (2018).
32. Anyangwe, Carlson. Betrayal of Too Trusting a People. The UN, the UK and the Trust Territory of the Southern Cameroons: The UN, the UK and the Trust Territory of the Southern Cameroons, pp. 108–111. African Books Collective, 2009.
33. Nkwi; Nchoji, Paul (2015). The Anthropology of Africa: Challenges for the 21st Century (illustrated, reprint ed.), p. 478. Langaa RPCIG. ISBN 9789956792795.
34. Cameroon's anglophone war, Part 1: A rifle as the only way out Archived 2018-07-09 at the Wayback Machine, IPP Media, Jul 9, 2018. Accessed Jul 9, 2018.
35. Southern Cameroons Peoples Organisation website Archived 2007-09-27 at the Wayback Machine
36. Katharine Murison, ed. (2003). Africa South of the Sahara 2004. Europa Publications. pp. 163–164.
37. March 1997 incidents in the north-west province CMR36066.E', Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, Jan 31, 2001. Accessed May 10, 2019.
38. Tom Lansdorf, ed. (2017). "Cameroon". Political Handbook of the World 2016–2017. CQ Press. pp. 236–246.
39. Elong, Eric Ebolo. Sovereignty in the Making: The Case of Anglophone Cameroon. 2, p. 24
40. Secessionist minority Anglophone group silenced, The New Humanitarian, Feb 19, 2007. Accessed Oct 27, 2019.
41. Cameroon Rebels Threaten Security in Oil-Rich Gulf of Guinea Archived 2019-03-29 at the Wayback Machine, Ref World, Nov 24, 2010. Accessed Mar 28, 2019.
42. "Trial over Cameroon's Anglophone protests exposes national divide". Reuters. 13 February 2017. Archived from the original on 8 September 2017. Retrieved 13 September 2017.
43. "Rights groups call for probe into protesters' deaths in Cameroon". CNN. Archived from the original on 2017-08-29. Retrieved 2019-03-05.
44. "Mass protests in Cameroon are exposing the fragility of its dual French-English system". Archived from the original on 2018-06-25. Retrieved 2019-03-05.
45. "What you need to know about Cameroon's Anglophone protests". 13 February 2017. Archived from the original on 2 April 2019. Retrieved 5 March 2019.
46. "Anglophone Cameroon Common Law Lawyers Protest – Contra Nocendi International". contranocendi.org. Archived from the original on 2017-09-03. Retrieved 2017-09-13.
47. "(True or False?) Two Anglophone lawyers beaten up in Buea – StopBlaBlaCam". StopBlaBlaCam. Archived from the original on 2017-09-03. Retrieved 2017-09-13.
48. "Cameroon teachers, lawyers strike in battle for English". www.aljazeera.com. Archived from the original on 2017-09-12. Retrieved 2017-09-13.
49. "Arrests in Cameroon language protests". BBC News. 2016-11-23. Archived from the original on 2017-09-11. Retrieved 2017-09-13.
50. "The Government Just Banned SCNC and Consortium ‹ The Standard Tribune". thestandardtribune.com. Archived from the original on 2017-09-03. Retrieved 2017-09-13.
51. "JUST IN: Internet Blocked in Bamenda Regions of Cameroon". pctechmag.com. January 18, 2016. Archived from the original on January 20, 2017. Retrieved January 18, 2017.
52. "Anglophone protests: More pressure from United States' congress". Journal du Cameroun. 2017-06-27. Archived from the original on 2017-09-05. Retrieved 2017-09-13.
53. "Cameroon Strike: The United States expresses concern over the loss of life and brutality against anglophone protesters". Cameroon Concord. Archived from the original on 2017-09-05. Retrieved 2017-09-13.
54. "English speakers protest in Cameroon, demand equal rights amid calls for secession – News – DW – 22.09.2017". DW.COM. Archived from the original on 2018-01-25. Retrieved 2019-03-05.
55. The crisis in Cameroon’s English-speaking regions has turned violent with bombings Archived 2018-04-19 at the Wayback Machine, Quartz, Sept 22, 2017. Accessed Apr 19, 2018.
56. Suspected separatist bomb wounds 3 police in Cameroon's Anglophone region Archived 2018-04-19 at the Wayback Machine, Reuters, Sept 21, 2017. Accessed Apr 19, 2018.
57. "Cameroon is on edge after security forces opened fire on Anglophone protesters". Quartz Africa. 22 September 2017. Archived from the original on 19 April 2018. Retrieved 10 May 2018.
58. Cameroon: Anglophone Crisis - Dialogue Remains the Only Viable Solution, AllAfrica, Dec 7, 2017. Accessed Mar 9, 2019.
59. "Several killed in Cameroon as anglophones declare 'independent Ambazonia'". Euractiv. 2 October 2017. Archived from the original on 20 April 2018. Retrieved 10 May 2018.
60. Cameroonian troops deploy heavily along Nigeria border Archived 2018-04-20 at the Wayback Machine, DW, Oct 9, 2017. Accessed Apr 20, 2018.
61. "Four Cameroon soldiers killed in restive Anglophone region". Daily Nation. 29 November 2017. Archived from the original on 21 April 2018. Retrieved 5 May 2018.
62. Cameroon separatists kill at least two gendarmes as Anglophone dispute escalates Archived 2018-04-21 at the Wayback Machine, Reuters, Nov 8, 2017. Accessed Apr 20, 2018.
63. Five Police, Five Soldiers Killed in Cameroon Violence, Voice of America, Nov 30, 2017. Accessed Nov 17, 2019.
64. Cameroon govt forces accused of murder, rape Archived 2018-08-25 at the Wayback Machine, Eyewitness News. Accessed Aug 25, 2018.
65. Cameroon government ‘declares war’ on secessionist rebels Archived 2018-04-21 at the Wayback Machine, Irin, Dec 4, 2017. Accessed Apr 21, 2018.
66. Cameroon's Military Moves In on Separatist-held Villages Archived 2018-04-21 at the Wayback Machine, Voice of America, Dec 7, 2017. Accessed Apr 21, 2018.
67. After Days of Sporadic Gun Shots In Mamfe: Relative Calm Returns, Massive Exodus Archived 2018-11-25 at the Wayback Machine, Cameroon News Agency, December 15, 2017. Accessed Nov 24, 2018.
68. Separatists Attack Cameroon Police Archived 2018-04-21 at the Wayback Machine, Voice of America, Dec 9, 2017. Accessed Apr 21, 2018.
69. Anglophone Crisis – Seven military personnel murdered in December – ICG says Archived 2018-07-04 at the Wayback Machine, Cameroon Concord, Jan 6, 2018. Accessed Aug 25, 2018.
70. Cameroonian troops entered Nigeria without seeking authorization, sources in Nigeria say Archived 2018-04-21 at the Wayback Machine, Reuters, Dec 20, 2017. Accessed Apr 21, 2018.
71. Who are Cameroon's English-speaking separatists? Archived 2018-04-23 at the Wayback Machine, Daily Nation, Feb 20, 2018. Accessed Apr 22, 2018.
72. Cameroon's Anglophone crisis: Red Dragons and Tigers – the rebels fighting for independence Archived 2018-10-04 at the Wayback Machine, BBC, Oct 4, 2018. Accessed Oct 4, 2018.
73. Cameroon separatist leader detained in Nigeria as unrest grows Archived 2018-04-07 at the Wayback Machine. The Guardian, Jan 7, 2018. Accessed Apr 19, 2018.
74. "Ambazonia: Nigeria Hands over 47 Asylum-seekers to Cameroonian Authorities". UNPO. 26 March 2018. Archived from the original on 5 May 2018. Retrieved 10 May 2018.
75. Cameroon: Ambazonia leaders appear before judge at military tribunal Archived 2019-04-15 at the Wayback Machine, Journal du Cameroun, Nov 28, 2018. Accessed Jan 13, 2019.
76. Just In-Dr Samuel Ikome Sako Is New Acting Interim President of The ‘Federal Republic of Ambazonia’ Archived 2018-04-19 at the Wayback Machine, Cameroon News Agency, Feb 4, 2018. Accessed Apr 19, 2018.
77. Tension In Bangem, Administrative Authorities Held By Gunmen Archived 2018-11-25 at the Wayback Machine, Cameroon News Agency, Jan 29, 2018. Accessed Nov 24, 2018.
78. Gunmen cross from Nigeria, attack Cameroon border post: witnesses Archived 2018-08-29 at the Wayback Machine, Reuters, Jan 25, 2018. Accessed Aug 28, 2018.
79. Local chief murdered in Mundemba by separatists Archived 2018-07-17 at the Wayback Machine, Journal du Cameroun, Feb 12, 2018. Accessed Jul 16, 2018.
80. France condemns killings in Cameroon, urges dialogue Archived 2018-07-09 at the Wayback Machine, Reuters, Feb 2, 2018. Accessed Jul 9, 2018.
81. Head teacher slaughtered by suspected separatists in Etam Archived 2018-08-25 at the Wayback Machine, Journal du Cameroun, Feb 21, 2018. Accessed Aug 25, 2018.
82. Kidnapping of government officials highlights risks to companies in Cameroon’s Anglophone regions deemed to be unfairly exploiting resources Archived 2018-04-21 at the Wayback Machine, Janes' 360, Feb 27, 2018. Accessed Apr 21, 2018.
83. 3 Villages Razed In Batibo, 4 Deserted After Bloody Attack *Collateral Casualties Overwhelmed Local Administrators Archived 2018-09-01 at the Wayback Machine, Cameroon Postline, Mar 9, 2018. Accessed Sep 1, 2018.
84. Security forces rescue three hostages from Ambazonia fighters Archived 2018-08-25 at the Wayback Machine, Journal du Cameroun, Mar 20, 2018. Accessed Aug 25, 2018.
85. 4000 persons in Batibo displaced after deadly clashes between gunmen and security forces Archived 2018-08-25 at the Wayback Machine, Journal du Cameroun, Mar 8, 2018. Accessed Aug 25, 2018.
86. Cameroon frees European hostages taken in Anglophone area Archived 2018-07-03 at the Wayback Machine, BBC, Apr 4, 2018. Accessed Apr 28, 2018.
87. Cameroon separatists force army to retreat after face off in Northwest Archived 2018-04-27 at the Wayback Machine, Africa News, Apr 27, 2018. Accessed Apr 27, 2018.
88. "Anglophone Crisis: Three soldiers killed in Mbonge". Cameroon Concord. 3 May 2018. Archived from the original on 7 May 2018. Retrieved 10 May 2018.
89. Travellers stranded after deadly clashes in Muyuka Archived 2018-06-20 at the Wayback Machine, Journal du Cameroun, May 7, 2018. Accessed Jun 20, 2018.
90. Fighting, attacks on timber and fuel trucks in Anglophone Cameroon likely to rise shortly before October elections Archived 2018-05-23 at the Wayback Machine, Jane's 360, May 21, 2018. Accessed May 22, 2018.
91. Cameroon: Killings, Kidnappings Mars National Day Celebrations Archived 2018-05-21 at the Wayback Machine, allAfrica, May 21, 2018. Accessed May 21, 2018.
92. Dozens of Cameroon Youth Killed in South Archived 2018-05-27 at the Wayback Machine, Voanews, May 27, 2018. Accessed May 27, 2018.
93. 'This is a genocide': villages burn as war rages in blood-soaked Cameroon Archived 2018-06-01 at the Wayback Machine, The Guardian, May 20, 2018. Accessed Jun 1, 2018.
94. Hold up on Kumba-Buea highway leaves passengers stranded Archived 2018-06-24 at the Wayback Machine, Journal du Cameroun, Jun 18, 2018. Accessed Jun 23, 2018.
95. Cameroon says Military Casualties Mounting Archived 2018-06-28 at the Wayback Machine, Voice of America, Jun 27, 2018. Accessed Jun 27, 2018.
96. Panic grips Buea as soldiers battle separatists Archived 2018-06-29 at the Wayback Machine, Journal du Cameroun, Jun 29, 2018. Accessed Jun 29, 2018.
97. Muea in lockdown as soldiers battle separatists Archived 2018-07-02 at the Wayback Machine, Journal du Cameroun, Jul 1, 2018. Accessed Jul 2, 2018.
98. Gunfire in Cameroon's English restive region Archived 2018-07-09 at the Wayback Machine, Enca, Jul 9, 2018. Accessed Jul 9, 2018.
99. Four civilians killed in Buea Archived 2018-07-31 at the Wayback Machine, Journal du Cameroun, Jul 31, 2018. Accessed Jul 31, 2018.
100. Four soldiers killed in Baboungo Archived 2018-08-16 at the Wayback Machine, Journal du Cameroun, Aug 16, 2018. Accessed Aug 16, 2018.
101. Cameroon army kills 12 separatists in troubled Anglophone region Archived 2018-08-27 at the Wayback Machine, Journal du Cameroun, Aug 27, 2018. Accessed Aug 27, 2018.
102. Villagers flee Zhoa after arson attacks Archived 2018-08-29 at the Wayback Machine, Journal du Cameroun, Aug 29, 2018. Accessed Aug 29, 2018.
103. Cameroon:four separatists killed, three soldiers in Muyuka battle Archived 2018-09-04 at the Wayback Machine, Journal du Cameroun, Sep 4, 2018. Accessed Sep 4, 2018.
104. Cameroon army kills 27 fighters in Wum Archived 2018-09-06 at the Wayback Machine, Journal du Cameroun, Sep 6, 2018. Accessed Sep 7, 2018.
105. Cameroon soldiers kill 15 suspected separatists in NW region Archived 2018-09-12 at the Wayback Machine, Sep 12, 2018. Accessed Sep 12, 2018.
106. Cameroon:Three kidnapped as separatist burn police station in Oku Archived 2018-09-12 at the Wayback Machine, Sep 10, 2018. Accessed Sep 12, 2018.
107. Cameroon: soldier found dead in Buea, Journal du Cameroun, Sep 11, 2018. Accessed Jul 8, 2019.
108. Cameroon: kidnapped Buea traditional ruler freed Archived 2018-09-16 at the Wayback Machine, Sep 14, 2018. Accessed Sep 16, 2018.
109. Ambazonia Fighters Hoist Flags In Abandoned DO, Police Buildings Archived 2018-11-25 at the Wayback Machine, Cameroon News Agency, Sep 28, 2018. Accessed Nov 24, 2018.
110. Cameroon armed forces and separatists have the Anglophone region on lockdown ahead of elections Archived 2018-10-03 at the Wayback Machine, Quartz Africa, Oct 2, 2018. Accessed Oct 3, 2018.
111. Inside Cameroon's bloody war over the English language, VICE News, Oct 1, 2018. Accessed Jun 19, 2019.
112. Genin, Aaron (2019-02-11). "AFRICAN POWDER KEG: CAMEROONIAN CONFLICT AND AFRICAN SECURITY". The California Review. Retrieved 2019-03-15.
113. Radina Gigova. "Rights groups call for probe into protesters' deaths in Cameroon". CNN. Archived from the original on 2019-02-27. Retrieved 2019-03-17.
114. Searcey, Dionne (2018-10-06). "Cameroon on Brink of Civil War as English Speakers Recount 'Unbearable' Horrors". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 2019-03-24. Retrieved 2019-03-17.
115. Gunfire in Cameroon's anglophone regions deters voters on polling day Archived 2018-10-08 at the Wayback Machine, The Guardian, Oct 7, 2018. Accessed Oct 8, 2018.
116. Cameroon:Two persons killed for voting in Kumba Archived 2018-10-12 at the Wayback Machine, Journal du Cameroun, Oct 12, 2018. Accessed Oct 12, 2018.
117. Cameroon:Fru Ndi’s residence goes up in flames Archived 2018-10-20 at the Wayback Machine, Journal du Cameroun, Oct 18, 2018. Accessed Oct 19, 2018.
118. Fighting between Cameroon military, separatists kills ‘many’ Archived 2018-10-25 at the Wayback Machine, Washington Post, Oct 25, 2018. Accessed Oct 25, 2018.
119. Separatists kidnap 78 pupils in Cameroon's restive northwest Archived 2018-11-05 at the Wayback Machine, WSFA 12 News, Nov 5, 2018. Accessed Nov 5, 2018.
120. Cameroon: Principal of PSS Nkwen, three others released Archived 2018-11-12 at the Wayback Machine, Journal du Cameroun, Oct 12, 2018. Accessed Oct 12, 2018.
121. Kidnapped children in Cameroon released without ransom Archived 2018-11-08 at the Wayback Machine, Deutsche Welle, Nov 7, 2018. Accessed Nov 8, 2018.
122. At least 15 killed in Cameroon in clashes between army, separatists Archived 2018-11-14 at the Wayback Machine, Reuters, Nov 13, 2018. Accessed Nov 14, 2018.
123. Cameroon soldiers kill 13 separatist fighters in Binka Archived 2018-11-13 at the Wayback Machine, Journal du Cameroun, Nov 13, 2018. Accessed Nov 13, 2018.
124. 25 killed in clashes in English-speaking Cameroon – officials Archived 2018-11-14 at the Wayback Machine, TRT World, Oct 14, 2018. Accessed Oct 14, 2018.
125. Soldiers Use ‘Chemicals’ to Kill Fighters,Civilians in Bali Archived 2018-12-28 at the Wayback Machine, Cameroon News Agency, Nov 25, 2018. Accessed Dec 28, 2018.
126. Cameroon: Traffic paralysed on Buea-Kumba road after heavy gunshots Archived 2018-12-04 at the Wayback Machine, Journal du Cameroun, Dec 3, 2018. Accessed Dec 3, 2018.
127. At least 30 persons kidnapped in Cameroon’s West region Archived 2018-11-29 at the Wayback Machine, Journal du Cameroun, Nov 29, 2018. Accessed Nov 29, 2018.
128. Soldiers VS Ambazonia Fighters : The Struggle to Break The Bangolan Wall Archived 2018-12-28 at the Wayback Machine, Cameroon News Agency, Dec 28, 2018. Accessed Dec 28, 2018.
129. The Bangourain Attack: A Long Walk Towards Peace, Shaming The Devil Archived 2018-12-27 at the Wayback Machine, Cameroon News Agency, Dec 26, 2018. Accessed Dec 26, 2018.
130. Anglophone crisis: Cameroon separatists 'bomb' military moto for Kembong Archived 2018-12-03 at the Wayback Machine, BBC (Pidgin), Nov 30, 2018. Accessed Nov 30, 2018.
131. The Onslaught In Kumbo Continues-Analysis of Radio Evangelum Archived 2018-12-09 at the Wayback Machine, Cameroon News Agency, Dec 7, 2018. Accessed Dec 7, 2018.
132. Cameroon: infighting from ‘Ambazonia armed groups’ leaves at least 5 dead Archived 2018-12-17 at the Wayback Machine, Journal du Cameroun, Dec 16, 2018. Accessed Dec 16, 2018.
133. Cameroon: ‘Ambazonia General’ killed in Kumba Archived 2018-12-21 at the Wayback Machine, Journal du Cameroun, Dec 21, 2018. Accessed Dec 21, 2018.
134. Cameroon: Biya says soldiers will ‘neutralize’ Ambazonia fighters who fail to drop their guns Archived 2019-01-01 at the Wayback Machine, Journal du Cameroun, Dec 31, 2018. Accessed Dec 31, 2018.
135. No Retreat, No Surrender, From Defensive To Offensive Strategy, The way Forward In 2019-Dr Samuel Sako Archived 2019-01-01 at the Wayback Machine, Cameroon News Agency, Dec 31, 2018. Accessed Dec 31, 2018.
136. Cameroon: NW Governor attacked by Ambazonia fighters on New Year Archived 2019-01-01 at the Wayback Machine, Journal du Cameroun, Jan 1, 2019. Accessed Jan 1, 2019.
137. Cameroon: Mystery surrounds ‘reported death of Ambazonia’s Field Marshall’ Archived 2019-01-02 at the Wayback Machine, Journal du Cameroun, Jan 2, 2019. Accessed Jan 2, 2019.
138. Cameroon: Three gendarmes killed in Mbelenka Archived 2019-01-04 at the Wayback Machine, Journal du Cameroun, Jan 4, 2018. Accessed Jan 4, 2018.
139. Cameroon: Protests, ghost towns mark anniversary celebrations of detained ‘Ambazonia leaders’ Archived 2019-01-07 at the Wayback Machine, Journal du Cameroun, Jan 7, 2019. Accessed Jan 7, 2019.
140. Cameroon: Two ‘Ambazonia Generals’ killed in Mamfe Archived 2019-01-07 at the Wayback Machine, Journal du Cameroun, Jan 7, 2019. Accessed Jan 7, 2019.
141. Cameroon: ‘Ambazonia General’ killed in Matoh Archived 2019-01-25 at the Wayback Machine, Journal du Cameroun, Jan 24, 2019. Accessed Jan 24, 2019.
142. Cameroon: Nigerian Court orders return of Ambazonia leaders Archived 2019-03-01 at the Wayback Machine, Journal du Cameroun, Mar 1, 2019. Accessed Mar 1, 2019.
143. Cameroon: vionlence, gunshots, ghost towns engulf parts of Anglophone towns, Journal du Cameroun, Jan 10, 2019. Accessed Jan 10, 2019.
144. Cameroon: Ambazonia separatists impose ‘ten-day lockdown’ on Anglophone regions Archived 2019-02-05 at the Wayback Machine, Journal du Cameroun, Feb 4, 2019. Accessed Feb 4, 2019.
145. Cameroon: Ambazonia activists divided over ‘ten-day lockdown’ Archived 2019-02-05 at the Wayback Machine, Journal du Cameroun, Feb 4, 2019. Accessed Feb 4, 2019.
146. Cameroon:Gunshots, blackout open day one of Ambazonia lockdown Archived 2019-02-06 at the Wayback Machine, Journal du Cameroun, Feb 5, 2019. Accessed Feb 5, 2019.
147. Cameroon: Ambazonia ‘Colonel’ killed in Muyuka Archived 2019-02-07 at the Wayback Machine, Journal du Cameroun, Feb 6, 2019. Accessed Feb 6, 2019.
148. Cameroon: Security forces kill two separatist fighters in Mbengwi Archived 2019-02-07 at the Wayback Machine, Journal du Cameroun, Feb 6, 2019. Accessed Feb 6, 2019.
149. Cameroon: Lockdown, Gunshots Frustrate Youth Day, Force Buea University To Postpone Exams Archived 2019-02-13 at the Wayback Machine, National Telegraph, Feb 11, 2019. Accessed Feb 12, 2019.
150. Cameroon: Soldiers rescue passengers freed along Buea-Kumba road Archived 2019-03-21 at the Wayback Machine, Journal du Cameroun, Mar 20, 2019. Accessed Mar 20, 2019.
151. Cameroon: At least 15 Buea University students kidnapped, Journal du Cameroun, Mar 20, 2019. Accessed Jul 7, 2019.
152. Cameroon: Ambazonia fighters erect wall in Bafut, Journal du Cameroun, Mar 23, 2019. Accessed Jul 7, 2019.
153. Thursday’s Incidents In Wum And Nkambe Central; Casualties You Should Know, Cameroon News Agency, Mar 16, 2019. Accessed Mar 18, 2019.
154. Cameroon:Three gendarmes injured as suspected Ambazonia fighters attack Littoral region again, Journal du Cameroun, Apr 2, 2019. Accessed Apr 2, 2019.
155. Interim Government Warns Cameroun Against Propagating Inter-Citizen War Between Both Cameroons, Bareta News. Accessed Dec 25, 2018.
156. Federalists Meet Restorationists, Which Group Will Perform The Osmosis?, Cameroon News Agency, Mar 29, 2019. Accessed Apr 10, 2019.
157. Cameroon: Looming Ambazonia lockdown sparks exodus from Buea, Journal du Cameroun, Apr 4, 2019. Accessed Apr 4, 2019.
158. Cameroon: Confusion looms as Ambazonia faction maintains Fako lockdown, Journal du Cameroun, Apr 10, 2019. Accessed Apr 10, 2019.
159. Three separatists, 4 soldiers killed in clashes in Cameroon's troubled Anglophone region, XinhuaNet, Apr 15, 2019. Accessed Apr 15, 2019.
160. Six killed in anti-separatism military operation in Cameroon's restive Anglophone region, XinhuaNet, Apr 15, 2019. Accessed Apr 15, 2019.
161. Cameroon:Civilians arrested as security forces raid Buea in search of Ambazonia fighters, Journal du Cameroun, Apr 16, 2019. Accessed Apr 17, 2019.
162. Cameroon:Residence of Fundong Mayor burnt by suspected separatist fighters, Journal du Cameroun, Apr 25, 2019. Accessed Jul 8, 2019.
163. Cameroon: SDF Chairman Ni John Fru Ndi released after brief kidnap, Journal du Cameroun, Apr 27, 2019. Accessed Apr 27, 2019.
164. In Pictures: Soldiers Burn Over 10 House Cardinal Tumi’s Village, Cameroon News Agency, Apr 30, 2019. Accessed May 1, 2019.
165. Cameroon: UN Security Council to discuss Anglophone crisis, Journal du Cameroun, May 5, 2019. Accessed May 5, 2019.
166. Cameroon:Paul Biya ready for dialogue to end Anglophone crisis, PM says, Journal du Cameroun, May 9, 2019. Accessed May 9, 2019.
167. Cameroon: Sepratist hardliners react after impechment of detained Ambazonia leader, Journal du Cameroun, Jun 12, 2019. Accessed Jun 12, 2019.
168. Cameroon:Explosion kills four policemen in restive Anglophone region, Journal du Cameroun, Jun 16, 2019. Accessed Jul 8, 2019.
169. Cameroon War Victims: Casualty Figures High Because Fighters Are Well Armed, Voice of America, Jun 19, 2019. Accessed Jun 19, 2019.
170. "Armed Conflict In Southern Cameroons: Ambazonia Leaders Welcome Swiss-Led Mediation Process – Cameroon News Agency". Retrieved 2019-07-04.
171. Cameroon: Kidnapped SDF Chairman Ni John Fru Ndi released, Journal du Cameroun, Jun 29, 2019. Accessed Jun 29, 2019.
172. Cameroon: Corpse of soldier discovered in Manyu river, Journal du Cameroun, Jul 8, 2019. Accessed Jul 8, 2019.
173. Cameroon: Two gendarmes killed in restive NW region, Journal du Cameroun, Jul 10, 2019. Accessed Jul 10, 2019.
174. 7 separatists killed in Cameroon's troubled Anglophone region, XinhuaNet, Jul 12, 2019. Accessed Jul 12, 2019.
175. About 30 passengers kidnapped in Cameroon's restive Anglophone region, XinhuaNet, Jul 13, 2019. Accessed Jul 14, 2019.
176. Cameroun/Crise anglophone : un soldat et trois séparatistes armés tués dans le sud-ouest, XinhuaNet, Jul 15, 2019. Accessed Jul 15, 2019. (French)
177. Cameroon: Soldier killed in restive NW region, Journal du Cameroun, Jul 17, 2019. Accessed Jul 17, 2019.
178. Cameroon:Calm returns to Buea prison after protest by prisoners, Journal du Cameroun, Jul 24, 2019. Accessed Jul 24, 2019.
179. Cameroon: Anglophone detainees missing after Kondengui protests, Journal du Cameroun, Jul 29, 2019. Accessed Jul 29, 2019.
180. Cameroon: Tortured Mancho Bibixy, Ambazonia detainees not dead!, Journal du Cameroun, Jul 29, 2019. Accessed Jul 29, 2019.
181. Ambazonia Separatist Leaders Give Gov’t Ultimatum To Present Detained Prisoners, Cameroon News Agency, Jul 28, 2019. Accessed Jul 28, 2019.
182. Cameroon: Ambazonia leaders call for another ‘lockdown’ in Anglophone regions, Journal du Cameroun, Jul 30, 2019. Accessed Jul 30, 2019.
183. Cameroon separatist leader launches hunger strike, Journal du Cameroun, Aug 1, 2019. Accessed Aug 1, 2019.
184. One soldier killed in rare ambush in Cameroon, XinhuaNet, Aug 5, 2019. Accessed Aug 5, 2019.
185. Cameroon: Ambazonia fighters declare ‘Lockdown’ to frustrate school resumption in Anglophone regions, Journal du Cameroun, Aug 14, 2019. Accessed Aug 14, 2019.
186. Seven Cameroonian soldiers injured in accident in restive Anglophone region, XinhuaNet, Aug 16, 2019. Accessed Aug 16, 2019.
187. Cameroon: Detained Ambazonia leaders handed life sentence, Journal du Cameroun, Aug 20, 2019. Accessed Aug 20, 2019.
188. Thousands Flee Violence in Cameroon’s English-Speaking Regions, Voice of America, Aug 26, 2019. Accessed Aug 26, 2019.
189. Cameroon's conflict keeps schools shut, BBC, Sep 3, 2019. Accessed Sep 3, 2019.
190. Cameroon: Paul Biya convenes national dialogue to solve Anglophone crisis, Journal du Cameroun, Sep 10, 2019. Accessed Sep 12, 2019.
191. Biya’s ‘dialogue’ for Cameroon crisis runs into questions, rejection, Journal du Cameroun, Sep 11, 2019. Accessed Sep 12, 2019.
192. Cameroon: Matomba submits pre-dialogue proposals to PM Dion Ngute, Journal du Cameroun, Sep 20, 2019. Accessed Sep 23, 2019.
193. Cameroon's security forces repel separatists' attack on gov't officials, XinhuaNet, Sep 21, 2019. Accessed Sep 21, 2019.
194. Cameroon Separatists Celebrate 'Independence' as Dialogue is Held, Voice of America, Oct 2, 2019. Accessed Oct 2, 2019.
195. Cameroon: Lebialem traditional rulers disown Ambazonia warlord Field Marshal, Journal du Cameroun, Oct 15, 2019. Accessed Oct 15, 2019.
196. Key separatist commander killed after dropping weapons in Cameroon's troubled Anglophone region, XinhuaNet, Oct 17, 2019. Accessed Oct 17, 2019.
197. Cameroon Separatists Open 'Community Schools', Voice of America, Oct 18, 2019. Accessed Oct 18, 2019.
198. Passenger plane shot at as violence escalates in west Cameroon, The East African, Dec 2, 2019. Accessed Dec 5, 2019.
199. Attack On Camair-Co Passenger Plane Shows Nothing Is Under Control, Cameroon News Agency, Dec 1, 2019. Accessed Dec 1, 2019.
200. Cameroon Separatists Kidnap Candidates to Protest Election, Voice of America, Dec 16, 2019. Accessed Dec 18, 2019.
201. 2 Die And 15 Injured in Ekona Attack, Cameroon News Agency, Dec 19, 2019. Accessed Dec 19, 2019.
202. Cameroon: Massive population displacement, North West: Flash update (20 December 2019), ReliefWeb, Dec 23, 2019. Accessed Dec 24, 2019.
203. References:
     • Paul Biya’s 2019 end of year message to Cameroonians, Journal du Cameroun, Dec 31, 2019. Accessed Jan 1, 2019.
     • Cameroon:Ambazonia leader delivers end of year message, Journal du Cameroun, Dec 31, 2019. Accessed Jan 1, 2019.
204. Cameroon/2020 twin polls: Separatists announce five-day lockdown in Anglophone regions, Journal du Cameroun, Jan 3, 2019. Accessed Jan 3, 2019.
205. Cameroon: Suspected Ambazonia boys set ablaze Muyuka’s D.O’s office, Journal du Cameroun, Jan 3, 2019. Accessed Jan 3, 2019.
206. Cameroon:’Ambazonia General’ killed by peers in SW Region, Journal du Cameroun, Jan 6, 2020. Accessed Jan 6, 2020.
207. Cameroon Anglophone Villagers Attack Separatist Camps Over Abuse, Voice of America, Jan 8, 2020. Accessed Jan 8, 2020.
208. Cameroon’s Anglophone Separatists Turn to Infighting, Voice of America, Jan 22, 2020. Accessed Jan 23, 2020.
209. Cameroon: Dreaded Ambazonia General killed in Bui, Journal du Cameroun, Jan 27, 2020. Accessed Jan 27, 2020.
210. Low Turnout Frustrates Election In North West, South West Regions, Feb 9, 2020. Accessed Feb 11, 2020.
211. Cameroon’s Anglophone regions hit by violence during partial legislative polls, The Africa Report, Mar 26, 2020. Accessed Mar 27, 2020.
212. Cameroon: UN wants punishment for perpetrators of Ngarbuh killings, Journal du Cameroun, Feb 18, 2020. Accessed Feb 18, 2020.
213. Anglophone separatists kill five soldiers, four civilians in west Cameroon, TRT World, Mar 9, 2020. Accessed Mar 9, 2020.
214. Cameroon: Women’s Day explosion leaves soldier dead, others injured in Bamenda, Journal du Cameroun, Mar 9, 2020. Accessed Mar 9, 2020.
215. 20 separatists killed in military offensive in Cameroon's troubled Anglophone region, Trend News Agency, Mar 22, 2020. Accessed Mar 22, 2020.
216. Cameroon rebels declare coronavirus ceasefire, BBC, Mar 26, 2020. Accessed Mar 27, 2020.
217. Cameroon: UN reacts to ceasefire declared by Ambazonia armed group, Journal du Cameroun, Mar 27, 2020. Accessed Mar 27, 2020.
218. COVID19: IG, AGovC Will Declare COVID19 Ceasefire Only When All Parties Agree To Internationally Binding Terms, Cameroon News Agency, Nov 27, 2020. Accessed Nov 27, 2020.
219. COVID-19: Ambazonia ‘Interim Government’ President Shuts Down Border, Cameroon News Agency, Mar 29, 2020. Accessed Mar 30, 2020.
220. Cameroon: Dozens ambushed by Ambazonia forces in Oku, Journal du Cameroun, Mar 30, 2020. Accessed Mar 30, 2020.
221. SOCADEF Extends COVID-19 Temporary Ceasefire, Says Conflict Must Be Qualified, Cameroon News Agency, Apr 11, 2020. Accessed Apr 11, 2020.
222. Cameroon Separatists Kill Chiefs, Mayors for Opposing Their Plans, Voice of America, Apr 22, 2020. Accessed Apr 25, 2020.
223. Two traditional leaders reported killed in Cameroon, AFP, Apr 21, 2020. Accessed Apr 21, 2020.
224. 3 officials kidnapped in Cameroon's restive Anglophone region, XinhuaNet, Apr 25, 2020. Accessed Apr 26, 2020.
225. Military Launches Operation Free Bafut, Bamenda Online, May 1, 2020. Accessed May 1, 2020.
226. Cameroon: One killed in military raid in North West region, Journal du Cameroun, Apr 27, 2020. Accessed Apr 27, 2020.
227. Cameroon Military Denies Civilian Deaths in ‘Successful’ Raids on Rebels, Voice of America, May 4, 2020. Accessed May 7, 2020.
228. Cameroon mayor killed in ambush by separatists, Jerusalem Post, May 10, 2020. Accessed May 10, 2020.
229. Cameroon: Another personality of SW region murdered by alleged Amba fighters, Journal du Cameroun, May 11, 2020. Accessed May 11, 2020.
230. Two civilians killed in tribal violence in Cameroon’s Anglophone region, News Ghana, May 13, 2020. Accessed May 13, 2020.
231. Twitter, Cameroon News Agency, May 21.
232. Cameroon:Human Rights Watch frowns at maltreatment of sick Ambazonia leader, Journal du Cameroun, May 25, 2020. Accessed May 25, 2020.
233. Separatists impose lockdown to disrupt national day in Cameroon’s restive Anglophone regions, News Ghana, May 24, 2020. Accessed May 24, 2020.
234. COVID-19, Separatist Fighting, Overshadow Cameroon's National Day, Voice of America, May 20, 2020. Accessed May 21, 2020.
235. Cameroon army uncovers explosive devices in restive Anglophone region, News Ghana, May 25, 2020. Accessed May 27, 2020.
236. Cameroonian Villagers Flee Military Base at Site of Civilian Massacre, Voice of America, May 27, 2020. Accessed May 28, 2020.
237. Twitter, Cameroon News Agency, May 28, 2020.
238. Twitter, Cameroon News Agency, May 29, 2020.
239. Cameroon: HRW urges military, separatists to end attacks on aid workers in Anglophone regions, Journal du Cameroun, Jun 5, 2020. Accessed Jun 5, 2020.
240. At least 5 soldiers killed in ambush in Cameroon’s restive Anglophone region, CGTN Africa, Jun 1, 2020. Accessed Jun 1, 2020.
241. Justice for Wazizi: How Cameroon journalist, Samuel Wazizi die, BBC, Jun 3, 2020. Accessed Jun 3, 2020. (Pidgin)
242. Cameroon regime confirms TV anchor's death in detention, DW, Jun 5, 2020. Accessed Jun 5, 2020.
243. Cameroon – Anglophone Crisis: Soldiers Sweep Through Late ‘Amba General’ Ivo’s Fief, “Neutralize Seven Armed Separatists”, Cameroon-Info, Jun 7, 2020. Accessed Jun 8, 2020.
244. Cameroon:Ambazonia fighters kill gendarmerie commander in Njikwa, Journal du Cameroun, Jun 5, 2020. Accessed Jun 5, 2020.
245. Cameroon general says troops kill 24 separatists, Macau Business, Jun 18, 2020. Accessed Jun 18, 2020.
246. Business Reopens Between Southern Cameroon and Nigeria, Voice of America, Jun 18, 2020. Accessed Jun 18, 2020.
247. Twitter, Cameroon News Agency, Jun 21, 2020.
248. Cameroonian police on high alert following two explosions in capital, XinhuaNet, Jun 25, 2020. Accessed Jun 25, 2020.
249. Small Homemade Bomb Explodes in Cameroon Capital, Official Says, The New York Times, Jul 2, 2020. Accessed Jul 3, 2020.
250. Cameroon English-Speakers Claim Harassment After Government Declares Security Alert, Voice of America, Jul 2, 2020. Accessed Jul 3, 2020.
251. Soldier, 17 armed separatists killed in clashes in Cameroon’s restive NW regions, Journal du Cameroun, Jul 7, 2020. Accessed Jul 7, 2020.
252. Cameroon: Gunshots rock Buea as Paul Tasong continues reconstruction mission, Journal du Cameroun, Jul 3, 2020. Accessed Jul 3, 2020.
253. Anglophone Cameroon: Buea near normal, while Bamenda a ghost town, The African Report, Jun 25, 2020. Accessed Jun 26, 2020.
254. Cameroon: Detained Ambazonia leaders hold secret talks with Yaounde regime over ceasefire, Journal du Cameroun, Jul 3, 2020. Accessed Jul 3, 2020.
255. Bone, R. Maxwell. "Ahead of peace talks, a who's who of Cameroon's separatist movements". The New Humanitarian.
256. Bone, R. Maxwell. "Ahead of peace talks, a who's who of Cameroon's separatist movements". The New Humanitarian.
257. 'Dirty war' ravages Cameroon's Buea region Archived 2018-05-07 at the Wayback Machine, Daily Nation, May 5, 2018. Accessed May 7, 2018.
258. Cameroon to recruit 2600 soldiers amidst tension in Anglophone regions Archived 2018-08-29 at the Wayback Machine, Aug 29, 2018. Accessed Aug 29, 2018.
259. Moki Edwin Kindzeka (18 February 2019). "Cameroon Yet to Build Planned Rehab Centers for ex-Boko Haram Fighters". Voice of America. Archived from the original on 1 March 2019. Retrieved 27 February 2019.
260. Cameroon: I spent a week embedded with Anglophone armed separatists Archived 2018-06-14 at the Wayback Machine, RFI, Jun 14, 2018. Accessed Jun 14, 2018.
261. "A war of words / English-speaking villages are burning in Cameroon / A report from a forgotten conflict" (7 November 2019). Paragraph 8, p. 41: The Economist print weekly and web (full article with free registration or subscription). 9 November 2019. pp. 41–42. Retrieved 11 December 2019.CS1 maint: location (link)
262. Cameroon’s Separatist Movement Is Going International, Foreign Policy, May 13, 2019. Accessed May 14, 2019.
263. Interim Government Warns Cameroun Against Propagating Inter-Citizen War Between Both Cameroons Archived 2018-12-26 at the Wayback Machine, Bareta News. Accessed Dec 25, 2018.
264. Cameroon:Three gendarmes injured as suspected Ambazonia fighters attack Littoral region again Archived 2019-04-02 at the Wayback Machine, Journal du Cameroun, Apr 2, 2019. Accessed Apr 2, 2019.
265. Lessons From the Past on Cameroon’s Crisis, Council on Foreign Relations, Jan 3, 2019. Accessed Jan 5, 2019.
266. Black-On-Black Colonialism: The Divide Between Francophone Cameroon And Anglophone Ambazonia Archived 2018-06-08 at the Wayback Machine, The Daily Vox, Jun 4, 2018. Accessed Jun 5, 2018.
267. Cameroon mayor warns Buea businesses over ghost towns on Mondays Archived 2018-08-23 at the Wayback Machine, Africa News, Jul 22, 2018. Accessed Aug 23, 2018.
268. Biya appoints new Batibo DO, sacks runaway administrators in Anglophone regions Archived 2018-09-20 at the Wayback Machine, Journal du Cameroun, Sep 20, 2018. Accessed Sep 20, 2018.
269. Your future is not in the bushes- Minister Atanga Nji Archived 2018-08-23 at the Wayback Machine, Journal du Cameroun, Aug 22, 2018. Accessed Aug 22, 2018.
270. Cameroon Journalist Jailed in Anglophone Unrest Archived 2018-11-09 at the Wayback Machine, Voice of America, Nov 8, 2018. Accessed Nov 9, 2018.
271. Burning Cameroon: Images you're not meant to see Archived 2018-09-19 at the Wayback Machine, BBC, Jun 25, 2018. Accessed Jun 25, 2018.
272. CHRDA publishes shocking list of military atrocities in Cameroon’s NW, SW regions Archived 2018-08-22 at the Wayback Machine, Journal du Cameroun, Aug 22, 2018. Accessed Aug 22, 2018.
273. 6000 schools shut down in restive Anglophone Cameroon, Journal du Cameroun, Jul 30, 2019. Accessed Jul 30, 2019.
274. Cameroon: Armed men chop off fingers of CDC workers, Journal du Cameroun, Jan 3, 2019. Accessed Jan 3, 2019.
275. Schools Fail to Open in Cameroon's Restive English-speaking Regions Archived 2018-09-04 at the Wayback Machine, Reliefweb, Sep 4, 2018. Accessed Sep 4, 2018.
276. Cameroon anglophones ‘forced to fund’ secessionist conflict, Journal du Cameroun, Jul 17, 2019. Accessed Jul 17, 2019.
277. Cameroon: Human Rights Watch accuses Ambazonia separatists of kidnappings, Journal du Cameroun, Jul 13, 2019. Accessed Jul 13, 2019.
278. Churches turned into military barracks, people killed: Cameroon Christians cry out Archived 2018-12-06 at the Wayback Machine, The Christian Post, Dec 6, 2018. Accessed Dec 6, 2018.
279. Cameroon: Separatist Fighters Occupy 50 Schools, Voice of America, Jul 22, 2019. Accessed Jul 23, 2019.
280. Bone, R. Maxwell. "Ahead of peace talks, a who's who of Cameroon's separatist movements". The New Humanitarian.
281. 'We are in a war': Cameroon unrest confronted by army offensive, Eyewitness News, Feb 8, 2018. Accessed Jul 23, 2019.
282. Separatists have killed 84 troops since Sept. 2017: Cameroon, Reuters, Jun 20, 2018. Accessed Jul 23, 2019.
283. Atrocity Alert No. 126 (10 October 2018): Afghanistan, Cameroon and Democratic Republic of the Congo, Relief Web, Oct 10, 2018. Accessed Nov 7, 2018.
284. Kumbo Diocese Documents 385 Deaths In 7 Months, Cameroon News Agency, Mar 29, 2019. Accessed Oct 29, 2019.
285. Cameroon: The tense relationship between Fulani and anglophones, The Africa Report, Jul 21, 2020. Accessed Jul 22, 2020.
286. "Cameroon separatists claim to have abducted missing soldier". Africa News. 14 February 2018. Archived from the original on 21 April 2018. Retrieved 23 April 2018.
287. Cameroon’s Anglophone population at risk Archived 2018-08-23 at the Wayback Machine, Journal du Cameroun, Aug 23, 2018. Accessed Aug 23, 2018.
288. Geneva Palais briefing note on the situation for children in the North-West and South-West regions of Cameroon, UNICEF, Jun 21, 2019. Accessed Jul 8, 2019.
289. Cameroon: Anglophone crisis could cost 5,000 jobs Archived 2018-06-19 at the Wayback Machine, Journal du Cameroon, Jun 18, 2018. Accessed Jun 18, 2018.
290. Cameroon’s palm oil, cocoa sectors worst hit by crisis Archived 2018-07-19 at the Wayback Machine, Journal du Cameroun, Jul 19, 2018. Accessed Jul 18, 2018.
291. Cameroon’s Nigerian business community is fleeing as the Anglophone crisis deepens Archived 2018-07-09 at the Wayback Machine, Quartz, Jul 7, 2018. Accessed Jul 9, 2018.
292. Cameroon crisis threatens wildlife as thousands flee to protected areas, African Arguments, Jul 12, 2018. Accessed Jul 12, 2018.
293. Cameroon’s Defence minister says “terrorists” will not be freed Archived 2019-03-27 at the Wayback Machine, Journal du Cameroun, Dec 14, 2018. Accessed Mar 27, 2019.
294. No elections in Cameroon if Anglophone crisis persists, SDF warns Biya Archived 2019-01-28 at the Wayback Machine, Journal du Cameroun, Jan 22, 2019. Accessed Jan 28, 2019.
295. Cameroon: SDF suspects Biya regime of sponsoring Ambazonia fighters Archived 2019-03-27 at the Wayback Machine, Journal du Cameroun, Mar 27, 2019. Accessed Mar 27, 2019.
296. Cameroon: SDF to boycott May 20 celebrations, Journal du Cameroun, May 8, 2019. Accessed May 8, 2019.
297. Cameroon: Maurice Kamto announces nationwide protests on January 26 Archived 2019-01-28 at the Wayback Machine, Journal du Cameroun, Jan 16, 2019. Accessed Jan 28, 2019.
298. Protesters invade Cameroon embassies abroad Archived 2019-01-28 at the Wayback Machine, Journal du Cameroun, Jan 27, 2019. Accessed Jan 28, 2019.
299. Cameroon: Kah Walla rubbishes separatist threats, insists Federation can solve Anglophone crisis Archived 2019-04-22 at the Wayback Machine, Journal du Cameroun, Apr 22, 2019. Accessed Apr 22, 2019.
300. African Union Intervenes In Cameroon Crisis, Taarifa, Jul 12, 2018. Accessed Jul 12, 2018.
301. Arria-Formula Meeting of the UN Security Council, United Nations, May 13, 2019. Accessed Jul 8, 2019.
302. Africa Should Not Fail Cameroon, Human Rights Watch, Jun 28, 2019. Accessed Jul 8, 2019.
303. References:
     • H.Res. 358: Calling on the Government of Cameroon and armed groups to respect the human rights of all Cameroonian citizens, to end all violence, and to pursue a broad-based dialogue without preconditions to resolve the conflict in the Northwest and Southwest regions., GovTrack, Jul 23, 2019. Accessed Jul 25, 2019.
     • "Cameroon: North-West and South-West Crisis Situation Report No. 9 - As of 31 July 2019". ReliefWeb. September 3, 2019. Retrieved September 26, 2019.
304. Cameroon: Ambazonia leaders endorse Swiss-led dialogue to solve Anglophone crisis, Journal du Cameroun, Jun 28, 2019. Accessed Jun 28, 2019.
305. Bone, R. Maxwell. "Ahead of peace talks, a who's who of Cameroon's separatist movements". The New Humanitarian.