Economy of Africa

The economy of Africa consists of the trade, industry, agriculture, and human resources of the continent. As of 2019, approximately 1.3 billion people[1] were living in 54 countries in Africa. Africa is a resource-rich continent.[3][4] Recent growth has been due to growth in sales in commodities, services, and manufacturing.[5] West Africa, East Africa, Central Africa and Southern Africa in particular, are expected to reach a combined GDP of $29 trillion by 2050.[6]

Economy of Africa
Statistics
Population1.307 billion (16%; 2019)[1]
GDP$2.58 trillion (Nominal; 2020)[2]
$6.36 trillion (PPP; 2017)[2]
GDP growth
3.7%[2]
GDP per capita
$1,970 (2020; 6th)[2]
140,000 (0.011%)
Unemployment15%
Most numbers are from the International Monetary Fund.

All values, unless otherwise stated, are in US dollars.
World economy

In March 2013, Africa was identified as the world's poorest inhabited continent: Africa's entire combined GDP is barely a third of the United States' GDP; however, the World Bank expects that most African countries will reach "middle income" status (defined as at least US$1,000 per person a year) by 2025 if current growth rates continue.[7] There are a number of reasons for Africa's poor economy: historically, Africa had a number of rich empires trading with many parts of the world; however, European colonization and the subsequent challenges created by decolonization and exacerbated by the Cold War, created an environment of economic and social instability.

However, as of 2013 Africa was the world's fastest-growing continent at 5.6% a year, and GDP is expected to rise by an average of over 6% a year between 2013 and 2023.[3][8] In 2017, the African Development Bank reported Africa to be the world's second-fastest growing economy, and estimates that average growth will rebound to 3.4% in 2017, while growth is expected to increase by 4.3% in 2018.[9]Growth has been present throughout the continent, with over one-third of African countries posting 6% or higher growth rates, and another 40% growing between 4% to 6% per year.[3] Several international business observers have also named Africa as the future economic growth engine of the world.[10]

History
Further information: Economic history of Africa and Scramble for Africa
Ancient Egyptian units of measurement also served as units of currency.

Africa's economy was diverse, driven by extensive trade routes that developed between cities and kingdoms. Some trade routes were overland, some involved navigating rivers, still others developed around port cities. Large African empires became wealthy due to their trade networks, for example Ancient Egypt, Nubia, Mali, Ashanti, and the Oyo Empire.

The Sultanate of Mogadishu's medieval currency.

Some parts of Africa had close trade relationships with Arab kingdoms, and by the time of the Ottoman Empire, Africans had begun converting to Islam in large numbers. This development, along with the economic potential in finding a trade route to the Indian Ocean, brought the Portuguese to sub-Saharan Africa as an imperial force. Colonial interests created new industries to feed European appetites for goods such as palm oil, rubber, cotton, precious metals, spices, cash crops other goods, and integrated especially the coastal areas with the Atlantic economy.[11]

Following the independence of African countries during the 20th century, economic, political and social upheaval consumed much of the continent. An economic rebound among some countries has been evident in recent years, however.

The dawn of the African economic boom (which is in place since the 2000s) has been compared to the Chinese economic boom that had emerged in Asia since late 1970s.[12] In 2013, Africa was home to seven of the world's fastest-growing economies.[13]

As of 2018, Nigeria is the biggest economy in terms of nominal GDP, followed by South Africa; in terms of PPP, Egypt is second biggest after Nigeria.[14] Equatorial Guinea possessed Africa's highest GDP per capita albeit allegations of human rights violations. Oil-rich countries such as Algeria, Libya and Gabon, and mineral-rich Botswana emerged among the top economies since the 21st century, while Zimbabwe and the Democratic Republic of Congo, potentially among the world's richest nations, have sunk into the list of the world's poorest nations due to pervasive political corruption, warfare and braindrain of workforce. Botswana remains the site of Africa's longest and one of the world's longest periods of economic boom (1966–1999).

Current conditions
The National Cement Share Company of Ethiopia's new plant in Dire Dawa

The United Nations predicts Africa's economic growth will reach 3.5% in 2018 and 3.7% in 2019.[15] As of 2007, growth in Africa had surpassed that of East Asia. Data suggest parts of the continent are now experiencing fast growth, thanks to their resources and increasing political stability and 'has steadily increased levels of peacefulness since 2007'. The World Bank reports the economy of Sub-Saharan African countries grew at rates that match or surpass global rates.[16][17] According to the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, the improvement in the region's aggregate growth is largely attributable to a recovery in Egypt, Nigeria and South Africa, three of Africa's largest economies.[15]

The economies of the fastest growing African nations experienced growth significantly above the global average rates. The top nations in 2007 include Mauritania with growth at 19.8%, Angola at 17.6%, Sudan at 9.6%, Mozambique at 7.9% and Malawi at 7.8%.[18] Other fast growers include Rwanda, Mozambique, Chad, Niger, Burkina Faso, Ethiopia. Nonetheless, growth has been dismal, negative or sluggish in many parts of Africa including Zimbabwe, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Republic of the Congo and Burundi. Many international agencies are increasingly interested in investing in emerging African economies.[19] especially as Africa continues to maintain high economic growth despite current global economic recession.[20] The rate of return on investment in Africa is currently the highest in the developing world.[21]

Debt relief is being addressed by some international institutions in the interests of supporting economic development in Africa. In 1996, the UN sponsored the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative, subsequently taken up by the IMF, World Bank and the African Development Fund (AfDF) in the form of the Multilateral Debt Relief Initiative (MDRI). As of 2013, the initiative has given partial debt relief to 30 African countries.[22]

Trade growth

Trade has driven much of the growth in Africa's economy in the early 21st century. China and India are increasingly important trade partners; 12.5% of Africa's exports are to China, and 4% are to India, which accounts for 5% of China's imports and 8% of India's. The Group of Five (Indonesia, Malaysia, Saudi Arabia, Thailand, and the United Arab Emirates) are another increasingly important market for Africa's exports.[23]

Future
A mobile phone advertisement on the side of a van, Kampala, Uganda.

Africa's economy—with expanding trade, English language skills (official in many Sub-Saharan countries), improving literacy and education, availability of splendid resources and cheaper labour force—is expected to continue to perform better into the future. Trade between Africa and China stood at US$166 billion in 2011.[24]

Africa will only experience a "demographic dividend" by 2035, when its young and growing labour force will have fewer children and retired people as dependents as a proportion of the population, making it more demographically comparable to the US and Europe.[25] It is becoming a more educated labour force, with nearly half expected to have some secondary-level education by 2020. A consumer class is also emerging in Africa and is expected to keep booming. Africa has around 90 million people with household incomes exceeding $5,000, meaning that they can direct more than half of their income towards discretionary spending rather than necessities. This number could reach a projected 128 million by 2020.[25]

During the President of the United States Barack Obama's visit to Africa in July 2013, he announced a US$7 billion plan to further develop infrastructure and work more intensively with African heads of state. A new program named Trade Africa, designed to boost trade within the continent as well as between Africa and the U.S., was also unveiled by Obama.[26]

With the introduction of the new economic growth and development plan introduced by the African Union members pricely about 27 of it members who are averagely some of the most developing economies of the continent it will further boost economic social and political integrations of the continent. African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) will boost business activities between member states and within the continent. This will further reduce too much reliance on importation of finished products and raw materials in to the continent.

Causes of the economic underdevelopment over the years

The seemingly intractable nature of Africa's poverty has led to debate concerning its root causes. Endemic warfare and unrest, widespread corruption, and despotic regimes are both causes and effects of the continued economic problems. The decolonization of Africa was fraught with instability aggravated by cold war conflict. Since the mid-20th century, the Cold War and increased corruption and despotism have also contributed to Africa's poor economy.

Infrastructure
The Trans-African Highway network

According to the researchers at the Overseas Development Institute, the lack of infrastructure in many developing countries represents one of the most significant limitations to economic growth and achievement of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).[27] Infrastructure investments and maintenance can be very expensive, especially in such areas as landlocked, rural and sparsely populated countries in Africa.[27]

It has been argued that infrastructure investments contributed to more than half of Africa's improved growth performance between 1990 and 2005 and increased investment is necessary to maintain growth and tackle poverty.[27] The returns to investment in infrastructure are very significant, with on average 30–40% returns for telecommunications (ICT) investments, over 40% for electricity generation, and 80% for roads.[27]

In Africa, it is argued that to meet the MDGs by 2015, infrastructure investments would need to reach about 15% of GDP (around $93 billion a year).[27] Currently, the source of financing varies significantly across sectors.[27] Some sectors are dominated by state spending, others by overseas development aid (ODA) and yet others by private investors.[27] In sub-Saharan Africa, the state spends around $9.4 billion out of a total of $24.9 billion.[27]

In irrigation, SSA states represent almost all spending; in transport and energy a majority of investment is state spending; in Information and communication technologies and water supply and sanitation, the private sector represents the majority of capital expenditure.[27] Overall, aid, the private sector and non-OECD financiers between them exceed state spending.[27] The private sector spending alone equals state capital expenditure, though the majority is focused on ICT infrastructure investments.[27] External financing increased from $7 billion (2002) to $27 billion (2009). China, in particular, has emerged as an important investor.[27]

Colonialism
Main article: Colonisation of Africa
Railway map of Africa, including tracks proposed and under construction, The Statesman's Yearbook, 1899.

The economic impact of the colonization of Africa has been debated. In this matter, the opinions are biased between researchers, some of them consider that Europeans had a positive impact on Africa; others affirm that Africa's development was slowed down by colonial rule.[28] The principal aim of colonial rule in Africa by European colonial powers was to exploit natural wealth in the African continent at a low cost. Some writers, such as Walter Rodney in his book How Europe Underdeveloped Africa, argue that these colonial policies are directly responsible for many of Africa's modern problems. Critics of colonialism charge colonial rule with injuring African pride, self-worth and belief in themselves. Other post-colonial scholars, most notably Frantz Fanon continuing along this line, have argued that the true effects of colonialism are psychological and that domination by a foreign power creates a lasting sense of inferiority and subjugation that creates a barrier to growth and innovation. Such arguments posit that a new generation of Africans free of colonial thought and mindset is emerging and that this is driving economic transformation.[29]

Historians L. H. Gann and Peter Duignan have argued that Africa probably benefited from colonialism on balance. Although it had its faults, colonialism was probably "one of the most efficacious engines for cultural diffusion in world history".[30] These views, however, are controversial and are rejected by some who, on balance, see colonialism as bad. The economic historian David Kenneth Fieldhouse has taken a kind of middle position, arguing that the effects of colonialism were actually limited and their main weakness wasn't in deliberate underdevelopment but in what it failed to do.[31] Niall Ferguson agrees with his last point, arguing that colonialism's main weaknesses were sins of omission.[32] Analysis of the economies of African states finds that independent states such as Liberia and Ethiopia did not have better economic performance than their post-colonial counterparts. In particular the economic performance of former British colonies was better than both independent states and former French colonies.[33]

Africa's relative poverty predates colonialism. Jared Diamond argues in Guns, Germs, and Steel that Africa has always been poor due to a number of ecological factors affecting historical development. These factors include low population density, lack of domesticated livestock and plants and the North-South orientation of Africa's geography.[34] However Diamond's theories have been criticized by some including James Morris Blaut as a form of environmental determinism.[35] Historian John K. Thornton argues that sub-Saharan Africa was relatively wealthy and technologically advanced until at least the seventeenth century.[36] Some scholars who believe that Africa was generally poorer than the rest of the world throughout its history make exceptions for certain parts of Africa. Acemoglue and Robinson, for example, argue that most of Africa has always been relatively poor, but "Aksum, Ghana, Songhay, Mali, [and] Great Zimbabwe.... were probably as developed as their contemporaries anywhere in the world."[37] A number of people including Rodney and Joseph E. Inikori have argued that the poverty of Africa at the onset of the colonial period was principally due to the demographic loss associated with the slave trade as well as other related societal shifts.[38] Others such as J. D. Fage and David Eltis have rejected this view.[39]

Language diversity
A randomly selected pair of people in Ghana has only an 8.1% chance of sharing a mother tongue.

African countries suffer from communication difficulties caused by language diversity. Greenberg's diversity index is the chance that two randomly selected people would have different mother tongues. Out of the most diverse 25 countries according to this index, 18 (72%) are African.[40] This includes 12 countries for which Greenberg's diversity index exceeds 0.9, meaning that a pair of randomly selected people will have less than 10% chance of having the same mother tongue. However, the primary language of government, political debate, academic discourse, and administration is often the language of the former colonial powers; English, French, or Portuguese.

Trade-based theories

Dependency theory asserts that the wealth and prosperity of the superpowers and their allies in Europe, North America and East Asia is dependent upon the poverty of the rest of the world, including Africa. Economists who subscribe to this theory believe that poorer regions must break their trading ties with the developed world in order to prosper.[41]

Less radical theories suggest that economic protectionism in developed countries hampers Africa's growth. When developing countries have harvested agricultural produce at low cost, they generally do not export as much as would be expected. Abundant farm subsidies and high import tariffs in the developed world, most notably those set by Japan, the European Union's Common Agricultural Policy, and the United States Department of Agriculture, are thought to be the cause. Although these subsidies and tariffs have been gradually reduced, they remain high.

Local conditions also affect exports; state over-regulation in several African nations can prevent their own exports from becoming competitive. Research in Public Choice economics such as that of Jane Shaw suggest that protectionism operates in tandem with heavy State intervention combining to depress economic development. Farmers subject to import and export restrictions cater to localized markets, exposing them to higher market volatility and fewer opportunities. When subject to uncertain market conditions, farmers press for governmental intervention to suppress competition in their markets, resulting in competition being driven out of the market. As competition is driven out of the market, farmers innovate less and grow less food further undermining economic performance.[42][43]

Governance
Political corruption
Concepts
Corruption by country
Africa
Asia
Europe
North America
Oceania
South America

Although Africa and Asia had similar levels of income in the 1960s, Asia has since outpaced Africa, with the exception of a few extremely poor and war-torn countries like Afghanistan and Yemen. One school of economists argues that Asia's superior economic development lies in local investment. Corruption in Africa consists primarily of extracting economic rent and moving the resulting financial capital overseas instead of investing at home; the stereotype of African dictators with Swiss bank accounts is often accurate. University of Massachusetts Amherst researchers estimate that from 1970 to 1996, capital flight from 30 sub-Saharan countries totalled $187bn, exceeding those nations' external debts.[44] Authors Leonce Ndikumana and James K. Boyce estimate that from 1970 to 2008, capital flight from 33 sub-Saharan countries totalled $700bn.[45] This disparity in development is consistent with the model theorized by economist Mancur Olson. Because governments were politically unstable and new governments often confiscated their predecessors' assets, officials would stash their wealth abroad, out of reach of any future expropriation.

Congolese dictator Mobutu Sese Seko became notorious for corruption, nepotism, and the embezzlement of between US$4 billion and $15 billion during his reign.[46][47] Socialist governments influenced by Marxism, and the land reform they have enacted, have also contributed to economic stagnation in Africa. For example, the regime of Robert Mugabe in Zimbabwe, particularly the land seizures from white farmers, led to the collapse of the country's agricultural economy, which had formerly been one of Africa's strongest;[48] Mugabe had been previously supported by the USSR and China during the Zimbabwe War of Liberation. In Tanzania, socialist President Julius Nyerere resigned in 1985 after his policies of agricultural collectivisation in 1971 led to economic collapse, with famine only being averted by generous aid from the IMF and other foreign entities.[49] Tanzania was left as one of the world's poorest and most aid-dependent nations, and has taken decades to recover.[50] Since the abolition of the socialist one-party state in 1992 and the transition to democracy, Tanzania has experienced rapid economic growth, with growth of 6.5% in 2017.[51]

Foreign aid

Food shipments in case of dire local shortage are generally uncontroversial; but as Amartya Sen has shown, most famines involve a local lack of income rather than of food. In such situations, food aid—as opposed to financial aid—has the effect of destroying local agriculture and serves mainly to benefit Western agribusiness which are vastly overproducing food as a result of agricultural subsidies.

Historically, food aid is more highly correlated with excess supply in Western countries than with the needs of developing countries. Foreign aid has been an integral part of African economic development since the 1980s.[5]

The aid model has been criticized for supplanting trade initiatives.[5] Growing evidence shows that foreign aid has made the continent poorer.[52] One of the biggest critics of the aid development model is economist Dambisa Moyo (a Zambian economist based in the US), who introduced the Dead Aid model, which highlights how foreign aid has been a deterrent for local development.[53]

Today, Africa faces the problem of attracting foreign aid in areas where there is potential for high income from demand. It is in need of more economic policies and active participation in the world economy. As globalization has heightened the competition for foreign aid among developing countries, Africa has been trying to improve its struggle to receive foreign aid by taking more responsibility at the regional and international level. In addition, Africa has created the ‘Africa Action Plan’ in order to obtain new relationships with development partners to share responsibilities regarding discovering ways to receive aid from foreign investors.[54]

Trade blocks and multilateral organizations

The African Union is the largest international economic grouping on the continent. The confederation's goals include the creation of a free trade area, a customs union, a single market, a central bank, and a common currency (see African Monetary Union), thereby establishing economic and monetary union. The current plan is to establish an African Economic Community with a single currency by 2023.[55] The African Investment Bank is meant to stimulate development. The AU plans also include a transitional African Monetary Fund leading to an African Central Bank. Some parties support development of an even more unified United States of Africa.

International monetary and banking unions include:

Major economic unions are shown in the chart below.

African Economic Community
Pillars
regional
blocs (REC)1		 Area (km²) Population GDP (PPP) ($US) Member
states
in millions per capita
AEC 29,910,442 853,520,010 2,053,706 2,406 54
ECOWAS 5,112,903 349,154,000 1,322,452 3,888 15
ECCAS 6,667,421 121,245,958 175,928 1,451 11
SADC 9,882,959 233,944,179 737,335 3,152 15
EAC 2,440,409 169,519,847 411,813 2,429 6
COMESA 12,873,957 406,102,471 735,599 1,811 20
IGAD 5,233,604 187,969,775 225,049 1,197 7
Other
African
blocs		 Area (km²) Population GDP (PPP) ($US) Member
states
in millions per capita
CEMAC 2 3,020,142 34,970,529 85,136 2,435 6
SACU 2,693,418 51,055,878 541,433 10,605 5
UEMOA 1 3,505,375 80,865,222 101,640 1,257 8
UMA 2 5,782,140 84,185,073 491,276 5,836 5
GAFTA 3 5,876,960 166,259,603 635,450 3,822 5
1 Economic bloc inside a pillar REC

2 Proposed for pillar REC, but objecting participation
3 Non-African members of GAFTA are excluded from figures

  smallest value among the blocs compared
  largest value among the blocs compared

During 2004. Source: CIA World Factbook 2005, IMF WEO Database

Further information: Economy of the African Union

Economic variants and indicators
Map of Africa by nominal GDP in billions USD (2008).
  200+
  100–200
  50–100
  20–50
  10–20
  5–10
  1–5
  0–1

After an initial rebound from the 2009 world economic crisis, Africa's economy was undermined in the year 2011 by the Arab uprisings. The continent's growth fell back from 5% in 2010 to 3.4% in 2011. With the recovery of North African economies and sustained improvement in other regions, growth across the continent is expected to accelerate to 4.5% in 2012 and 4.8% in 2013. Short-term problems for the world economy remain as Europe confronts its debt crisis. Commodity prices—crucial for Africa—have declined from their peak due to weaker demand and increased supply, and some could fall further. But prices are expected to remain at levels favourable for African exporter.[56]

Regions

Economic activity has rebounded across Africa. However, the pace of recovery was uneven among groups of countries and subregions. Oil-exporting countries generally expanded more strongly than oil-importing countries. West Africa and East Africa were the two best-performing subregions in 2010.[57]

Intra-African trade has been slowed by protectionist policies among countries and regions. Despite this, trade between countries belonging to the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA), a particularly strong economic region, grew six-fold over the past decade up to 2012.[58] Ghana and Kenya, for example, have developed markets within the region for construction materials, machinery, and finished products, quite different from the mining and agriculture products that make up the bulk of their international exports.[59]

The African Ministers of Trade agreed in 2010 to create a Pan-Africa Free Trade Zone. This would reduce countries' tariffs on imports and increase intra-African trade, and it is hoped, the diversification of the economy overall.[60]

Worlds regions by total wealth (in trillions USD), 2018
Countries by total wealth (trillions USD), Credit Suisse
Countries by 2018 GDP (nominal) per capita[61]

African nations
Country Total GDP (nominal)[62]
(billion US$)		 GDP per capita[63]
(US$, PPP)		 GDP Growth,
2007-2011
(in %)[62]		 HDI 2017[64]
 Algeria 188.7 15,758 2.7 0.754
 Angola 124.1 6,850 9.1 0.581
 Benin 8.3 2,405 3.9 0.515
 Botswana 14.8 18,843 3.0 0.712
 Burkina Faso 10.2 1,994 4.9 0.423
 Burundi 2.3 731 4.3 0.417
 Cameroon 29.6 3,799 3.1 0.556
 Cape Verde 1.9 7,316 5.8 0.654
 Central African Republic 2.2 706 2.8 0.367
 Chad 9.5 2,420 2.9 0.404
 Comoros 0.6 1,629 1.5 0.503
 DR Congo 32.7 813 5.9 0.457
 Congo 14.7 6,676 4.9 0.606
 Ivory Coast 24.1 4,155 1.1 0.492
 Djibouti 1.0 (2009) 3,778 5.3 0.476
 Egypt 229.5 13,330 5.2 0.696
 Equatorial Guinea 19.8 32,855 8.8 0.591
 Eritrea 2.6 1,653 1.3 0.440
 Eswatini (Swaziland) 4.0 9,894 2.1 0.588
 Ethiopia 47.5 2,361 9.7 0.463
 Gabon 19.3 19,952 3.6 0.702
 Gambia 0.9 1,790 6.0 0.460
 Ghana 48.1 5,013 8.3 0.592
 Guinea 5.1 2,154 2.4 0.459
 Guinea-Bissau 1.0 1,948 3.6 0.455
 Kenya 55.2 3,664 4.2 0.590
 Lesotho 2.4 3,713 4.9 0.520
 Liberia 2.0 1,396 11.6 0.435
 Libya 62.4 (2009) 11,774 4.0 0.706
 Madagascar 10.6 1,622 2.3 0.519
 Malawi 5.7 1,201 6.8 0.477
 Mali 10.6 2,256 4.5 0.427
 Mauritania 4.1 4,564 2.8 0.520
 Mauritius 11.9 22,910 4.5 0.790
 Morocco 100.2 8,936 4.3 0.667
 Mozambique 15.6 1,275 6.9 0.437
 Namibia 13.1 11,613 3.7 0.647
 Niger 6.0 1,214 4.3 0.354
 Nigeria 568.5 6,027 6.8 0.532
 Réunion (France) 15.98[65] 8,233 (nominal)[65] 0.850 (2003)[66]
 Rwanda 7.5 2,225 7.3 0.524
 São Tomé and Príncipe 0.3 3,338 5.7 0.589
 Senegal 14.3 2,901 3.5 0.505
 Seychelles 1.4 30,084 4.2 0.797
 Sierra Leone 2.2 1,608 5.2 0.419
 Somalia (N/A) (N/A) (N/A) 0.364 (2008) [67]
 South Africa 349.8 13,840 2.7 0.699
 South Sudan 11.8 1,420 0.388
 Sudan 55.1 4,725 4.1 0.502
 Tanzania 43.6 3,457 6.8 0.538
 Togo 4.3 1,736 3.1 0.503
 Tunisia 45.9 12,186 3.0 0.735
 Uganda 24.7 2,458 7.4 0.516
 Zambia 26.8 4,124 6.4 0.588
 Zimbabwe 13.5 2,330 0.6 0.535

Economic sectors and industries

Because Africa's export portfolio remains predominantly based on raw material, its export earnings are contingent on commodity price fluctuations. This exacerbates the continent's susceptibility to external shocks and bolsters the need for export diversification. Trade in services, mainly travel and tourism, continued to rise in year 2012, underscoring the continent's strong potential in this sphere.[56][68][69]

Agriculture
See also: Women and agriculture in Sub-Saharan Africa
A Kenyan farmer at work in the Mount Kenya region

The situation whereby African nations export crops to the West while millions on the continent starve has been blamed on developed countries including Japan, the European Union and the United States. These countries protect their own agricultural sectors with high import tariffs and offer subsidies to their farmers,[70] which many contend leads the overproduction of such commodities as grain, cotton and milk. The result of this is that the global price of such products is continually reduced until Africans are unable to compete, except for cash crops that do not grow easily in a northern climate.[68][69][71]

In recent years countries such as Brazil, which has experienced progress in agricultural production, have agreed to share technology with Africa to increase agricultural production in the continent to make it a more viable trade partner.[72] Increased investment in African agricultural technology in general has the potential to reduce poverty in Africa.[68][69][73] The demand market for African cocoa has experienced a price boom in 2008.[74] The Nigerian,[75] South African[76] and Ugandan governments have targeted policies to take advantage of the increased demand for certain agricultural products[77] and plan to stimulate agricultural sectors.[78] The African Union has plans to heavily invest in African agriculture[79] and the situation is closely monitored by the UN.[80]

Energy
Further information: Energy in Africa
The Athlone Power Station in Cape Town, South Africa
Mean Wind Speed in Sub-Saharan Africa.[81]
Global Horizontal Irradiation in Sub-Saharan Africa.[81]

Africa has significant resources for generating energy in several forms (hydroelectric, reserves of petroleum and gas, coal production, uranium production, renewable energy such as solar, wind and geothermal). The lack of development and infrastructure means that little of this potential is actually in use today.[68][69] The largest consumers of electric power in Africa are South Africa, Libya, Namibia, Egypt, Tunisia, and Zimbabwe, which each consume between 1000 and 5000 KWh/m2 per person, in contrast with African states such as Ethiopia, Eritrea, and Tanzania, where electricity consumption per person is negligible.[82]

Petroleum and petroleum products are the main export of 14 African countries. Petroleum and petroleum products accounted for a 46.6% share of Africa's total exports in 2010; the second largest export of Africa as a whole is natural gas, in its gaseous state and as liquified natural gas, accounting for a 6.3% share of Africa's exports.[83]

Infrastructure
Lagos, Nigeria, Africa's largest city

Lack of infrastructure creates barriers for African businesses.[68][69] Although it has many ports, a lack of supporting transportation infrastructure adds 30–40% to costs, in contrast to Asian ports.[84]

Railway projects were important in mining districts from the late 19th century. Large railway and road projects characterize the late 19th century. Railroads were emphasized in the colonial era, and roads in ‘post-colonial’ times. Jedwab & Storeygard find that in 1960–2015 there were strong correlations between transportation investments and economic development. Influential political include pre-colonial centralization, ethnic fractionalization, European settlement, natural resource dependence, and democracy.[85]

Many large infrastructure projects are underway across Africa. By far, most of these projects are in the production and transportation of electric power. Many other projects include paved highways, railways, airports, and other construction.[84]

Telecommunications infrastructure is also a growth area in Africa. Although Internet penetration lags other continents, it has still reached 9%. As of 2011, it was estimated that 500,000,000 mobile phones of all types were in use in Africa, including 15,000,000 "smart phones".[86]

Mining and drilling
Main article: Mineral industry of Africa
Oil production by country
RankAreabb/dayYearLike...
_W: World855400002007 est.
01E: Russia99800002007 est.
02Ar: Saudi Arb92000002008 est.
04As: Libya47250002008 est.Iran
10Af: Nigeria23520002011 est.Norway
15Af: Algeria21730002007 est.
16Af: Angola19100002008 est.
17Af: Egypt18450002007 est.
27Af: Tunisia6640002007 est.Australia
31Af: Sudan4661002007 est.Ecuador
33Af: Eq. Guinea3685002007 est.Vietnam
38Af: DR Congo2610002008 est.
39Af: Gabon2439002007 est.
40Af: Sth Africa1991002007 est.
45Af: Chad1560002008 est.Germany
53Af: Cameroon874002008 est.France
56E: France714002007
60Af: Ivory Coast544002008 est.
_Af: Africa107804002011Russia

The mineral industry of Africa is one of the largest mineral industries in the world. Africa is the second biggest continent, with 30 million km² of land, which implies large quantities of resources.[68][69] For many African countries, mineral exploration and production constitute significant parts of their economies and remain keys to future economic growth. Africa is richly endowed with mineral reserves and ranks first or second in quantity of world reserves of bauxite, cobalt, industrial diamond, phosphate rock, platinum-group metals (PGM), vermiculite, and zirconium. Gold mining is Africa's main mining resource.

African mineral reserves rank first or second for bauxite, cobalt, diamonds, phosphate rocks, platinum-group metals (PGM), vermiculite, and zirconium. Many other minerals are also present in quantity. The 2005 share of world production from African soil is the following: bauxite 9%; aluminium 5%; chromite 44%; cobalt 57%; copper 5%; gold 21%; iron ore 4%; steel 2%; lead (Pb) 3%; manganese 39%; zinc 2%; cement 4%; natural diamond 46%; graphite 2%; phosphate rock 31%; coal 5%; mineral fuels (including coal) & petroleum 13%; uranium 16%.

Manufacturing

Both the African Union and the United Nations have outlined plans in modern years on how Africa can help itself industrialize and develop significant manufacturing sectors to levels proportional to the African economy in the 1960s with 21st-century technology.[87] This focus on growth and diversification of manufacturing and industrial production, as well as diversification of agricultural production, has fueled hopes that the 21st century will prove to be a century of economic and technological growth for Africa. This hope, coupled with the rise of new leaders in Africa in the future, inspired the term "the African Century", referring to the 21st century potentially being the century when Africa's vast untapped labor, capital, and resource potentials might become a world player.

The Soucreye sugar factory in Sidi Bennour (Doukkala), Morocco

This hope in manufacturing and industry is helped by the boom in communications technology[88][89] and local mining industry[90] in much of sub-Saharan Africa. Namibia has attracted industrial investments in recent years[91] and South Africa has begun offering tax incentives to attract foreign direct investment projects in manufacturing.[92]

Countries such as Mauritius have plans for developing new "green technology" for manufacturing.[93] Developments such as this have huge potential to open new markets for African countries as the demand for alternative "green" and clean technology is predicted to soar in the future as global oil reserves dry up and fossil fuel-based technology becomes less economically viable.[94][95]

Nigeria in recent years has been embracing industrialization, It currently has an indigenous vehicle manufacturing company, Innoson Vehicle Manufacturing (IVM) which manufactures Rapid Transit Buses, Trucks and SUVs with an upcoming introduction of Cars.[96] Their various brands of vehicle are currently available in Nigeria, Ghana and other West African Nations.[97][98][99][100] Nigeria also has few Electronic manufacturers like Zinox, the first Branded Nigerian Computer and Electronic gadgets (like tablet PCs) manufacturers.[101] In 2013, Nigeria introduced a policy regarding import duty on vehicles to encourage local manufacturing companies in the country.[102][103] In this regard, some foreign vehicle manufacturing companies like Nissan have made known their plans to have manufacturing plants in Nigeria.[104] Apart from Electronics and vehicles, most consumer, pharmaceutical and cosmetic products, building materials, textiles, home tools, plastics and so on are also manufactured in the country and exported to other west African and African countries.[105][106][107] Nigeria is currently the largest manufacturer of cement in Sub-saharan Africa.[108] and Dangote Cement Factory, Obajana is the largest cement factory in sub-saharan Africa.[109] Ogun is considered to be Nigeria's industrial hub (as most factories are located in Ogun and even more companies are moving there), followed by Lagos.[110][111][112]

The manufacturing sector is small but growing in East Africa.[113] The main industries are textile and clothing, leather processing, agribusiness, chemical products, electronics and vehicles.[113] East African countries like Uganda also produce motorcycles for the domestic market.[114]

Investment and banking
See also: Central banks and currencies of Africa and List of African stock exchanges
Many financial firms have offices in downtown Johannesburg, South Africa.

Africa's US$107 billion financial services industry will log impressive growth for the rest of the decade as more banks target the continent's emerging middle class.[115] The banking sector has been experiencing record growth, among others due to various technological innovations.[116]

China and India[117] have showed increasing interest in emerging African economies in the 21st century. Reciprocal investment between Africa and China increased dramatically in recent years[118][119] amidst the current world financial crisis.[120]

The increased investment in Africa by China has attracted the attention of the European Union and has provoked talks of competitive investment by the EU.[121] Members of the African diaspora abroad, especially in the EU and the United States, have increased efforts to use their businesses to invest in Africa and encourage African investment abroad in the European economy.[122]

Remittances from the African diaspora and rising interest in investment from the West will be especially helpful for Africa's least developed and most devastated economies, such as Burundi, Togo and Comoros.[123] However, experts lament the high fees involved in sending remittances to Africa due to a duopoly of Western Union and MoneyGram that is controlling Africa's remittance market, making Africa is the most expensive cash transfer market in the world.[124] According to some experts, the high processing fees involved in sending money to Africa are hampering African countries’ development.[125]

Angola has announced interests in investing in the EU, Portugal in particular.[126] South Africa has attracted increasing attention from the United States as a new frontier of investment in manufacture, financial markets and small business,[127] as has Liberia in recent years under their new leadership.[128]

There are two African currency unions: the West African Banque Centrale des États de l'Afrique de l'Ouest (BCEAO) and the Central African Banque des États de l'Afrique Centrale (BEAC). Both use the CFA franc as their legal tender. The idea of a single currency union across Africa has been floated, and plans exist to have it established by 2020, though many issues, such as bringing continental inflation rates below 5 percent, remain hurdles in its finalization.[129]

Stock exchanges
The Bourse de Tunis headquarters in Tunis, Tunisia

As of 2012, Africa has 23 stock exchanges, twice as many as it had 20 years earlier. Nonetheless, African stock exchanges still account for less than 1% of the world's stock exchange activity.[130] The top ten stock exchanges in Africa by stock capital are (amounts are given in billions of United States dollars):[131]

  • South Africa (82.88)(2014)[132]
  • Egypt ($73.04 billion (30 November 2014 est.))[133]
  • Morocco (5.18)
  • Nigeria (5.11) (Actually has a market capitalisation value of $39.27Bln)[134]
  • Kenya (1.33)
  • Tunisia (0.88)
  • BRVM (regional stock exchange whose members include Benin, Burkina Faso, Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, Mali, Niger, Senegal and Togo: 6.6)
  • Mauritius (0.55)
  • Botswana (0.43)
  • Ghana (.38)

Between 2009 and 2012, a total of 72 companies were launched on the stock exchanges of 13 African countries.[135]

Trade blocs and multilateral organizations
Further information: Economy of the African Union

The African Union is the largest international economic grouping on the continent. The confederation's goals include the creation of a free trade area, a customs union, a single market, a central bank, and a common currency (see African Monetary Union), thereby establishing economic and monetary union. The current plan is to establish an African Economic Community with a single currency by 2023.[136] The African Investment Bank is meant to stimulate development. The AU plans also include a transitional African Monetary Fund leading to an African Central Bank. Some parties support development of an even more unified United States of Africa.

International monetary and banking unions include:

Major economic unions are shown in the chart below.

African Economic Community
Pillars
regional
blocs (REC)1		 Area (km²) Population GDP (PPP) ($US) Member
states
in millions per capita
AEC 29,910,442 853,520,010 2,053,706 2,406 54
ECOWAS 5,112,903 349,154,000 1,322,452 3,888 15
ECCAS 6,667,421 121,245,958 175,928 1,451 11
SADC 9,882,959 233,944,179 737,335 3,152 15
EAC 2,440,409 169,519,847 411,813 2,429 6
COMESA 12,873,957 406,102,471 735,599 1,811 20
IGAD 5,233,604 187,969,775 225,049 1,197 7
Other
African
blocs		 Area (km²) Population GDP (PPP) ($US) Member
states
in millions per capita
CEMAC 2 3,020,142 34,970,529 85,136 2,435 6
SACU 2,693,418 51,055,878 541,433 10,605 5
UEMOA 1 3,505,375 80,865,222 101,640 1,257 8
UMA 2 5,782,140 84,185,073 491,276 5,836 5
GAFTA 3 5,876,960 166,259,603 635,450 3,822 5
1 Economic bloc inside a pillar REC

2 Proposed for pillar REC, but objecting participation
3 Non-African members of GAFTA are excluded from figures

  smallest value among the blocs compared
  largest value among the blocs compared

During 2004. Source: CIA World Factbook 2005, IMF WEO Database

Regional economic organizations

During the 1960s, Ghanaian politician Kwame Nkrumah promoted economic and political union of African countries, with the goal of independence.[137] Since then, objectives, and organizations, have multiplied. Recent decades have brought efforts at various degrees of regional economic integration. Trade between African states accounts for only 11% of Africa's total commerce as of 2012, around five times less than in Asia.[138] Most of this intra-Africa trade originates from South Africa and most of the trade exports coming out of South Africa goes to abutting countries in Southern Africa.[139]

There are currently eight regional organizations that assist with economic development in Africa:[140]

Name of organizationDate createdMember countriesCumulative GDP (in millions of US dollars)
Economic Community of West African States28 May 1975Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Togo657
East African Community30 November 1999Burundi, Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, Tanzania232
Economic Community of Central African States18 October 1983Angola, Burundi, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, Guinea, São Tomé and Príncipe, Chad289
Southern African Development Community17 August 1992Angola, Botswana, Eswatini (Swaziland), Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, Democratic Republic of Congo, Seychelles, South Africa, Tanzania, Zambia, Zimbabwe909
Intergovernmental Authority on Development25 November 1996Djibouti, Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, Somalia, Sudan, South Sudan326
Community of Sahel-Saharan States4 February 1998Benin, Burkina Faso, Central African Republic, Comoros, Djibouti, Egypt, Eritrea, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Liberia, Libya, Mali, Morocco, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, São Tomé and Príncipe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Sudan, Chad, Togo, Tunisia1, 692
Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa5 November 1993Burundi, Comoros, Djibouti, Egypt, Eritrea, Eswatini (Swaziland), Ethiopia, Kenya, Liberia, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Uganda, Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda, Seychelles, Sudan, Zambia, Zimbabwe1,011
Arab Maghreb Union17 February 1989Algeria, Libya, Morocco, Mauritania, Tunisia579
gollark: Random number generator time!
gollark: If we let them run wild, there would be so many level up messages.
gollark: It's in quarantine, remember?
gollark: ... are they going to say anything?
gollark: Hello, "SunMoon".

See also

Notes
  1. "2017 World population" (PDF). 2017 World Population Data Sheet - Population Reference Bureau.
  2. "GDP Nominal and PPP Data, current prices". International Monetary Fund. 2018. Retrieved 6 March 2020.
  3. "Overview".
  4. Veselinovic, Milena. "Why is Africa so unequal?". CNN. Retrieved 12 September 2017.
  5. "Africa rising". The Economist. 3 December 2011.
  6. "Get ready for an Africa boom". Retrieved 12 September 2017.
  7. "Despite Global Slowdown, African Economies Growing Strongly― New Oil, Gas, and Mineral Wealth an Opportunity for Inclusive Development". World Bank. Retrieved 12 September 2017.
  8. Oliver August (2 March 2013). "Africa rising A hopeful continent". The Economist. The Economist Newspaper Limited. Retrieved 15 December 2013.
  9. "African Economic Outlook 2017" (PDF). African Development Bank.
  10. "Rise of the African opportunity". Boston Analytics. 22 June 2016.
  11. "European Trade, Colonialism, and Human Capital Accumulation in Senegal, Gambia and Western Mali, 1770–1900 – African Economic History Network". www.aehnetwork.org. Retrieved 17 August 2017.
  12. "Africa rising". The Economist. 3 December 2011. ISSN 0013-0613. Retrieved 17 August 2017.
  13. "Africa calling". Financial Times.
  14. "Report for Selected Countries and Subjects". IMF.org. Retrieved 9 April 2017.
  15. World Economic Situation and Prospects 2018. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Development Policy and Analysis Division. 23 January 2018. p. 106. ISBN 978-92-1-109177-9. Retrieved 2 March 2018.
  16. "'Fast economic growth' in Africa". 14 November 2007. Retrieved 12 September 2017.
  17. "African economy 'to expand 6.2%'". 13 June 2007. Retrieved 12 September 2017.
  18. "African growth 'steady but frail'". 3 April 2007. Retrieved 12 September 2017.
  19. "Where We Work". www.usaid.gov. Archived from the original on 12 March 2009. Retrieved 17 March 2009.
  20. "Africa's economic growth continues upward trend". en.afrik.com. Africa news, Maghreb news. Archived from the original on 17 April 2009. Retrieved 12 September 2017.
  21. "Lions on the move: The progress and potential of African economies | McKinsey Global Institute | Productivity, Competitiveness, & Growth | McKinsey & Company". Mckinsey.com. Retrieved 13 June 2012.
  22. "Debt Relief Under the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) Initiative". IMF. 10 January 2013. Retrieved 1 March 2013.
  23. "Economic Report on Africa 2012" (PDF). United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA). p. 44. Retrieved 2 March 2013.
  24. Mike King (18 July 2012). "China-Africa Trade Booms". The Journal of Commerce. The JOC Group, Inc. Retrieved 4 July 2013.
  25. Lund, Susan; Arend Van Wamelen (7 September 2012). "10 things you didn't know about the African economy". The Independent. Retrieved 26 February 2013.
  26. Olga Khazan (3 July 2013). "The three reasons why the US is so interested in Africa right now". Quartz. Retrieved 4 July 2013.
  27. Christian K.M. Kingombe 2011. Mapping the new infrastructure financing landscape Archived 18 September 2012 at the Wayback Machine. London: Overseas Development Institute
  28. "Google". www.google.co.ke (in Swahili). Retrieved 12 September 2017.
  29. Nick Mead, "African Economic Outlook 2012", The Guardian, 28 May 2012.
  30. Lewis H. Gann and Peter Duignan, The Burden of Empire: A Reappraisal of Western Colonialism South of the Sahara
  31. D. K. Fieldhouse, The West and the Third World
  32. Niall Ferguson, Empire: How Britain Made the Modern World and Colossus: The Rise and Fall of the American Empire
  33. http://pure.au.dk/portal-asb-student/files/41656700/alexandra_hrituleac_thesis_1_dec.pdf
  34. 1997: Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies. W.W. Norton & Co. (ISBN 978-0-099-30278-0). Also published with the title Guns, germs and steel: A short history of everybody for the last 13,000 years.
  35. James M. Blaut (2000). Eight Eurocentric Historians (10 August 2000 ed.). The Guilford Press. p. 228. ISBN 1-57230-591-6. Retrieved 5 August 2008.
  36. Africa and Africans in the Formation of the Atlantic World, 1400–1680 (New York and London: Cambridge University Press, 1992, second expanded edition, 1998).
  37. Why is Africa Poor? (Economic History of Developing Regions Vol. 25: 2010)
  38. Rodney, Walter. How Europe Underdeveloped Africa. London: Bogle-L'Ouverture Publications, 1972.
  39. David Eltis, Economic Growth and the Ending of the Transatlantic Slave Trade
  40. "Summary by country". Ethnologue. Retrieved 12 September 2017.
  41. See, for example, Frank, A. G. (1979), Dependent Accumulation and Underdevelopment, New York: Monthly Review Press.; Köhler, G., and A. Tausch (2001), Global Keynesianism: unequal exchange and global exploitation, Nova Publishers; Amin, S. (1976), Unequal Development: An Essay on the Social Formations of Peripheral Capitalism, New York: Monthly Review Press.
  42. Shaw, Jane (April 2004). "Overlooking the Obvious in Africa" (PDF). Econ Journal Watch. Retrieved 1 October 2008.
  43. Pasour, E.C. (April 2004). "Intellectual Tyranny of the Status Quo" (PDF). Econ Journal Watch. Retrieved 1 October 2008.
  44. Wrong, Michela (14 March 2005). "When the money goes west". New Statesman. Retrieved 28 August 2006.
  45. "Should Africa challenge its "odious debts?"". Reuters. 15 March 2012.
  46. Tharoor, Ishaan (20 October 2011). "Mobutu Sese Seko". Top 15 Toppled Dictators. Time Magazine.
  47. "How US nurtured dictators to Africa's detriment". Independent Online. 2 November 2018.
  48. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 1 February 2018. Retrieved 6 October 2018.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  49. Philip Wayland Porter. Challenging nature: local knowledge, agroscience, and food security in Tanga.
  50. Skinner, Annabel (2005). Tanzania & Zanzibar. New Holland Publishers. p. 19. ISBN 1-86011-216-1.
  51. http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2017/02/weodata/download.aspx
  52. Moyo, Dambisa (21 March 2009). "Why Foreign Aid Is Hurting Africa". The Wall Street Journal.
  53. Moyo, Dambisa (26 March 2009). "Stop Aiding Africa!". Retrieved 3 May 2019.
  54. http://www.uneca.org/atpc/Work%20in%20progress/21.pdf
  55. "Profile: African Union". BBC News. 1 July 2006. Retrieved 10 July 2006.
  56. "Economic Outlook". African Economic Outlook. 28 May 2012. Retrieved 13 June 2012.
  57. "African Economic Outlook 2011". Oecd.org. Retrieved 13 June 2012.
  58. "Economic Report on Africa 2012" (PDF). United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA). p. 45. Retrieved 2 March 2013.
  59. "Economic Report on Africa 2012" (PDF). United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA). p. 46. Retrieved 2 March 2013.
  60. "Economic Report on Africa 2012" (PDF). United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA). p. 47. Retrieved 2 March 2013.
  61. Based on the IMF data. If no data was available for a country from IMF, data from the World Bank is used.
  62. World Bank Development Indicators, World Bank, 2011, accessed Nov. 2012
  63. "Report for Selected Countries and Subjects". Retrieved 19 May 2020.
  64. Source Archived 29 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine, 2005
  65. INSEE Réunion. "11.1 – Résultats Économiques" (PDF) (in French). Retrieved 9 April 2008.
  66. "... dévoile ses propositions locales. "Enfin !"". 1 December 2006.
  67. https://www.unescap.org/sites/default/files/wp-09-02.pdf
  68. John J. Saul and Colin Leys, Sub-Saharan Africa in Global Capitalism, Monthly Review, 1999, Volume 51, Issue 03 (July–August)
  69. Fred Magdoff, Twenty-First-Century Land Grabs: Accumulation by Agricultural Dispossession, Monthly Review, 2013, Volume 65, Issue 06 (November)
  70. Caplan, Gerald (2008). The Betrayal of Africa. Groundwood Books. p. 93. ISBN 9780888998255.
  71. "Farm Subsidies: Devastating the World's Poor and the Environment". www.ncpa.org. Retrieved 12 September 2017.
  72. "Inter Press Service | News and Views from the Global South". ipsnews.net. Retrieved 12 September 2017.
  73. Hareyan, Armine (1 December 2008). "Targeted agricultural investments will slash poverty in Africa". HULIQ. Retrieved 12 September 2017.
  74. "Redirecting". africanagriculture.blogspot.com. Retrieved 12 September 2017.
  75. Usman, Talatu (30 January 2014). "Private sector invests N1.7 trillion in Nigeria's agricultural sector – Jonathan". Premium Times. Premium Times Nigeria. Retrieved 14 March 2014.
  76. "South Africa: Commodities lead boom".
  77. "Yara's GroHow sees 2008 profit stable". 22 February 2008 – via Reuters.
  78. "Govt targets agricultural boom – Daily Monitor".
  79. SciDev.Net. "African Union support crucial for agricultural progress". SciDev.Net. Retrieved 12 September 2017.
  80. Section, United Nations News Service (9 May 2008). "Though making 'very good progress,' Africa still faces challenges, says UN official". UN News Service Section. Retrieved 12 September 2017.
  81. "Global Wind Atlas". Retrieved 6 December 2018.
  82. Sarl, Etnium, ed. (2013). "2013 Guide economique du continent Bourses Africaines". AFRICA 24 Magazine (8): 12–13. ISSN 2114-2610.
  83. "Table 7 – Exports, 2010". African Economic Outlook. Archived from the original on 12 February 2013. Retrieved 2 March 2013.
  84. Sarl, ed. (2013). "2013 Guide economique du continent Bourses Africaines". Africa 24 (8): 20–21.
  85. Remi Jedwab & Adam Storeygard, "Economic and Political Factors in Infrastructure Investment: Evidence from Railroads and Roads in Africa 1960–2015" Economic History of Developing Regions 34#2 (Summer 2019) Pages: 156-208 DOI: 0.1080/20780389.2019.1627190 data covers 43 sub-Saharan countries. abstract
  86. Sarl, ed. (2013). "2013 Guide economique du continent Bourses Africaines". Africa 24 (8): 24.
  87. "Africa strives to rebuild its domestic industries".
  88. "Breaking News, World News & Multimedia". Retrieved 12 September 2017.
  89. "technology | IOL Business Report". Retrieved 12 September 2017.
  90. "Resources Boom Represents Development Potential in Africa – Mining Technology". www.mining-technology.com. Retrieved 12 September 2017.
  91. Grobler, John (16 October 2008). "Namibia: Congo Copper Giant to Invest in Country". The Namibian (Windhoek). Retrieved 12 September 2017.
  92. "Tax breaks for big investment projects". southafrica.info.
  93. "ECONOMY-MAURITIUS: Textile Manufacturing Goes Green and Clean".
  94. "Market for renewable energy expected to boom in Africa".
  95. "Alternative Energy Africa". ae-africa.com. Retrieved 12 September 2017.
  96. "Innoson cars will sell for N1 million in 2014 – Chukwuma". The Abuja Inquirer. Retrieved 14 March 2014.
  97. "Local vehicles manufacturing – INNOSON/FG pact commendable". Vanguard Newspapers. Vanguard. 19 October 2013. Retrieved 23 April 2014.
  98. "CHUKWUMA: BUSINESSMAN WHO DEFIED THE LIMITS". The Nigerian Voice. NBF News. 25 February 2012. Retrieved 23 April 2014.
  99. Obaze, Oseloka H. (12 December 2013). "Innoson Vehicle Manufacturing granted license to export its vehicles". Elombah. Elombah.com. Retrieved 23 April 2014.
  100. "I Couldn't Meet Cut-off Mark to Study Engineering – Innoson". This Day Newspaper. This Day Live. 1 March 2014. Retrieved 23 April 2014.
  101. Okonji, Emma (24 October 2013). "Zinox Introduces Tablet Range of Computers, Plans Commercial Launch". This Day. This Day Live. Archived from the original on 27 October 2013. Retrieved 14 March 2014.
  102. Onuba, Ifeanyi (4 October 2014). "FG raises tariff on imported cars". Punch Newspaper. Punch NG. Archived from the original on 27 November 2013. Retrieved 14 March 2014.
  103. Clement, Udeme (19 January 2014). "Will the new automotive policy give us affordable made-in-Nigeria car?". Vanguard. Vanguard Nigeria. Retrieved 14 March 2014.
  104. Agande, Ben (24 January 2014). "Nissan to role out 1st made in Nigeria cars in April". Vanguard, Nigeria. Vanguard. Retrieved 14 March 2014.
  105. Awe, Olumide; Sholotan, Olugbenga; Asaolu, Olubunmi (5 June 2010). "Consumer goods businesses to do well in Nigeria". Trade Invest. Trade Invest Nigeria. Retrieved 23 April 2014.
  106. Orya Roberts (29 December 2013). "'Revamping Nigeria's manufacturing sector'". Sunday Trust. Sunday Trust. Retrieved 23 April 2014.
  107. "Welcome to NIGERIA PHARMA MANUFACTURES EXPO 2013..!". Nigeria Pharmaceutical Manufacturers. Nigeria Pharma Manufacturer Expo 2013. 19 October 2013. Retrieved 23 April 2014.
  108. Anudu, Odinaka (27 November 2013). "Nigeria overtakes South Africa as biggest cement manufacturer in SSA". Business Day. Business Day. Retrieved 23 April 2014.
  109. "Aliko Dangote Launches Nigeria's biggest cement plant". Elombah. Elombah.com. 11 June 2012. Retrieved 23 April 2014.
  110. "Industrial hub: Why more companies are moving to Ogun". Vanguard Nigeria. 19 June 2013. Retrieved 14 March 2014.
  111. "Ogun State's rising investment profile". Daily NewsWatch. 5 May 2013. Archived from the original on 14 March 2014. Retrieved 14 March 2014.
  112. "Ogun State: Nigeria's new Industrial hub". Online Nigeria News. 27 November 2012. Retrieved 14 March 2014.
  113. African Development Bank (2014). Eastern Africa' manufacturing sector: Promoting technology, innovation, productivity and linkages (PDF).
  114. Calabrese, Linda (March 2017). "How manufacturing motorcycles can boost Uganda's economy". ODI.
  115. "Africa's banking industry set for impressive growth: study". The China Post. 8 March 2011. Retrieved 13 June 2012.
  116. Geoffrey Muzigiti; Oliver Schmidt (January 2013). "Moving forward". D+C Development and Cooperation/ dandc.eu.
  117. "India to Step Up Trade and Investment in Africa".
  118. "China in Africa: Friend or foe?". 26 November 2007. Retrieved 12 September 2017.
  119. "Chinese investment in Africa soars | WORLDFOCUS". WORLDFOCUS. 13 October 2008. Retrieved 12 September 2017.
  120. "China to maintain aid, investment in Africa "regardless of financial crisis" – Xinhuanet".
  121. Online, Asia Time. "Asia Times Online : China News – China outwits the EU in Africa". www.atimes.com. Retrieved 12 September 2017.
  122. "Inter Press Service | News and Views from the Global South". ipsnews.net. Retrieved 12 September 2017.
  123. "FindArticles.com | CBSi". findarticles.com. Archived from the original on 13 July 2012. Retrieved 12 September 2017.
  124. Kazeem, Yomi. "Sending money home to Africa is cheaper than it was, but still higher than anywhere else". Quartz. Retrieved 17 August 2017.
  125. "Lost in Intermediation" (PDF). Overseas Development Institute.
  126. "Angola oil tiger plans investment in Europe".
  127. "Minnesota: Investment opportunities abound in South Africa".
  128. "Liberian Leaders Predict Boom for Poor West African Country".
  129. Liedong, Tahiru Azaaviele. "Could West Africa launch a single currency?". CNN. Retrieved 17 August 2017.
  130. Sarl, ed. (2013). "2013 Guide economique du continentBourses Africaines". Africa 24 (8): 127.
  131. Sarl, ed. (2013). "2013 Guide economique du continentBourses Africaines". Africa 24 (8): 128.
  132. "The World Factbook — Central Intelligence Agency". www.cia.gov. Retrieved 12 September 2017.
  133. "The World Factbook — Central Intelligence Agency". www.cia.gov. Retrieved 12 September 2017.
  134. "The World Factbook — Central Intelligence Agency". www.cia.gov. Retrieved 12 September 2017.
  135. Sarl, ed. (2013). "2013 Guide economique du continent Bourses Africaines". Africa 24 (8): 130.
  136. "Profile: African Union". BBC News. 1 July 2006. Retrieved 10 July 2006.
  137. Sarl, ed. (2013). "2013 Guide economique du continentBourses Africaines". Africa 24 (8): 60.
  138. Sarl, ed. (2013). "2013 Guide economique du continentBourses Africaines". Africa 24 (8): 62.
  139. Luce and Agarwal. "Rise of the African Opportunity". Boston Analytics. Retrieved 12 July 2016.
  140. Sarl, ed. (2013). "2013 Guide economique du continentBourses Africaines". Africa 24 (8): 64–65.

References
  • Goldsmith, Arthur A. "Foreign Aid and Statehood in Africa". The MIT Press 55.1 (2001): 123–48. JSTOR. Web. 25 March 2012.
  • Fage, J. D. A History of Africa (Routledge, 4th edition, 2001 ISBN 0-415-25247-4) (Hutchinson, 1978, ISBN 0-09-132851-9) (Knopf 1st American edition, 1978, ISBN 0-394-32277-0)
  • Kayizzi-Mugerwa, Steve The African Economy: Policy, Institutions and the Future (Routledge, 1999, ISBN 0-415-18323-5)
  • Moshomba, Richard E. Africa in the Global Economy (Lynne Rienner, 2000, ISBN 1-55587-718-4)
  • OECD. African Economic Outlook 2006/2007 (OECD, 2007, ISBN 978-92-64-03313-9)
  • Rodney, Walter. How Europe Underdeveloped Africa. (Washington: Howard UP, 1982, ISBN 0-88258-096-5)
  • Sahn, David E., Paul A. Dorosh, Stephen D. Younger, Structural Adjustment Reconsidered: Economic Policy and Poverty in Africa (Cambridge University Press, 1997, ISBN 0-521-58451-5)
  • Laouisset, Djamel (2009). A Retrospective Study of the Algerian Iron and Steel Industry. New York City: Nova Publishers. ISBN 978-1-61761-190-2
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.