Chechen–Russian conflict

The Chechen–Russian conflict (Russian: Чеченский конфликт, Chechenskiy konflikt; Chechen: Нохчийн-Оьрсийн дов, Noxçiyn-Örsiyn dov) is the centuries-long conflict, often armed, between the Russian (formerly Soviet) government and various Chechen forces. Formal hostilities date back to 1785, though elements of the conflict can be traced back considerably further.[21][22]

Chechen–Russian conflict

Location of the Chechen Republic (red) within the Russian Federation
Datec. 1785 – present (235 years)
Location
North Caucasus, spillover in Georgia (Pankisi Gorge crisis)[1][2]
Status

Russian victory

  • Chechnya incorporated into Russia
Territorial
changes
Belligerents
Chechen militants and allied groups  Russian Federation
(since 1991)

formerly:
Caucasus Emirate
(2007–17)
 Chechen Republic of Ichkeria
(1991–2007)
Confederation of Mountain Peoples of the Caucasus
(1989–2000)
North Caucasus National Committee
(1940-1944)
Mountain Republic
(1917–20)
Caucasian Imamate
(1828–59)

 formerly:
 Soviet Union
(1922–91)
 Soviet Russia
(1917–22)
White Movement
(1917–20)
 Russian Empire
(1721–1917)
Tsardom of Russia (1547–1721)

The Russian Empire initially had little interest in the North Caucasus itself other than as a communication route to its ally the Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti (eastern Georgia) and its enemies, the Persian and Ottoman Empires, but growing tensions triggered by Russian activities in the region resulted in an uprising of Chechens against the Russian presence in 1785, followed by further clashes and the outbreak of the Caucasian War in 1817. Russia officially won against the imamate in 1864 but only succeeded in defeating the Chechen forces in 1877.

During the Russian Civil War, Chechens and other Caucasian nations lived in independence for a few years before being Sovietized in 1921. In 1944 on the grounds of dubious allegations of widespread collaboration with the advancing German forces, the Chechen nation as a collective were forcefully transferred to Central Asia in an act of ethnic cleansing.

The most recent conflict between the Chechen and the Russian government took place in the 1990s. As the Soviet Union disintegrated, the Chechen separatists declared independence in 1991. By late 1994 the First Chechen War broke out and after two years of fighting the Russian forces withdrew from the region in December 1996. In 1999, the fighting restarted resulting in yet another major armed conflict culminating in a large number of casualties on both sides with vast destruction of the Chechen capital in the Battle of Grozny that saw the Russian military establishing control over Grozny in early February 2000 officially ending the war with insurgency and hostilities continuing in various forms and to varying degrees since.

Origins
Further information: Russian irredentism and Russian colonialism

The North Caucasus, a mountainous region that includes Chechnya, spans or lies close to important trade and communication routes between Russia and the Middle East, control of which have been fought over by various powers for millennia.[23] Russia's entry into the region followed Tsar Ivan the Terrible's conquest of the Golden Horde's Khanates of Kazan and Astrakhan in 1556, initiating a long struggle for control of the North Caucasus routes with other contemporary powers including Persia, the Ottoman Empire and the Crimean Khanate.[24]

During the 16th century the Russian Tsardom tried to win influence in the North Caucasus by alliying themselves with local princes such as the Temryuk of Kabarda and Shikh-Murza Okotsky of Chechnya. Temryuk controlled the Northwest Caucasus and with Russia's help he managed to stave off Crimean incursions. Northeast Caucasus was largely controlled by Shamkhal princes, Avar Khans and the powerful Okotsky lord Shikh-Murza who's influence reached all of Northeast Caucasus. These princes bought weapons and settled Russian Cossacks near the Terek to strenghten their rule and influence. Shikh-Murza Okotsky had in his army around 500 Cossacks combined with 1000 Okocheni (Aukh Chechens), and often waged anti-Iranian and anti-Ottoman campaigns in Dagestan.[25]

Shikh-Murza's politics gave the Russian Tsardom more influence in the Northeast Caucasus, several Russian forts were set up along the Terek river (among them the stronghold of Terki) and Cossack villages.[26] Prior to this the Cossacks had almost no presence in Chechnya and Dagestan. These villages and forts caused Chechens to distrust Shikh-Murza since forts were built on Chechen owned pastures. The Michkizi (lowland Chechens) and part of the Okoki (Aukh Chechens) that were loyal to the Chechen Mullah Mayda joined the outcast Kumyk prince Sultan-Mut who for a very long time allied with the Chechens living south of the Terek-Sulak interfluve. Sultan-Mut was at first against the Russian policies in the Caucasus, he along with the Chechens, Kumyks and Avars fought Russian Cossacks and burn down Russian forts. The Russian Tsar countered this by sending military expeditions into Dagestan, all 2 of these expeditions resulted in Russian defeat and culminated in the Battle of the Karaman Field where a Dagestani-Chechen army under Sultan-Mut defeated the Russian army. These failed expeditions and battles by Russia led to the weakening of Prince Shikh-Murza and his assassination in 1596 by one of Sultan-Mut's brothers.[27][28]

Sultan-Mut continued to pursue an anti-Russian policy into the early 17th century and was known to sometimes live among the Chechens and with them raid the Russian Cossacks.[29] However this started to change as Sultan-Mut several times tried to join the Russians and asked for a Citizenship. This switch of policy angered many Chechens and led to them distancing from Sultan-Mut. This caused a mistrust in Aukh between Endireyans (Chechen-Kumyk city controlled by the Sultan-Mut family and his Chechen Sala-Uzden allies) and the Aukh Chechens."[30]

In 1774, Russia gained control of Ossetia, and with it the strategically important Darial Pass, from the Ottomans. A few years later, in 1783, Russia signed the Treaty of Georgievsk with Heraclius II (Erekle) of the Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti, making the eastern Georgian Kingdom—a Christian enclave surrounded by hostile Muslim states—a Russian protectorate. To fulfill her obligations under the treaty, Catherine the Great, Empress of Russia, began construction of the Georgian Military Road through the Darial Pass, along with a series of military forts to protect the route.[31] These activities, however, antagonized the Chechens, who saw the forts both as an encroachment on the traditional territories of the mountaineers and as a potential threat.[32]

Chechen conflict with the Russian Empire

Sheikh Mansur uprising and aftermath, 1785–1794
Main article: History of Chechens in the Russian Empire

Around this time, Sheikh Mansur, a Chechen imam, began preaching a purified version of Islam and encouraging the various mountain peoples of the North Caucasus to unite under the banner of Islam in order to protect themselves from further foreign encroachments. His activities were seen by the Russians as a threat to their own interests in the region, and in 1785, a force was sent to capture him. Failing to do so, it burned his unoccupied home village instead, but the force was ambushed by Mansur's followers on its return journey and annihilated, beginning the first Chechen–Russian war. The war lasted several years, with Mansur employing mostly guerilla tactics and the Russians conducting further punitive raids on Chechen villages, until Mansur's capture in 1791. Mansur died in captivity in 1794.[33][34]

In 1801, Russia formally annexed eastern Georgia, deepening Russia's commitment to the region.[35] In subsequent years, number of small-scale raids and ambushes by Chechen fighters on Russian forces moving through the Caucasus grew, this was due to fertile lands previously belonging to Chechens were aggressively being settled by Cossacks. This prompted Russians to mount two substantial military expeditions into Chechen territory, both of which were defeated, and Russian leaders began considering more drastic measures. These were postponed however by Napoleon's 1812 invasion of Russia.[36]

Caucasian and Crimean Wars, 1817–64
General Yermolov (left) and Imam Shamil (right)
Main articles: Caucasian War and Circassian genocide

After Russia's defeat of French Napoleonic forces in the 1812 war, Tsar Alexander I turned his attentions once more to the North Caucasus, assigning one of his most celebrated generals, Aleksey Petrovich Yermolov, to the conquest of the region. In 1817, Russian forces under Yermolov's command embarked upon the conquest of the Caucasus.[37] Yermolov's brutal tactics, which included economic warfare, collective punishment and forcible deportations, were initially successful, but have been described as counterproductive since they effectively ended Russian influence on Chechen society and culture and ensured the Chechens' enduring enmity. Yermolov was not relieved of command until 1827.[38][39]

A turning point in the conflict was marked in 1828 when the Muridism movement emerged. It was led by Imam Shamil, a Dagestani Avar. In 1834 he united the Northeast Caucasus nations under Islam and declared "holy war" on Russia.[40] In 1845 Shamil's forces surrounded and killed thousands of Russian soldiers and several generals in Dargo, forcing them to retreat.[40]

During the Crimean War of 1853–6, the Chechens supported the Ottoman Empire against Russia.[40] However, internal tribal conflicts weakened Shamil and he was captured in 1859.[41] The war formally ended in 1862 when Russia promised autonomy for Chechnya and other Caucasian ethnic groups.[41] However, Chechnya and the surrounding region, including northern Dagestan, were incorporated into Russia as the Terek Oblast. Some Chechens have perceived Shamil's surrender as a betrayal, thus created friction between Dagestanis and Chechens in this conflict, with the Dagestanis being frequently accused by Chechens as Russian collaborators.

Russian Civil War and Soviet period

After the Russian Revolution, the peoples of the North Caucasus came to establish the Mountainous Republic of the Northern Caucasus. It existed until 1921, when they were forced to accept Soviet rule. Joseph Stalin personally held negotiations with the Caucasian leaders in 1921 and promised a wide autonomy inside the Soviet state. The Mountain Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic was created that year, but only lasted until 1924 when it was abolished and six republics were created.[42] The Chechen–Ingush Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic was established in 1934. Confrontations between the Chechens and the Soviet government arose in the late 1920s during collectivization. It declined by the mid-1930s after local leaders were arrested or killed.[43] The Chechen uprising of 1932 broke out in early 1932 and was defeated in march.

Ethnic cleansing of Chechens from their homeland
Main articles: Deportation of the Chechens and Ingush and 1940–44 insurgency in Chechnya
Statue of Aleksey Yermolov in Grozny (ru) with one of his quotes in reference to Chechens: "There is no people more vile and insidious under the sun." The statue was reinstated in 1949, four years after the Chechens were ethnically cleansed from their homeland, and it stood until 1989. In modern times Yermolov has been accused of genocide.[44][45]

Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941. Soviet historiography falsely accuses Chechens of joining the Wehrmacht en masse, although this notion is not accepted in any other academic instances.[43] Modern Russian historiography itself also admits that there is little merit to these accusations.[46] By January 1943, the German retreat started, while the Soviet government began discussing the deportation of Chechen and Ingush people far from the North Caucasus, this was despite the fact Chechens and Ingush served in the Red Army like any other of the nations in the Soviet Union. In February 1944, under the direct command of Lavrentiy Beria, almost half million Chechens and Ingush were removed from their homes and forcibly settled in Central Asia in an act of ethnic cleansing. They were put in forced labor camps in Kazakhstan and Kirghizia.[47] Estimates on casualties range from 170,000[48] up to 200,000,[49] some evidence also indicates that 400,000 people perished,[50] the victims perished mostly due to hypothermia(freezing to death) and starvation, although massacres were not uncommon. The most notable of the massacres during the deportation was the Khaibakh massacre, in which an estimated 700 Chechen children, elderly and women were locked in a barn and burned alive, reportedly due to problems with their transportation.[51] Mikhail Gvishiani, the officer responsible for the massacre was praised and promised a medal by Lavrentiy Beria himself.[51] Many scholars recognize the deportation as an act of genocide, as did the European Parliament in 2004.[52][53][54]

Ethnic clashes (1958–65)
Main articles: Chechen–Slav ethnic clashes (1958–65) and 1958 Grozny riots

In 1957, Chechens were allowed to return to their homes. The Chechen–Ingush Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic was reestablished.[55] The violence began in 1958, upon a conflict between a Russian sailor and an Ingush youngster over a girl, in which the Russian was fatally injured. The incident quickly deteriorated into mass ethnic riots, as Slavic mobs attacked Chechens and Ingushes and looted their property throughout the region for 4 days.[56] Ethnic clashes continued through 1960s, and in 1965 some 16 clashes were reported, taking tall of 185 severe injuries, 19 of them fatal.[56] By late 1960, the region calmed down and the Chechen–Russian conflict came to its lowest point until the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the eruption of Chechen Wars in 1990.

Post-Soviet era

Chechen Wars
Main articles: First Chechen War and Second Chechen War
A Chechen fighter with a Borz submachine gun, 1995

In 1991, Chechnya declared independence and was named the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria. According to some sources, from 1991 to 1994, tens of thousands of people of non-Chechen ethnicity (mostly Russians, Ukrainians and Armenians) left the republic amidst reports of violence and discrimination against the non-Chechen population.[57][58][59] Other sources do not identify displacement as a significant factor in the events of the period, instead focussing on the deteriorating domestic situation within Chechnya, the aggressive politics of the Chechyen President, Dzhokhar Dudayev, and the domestic political ambitions of Russian President Boris Yeltsin.[60][61] Russian Army forces were commanded into Grozny in 1994[62] but, after two years of intense fighting, the Russian troops eventually withdrew from Chechnya under the Khasavyurt Accord.[63] Chechnya preserved its de facto independence until the second war broke out in 1999.[64]

In 1999, the Russian government forces started an anti-terrorist campaign in Chechnya, in response to the invasion of Dagestan by Chechen-based Islamic forces.[64] By early 2000 Russia almost completely destroyed the city of Grozny and succeeded in putting Chechnya under direct control of Moscow by late April.[64]

Akhmad Kadyrov (right), formerly a leading separatist mufti, had switched sides in 2000

Chechen insurgency
Main article: Insurgency in the North Caucasus

Since the end of the Second Chechen War in May 2000, low-level insurgency has continued, particularly in Chechnya, Ingushetia and Dagestan. Russian security forces have succeeded in eliminating some of their leaders, such as Shamil Basayev, who was killed on July 10, 2006.[65] After Basayev's death, Dokka Umarov took the leadership of the rebel forces in North Caucasus until his death owing to poisoning in 2013.[66]

Radical Islamists from Chechnya and other North Caucasian republics have been held responsible for a number of terrorist attacks throughout Russia,[67] most notably the Russian apartment bombings in 1999,[68] the Moscow theater hostage crisis in 2002,[69] the Beslan school hostage crisis in 2004, the 2010 Moscow Metro bombings[70] and the Domodedovo International Airport bombing in 2011.[71][72]

Currently, Chechnya is now under the rule of its Russian-appointed leader: Ramzan Kadyrov. Though the oil-rich region has maintained relative stability under Mr. Kadyrov, he has been accused by critics and citizens of suppressing freedom of the press and violating other political and human rights. Because of this continued Russian rule, there have been minor guerilla attacks by separatist groups in the area. Further adding to the tension, jihadist groups aligned with the Islamic State and Al-Qaeda exist in the region.[73]

Outside Russia

The conflict between Chechens and Russians are also seen outside the Russian border. During the Syrian Civil War, Chechen fighters that remain loyal to the collapsed Chechen Republic of Ichkeria and radical Chechen Islamists had also fought against Russian Army and its ally Bashar al-Assad in Syria, with desire to overthrow the Assad Government and replacing it by a more Chechen-sympathized government.[74][75]

Casualties
Further information: Casualties of the Second Chechen War

The exact casualties of this conflict are difficult to ascertain due to lack of records and the long time period of the clashes. One source indicates that at least 60,000 Chechens were killed in the First and Second Chechen War in the 1990s and 2000s alone. [76] High estimates of these two wars range of up to 150,000 or 160,000 killed, as put by Taus Djabrailov, the head of Chechnya's interim parliament.[77]

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References
Notes
    Citations
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    2. Gordon, Michael R. (November 17, 1999). "Georgia Trying Anxiously to Stay Out of Chechen War". The New York Times.
    3. Cooley, John K. (2002). Unholy Wars: Afghanistan, America and International Terrorism (3rd ed.). London: Pluto Press. p. 195. ISBN 978-0-7453-1917-9. A Turkish Fascist youth group, the "Grey Wolves", was recruited to fight with the Chechens.
    4. Goltz, Thomas (2003). Chechnya Diary: A War Correspondent's Story of Surviving the War in Chechnya. New York: Thomas Dunne Books. p. 22. ISBN 978-0-312-26874-9. I called a well-informed diplomat pal and arranged to meet him at a bar favored by the pan-Turkic crowd known as the Gray Wolves, who were said to be actively supporting the Chechens with men and arms.
      ...the Azerbaijani Gray Wolf leader, Iskander, Hamidov...
    5. Isingor, Ali (6 September 2000). "Istanbul: Gateway to a holy war". CNN. Archived from the original on 17 October 2014.
    6. McGregor, Andrew (30 March 2006). "Radical Ukrainian Nationalism and the War in Chechnya". jamestown.org. Jamestown Foundation. Archived from the original on 12 April 2019. As war clouds gathered over Chechnya in 1994, UNA-UNSO leaders Anatoli Lupinos and Dimitro Korchinski began to lead Ukrainian delegations to Grozny to meet with Chechen leaders. This was followed in 1995 by the arrival of UNSO fighters organized as the "Viking Brigade" under the command of Aleksandr Muzychko, though their numbers (about 200 men) never approached brigade size.
    7. "Turkey Blind to Chechen Rebels". Stratfor. April 23, 2001. Archived from the original on 2 August 2020. Although not actively involved in the Chechen conflict, Turkey tacitly supports the Chechen rebels.
    8. Specter, Michael (November 1, 1996). "In War-Ravaged Chechnya, Russia's Presence Is Fading". The New York Times. Pakistan, Jordan and Iran -- Muslim countries that have supported Chechnya's war -- have each sent emissaries and cash to help guide the republic.
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    10. Grant 2000, p. 869.
    11. Oldberg, Ingmar (December 2006). "The War on Terrorism in Russian Foreign Policy". foi.se. Swedish Defence Research Agency. p. 27. Russia was outraged because the Taliban officially recognised and supported Chechnya's independence and the spreading of radical Islam into Central Asia and southern Russia.
    12. Katz, Mark N. (2001). "Saudi-Russian Relations in the Putin Era". The Middle East Journal. 55 (4): 612. Especially since the onset of the second Russo-Chechen war in the fall of 1999, officials from the Russian Federal Security Service and the government of Dagestan, among others, have directly accused the Saudis of providing support to Chechen rebels.
    13. Leghari, Faryal (March 21, 2006). "The Arab Connection to Chechen Conflict". Khaleej Times. (via Yale Center for the Study of Globalization). Archived from the original on 2 August 2020. Russia's repeated accusations about Saudi Arabia funding militants and terrorist groups operating in Chechnya...
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    15. Valiyev, Anar; Mamishova, Narmina (2019). "Azerbaijan's foreign policy towards Russia since independence: compromise achieved". Southeast European and Black Sea Studies. 19 (2): 9. Back in 1994, during the Chechnya crisis when Russia was attempting 'to establish constitutional order' in the self-proclaimed independent state, Baku preferred an alternative BTC project to the already operating and Russiapromoted Baku-Grozny-Tikhoretsk-Novorossiysk pipeline. In response, it was accused of providing military assistance to Chechnya by allowing foreign fighters and cargoes of weapons and ammunition to pass through its territory, by tolerating Chechen dissidents based in Baku and by providing permanent residence for many Chechen families.
    16. "Chechnya Issue Tests Russia-Iran Ties". JOC Group. February 25, 1996. Archived from the original on 2 August 2020. Charges by top Russian officials that Iran is aiding rebel forces in Chechnya have Western analysts wondering whether Moscow's relations with Tehran may be showing long-awaited signs of strain. [...] While Tehran sympathizes with the rebels, it has denied giving support, the Open Media Research Institute reported.
    17. Samii, A. William (2002). "Iran and Chechnya: Realpolitik at Work". Middle East Policy. Middle East Policy Council. 8 (1): 54. doi:10.1111/1475-4967.00004. Despite toeing Moscow's line, Tehran's reputation as a supporter of revolutionary organizations continues to haunt it. A Russian Defense Ministry press officer said that the Chechens are trying to organize "arms deliveries from Iran".
    18. Filippov, Mikhail (2009). "Diversionary Role of the Georgia–Russia Conflict: International Constraints and Domestic Appeal". Europe-Asia Studies. 61 (10): 1832. Instead, Russia increasingly blamed Georgia for providing support and refuge to the Chechen rebels. The Chechen rebels were, in fact, hiding out among Chechen refugees in the Pankisi Gorge in northern Georgia on the border with Chechnya (Souleimanov & Ditrych 2008). However, the Georgian side argued that it was not responsible; Pankisi attracted fleeing Chechens because it was mainly populated by Kists—Georgian Chechens—with kinship ties in Chechnya. Nevertheless, the Pankisi area, geographically isolated from the rest of Georgia but connected with Chechnya, soon became a lawless land outside Tbilisi's control.
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    24. Schaefer 2010, pp. 51–54.
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    32. Schaefer 2010, pp. 55–57.
    33. Schaefer 2010, pp. 55–58.
    34. Dunlop 1998, pp. 10–13.
    35. Dunlop 1998, p. 13.
    36. Schaefer 2010, p. 58.
    37. Shultz 2006, p. 115.
    38. Daniel, pp. 13–18.
    39. Schaefer 2010, pp. 58–61.
    40. Shultz 2006, p. 116.
    41. Shultz 2006, p. 117.
    42. Shultz 2006, p. 118.
    43. Shultz 2006, p. 119.
    44. "Почему в Грозном дважды сносили памятник Ермолову?". Яндекс Дзен | Платформа для авторов, издателей и брендов. Retrieved 2020-08-02.
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    59. Smith 2005, p. 134.
    60. King 2008, pp. 234–237.
    61. Ware 2005, pp. 79–87.
    62. Kumar 2006, p. 61.
    63. Kumar 2006, p. 65.
    64. James & Goetze 2001, p. 169.
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