Cajuns

The Cajuns (/ˈkeɪdʒən/; Louisiana French: les Cadiens), also known as Acadians (Louisiana French: les Acadiens),[2] are an ethnic group mainly living in the U.S. state of Louisiana, and in the Canadian maritimes provinces consisting in part of the descendants of the original Acadian exiles—French-speakers from Acadia (L'Acadie) in what are now the Maritimes of Eastern Canada. In Louisiana, Acadian and Cajun are often used as broad cultural terms without reference to actual descent from the deported Acadians. Historically, Louisianians of Acadian descent were also considered to be Louisiana Creoles, although Cajun and Creole are often portrayed as separate identities today. Most Cajuns are of French descent.[3] The Cajuns make up a significant portion of south Louisiana's population and have had an enormous impact on the state's culture.[4]

"Cajun" redirects here. For other uses, see Cajun (disambiguation).

Cajuns
Cadiens
Total population
1.2 million (2002 estimate)[1]
Regions with significant populations
 United States: 928,313
 Louisiana815,259
 Texas546,354
Languages
French (Louisiana French)
English (Cajun English)
Louisiana Creole
Religion
Christianity: Predominantly Roman Catholicism
Related ethnic groups
Acadians, Métis, Atakapa, Choctaw, Chitimacha, French, French Americans, French Canadians, Spaniards, Isleño, Spanish Americans, Québécois, Louisiana Creoles, French Haitians

While Lower Louisiana had been settled by French colonists since the late 17th century, the Cajuns trace their roots to the influx of Acadian settlers after the Great Expulsion from their homeland during the French and British hostilities prior to the Seven Years' War (1756 to 1763). The Acadia region to which modern Cajuns trace their origin consisted largely of what are now Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island plus parts of eastern Quebec and northern Maine. Since their establishment in Louisiana, the Cajuns have become famous for their unique French dialect, Louisiana French (also called "Cajun French", although the dialect predates the Acadians' arrival in Louisiana), and have developed a vibrant culture including folkways, music, and cuisine. The Acadiana region is heavily associated with them.[5]

Acadia

The origin of the designation Acadia is credited to the explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano, commissioned by the King Francis I of France, who on his 16th-century map applied the ancient Greek name "Arcadia" to the entire Atlantic coast north of Virginia. "Arcadia" derives from the Arcadia district in Greece which since classical antiquity had the extended meanings of "refuge" or "idyllic place". Samuel de Champlain fixed the orthography with the 'r' omitted in the 17th century. The term eventually came to apply only to the northern part of the coast in what is now Canada and New England.[6]

Ethnic group of national origin

The Cajuns retain a unique dialect of the French language and numerous other cultural traits that distinguish them as an ethnic group. Cajuns were officially recognized by the U.S. government as a national ethnic group in 1980 per a discrimination lawsuit filed in federal district court. Presided over by Judge Edwin Hunter, the case, known as Roach v. Dresser Industries Valve and Instrument Division (494 F.Supp. 215, D.C. La., 1980), hinged on the issue of the Cajuns' ethnicity:

We conclude that plaintiff is protected by Title VII's ban on national origin discrimination. The Louisiana Acadian is alive and well. He is "up front" and "main stream." He is not asking for any special treatment. By affording coverage under the "national origin" clause of Title VII he is afforded no special privilege. He is given only the same protection as those with English, Spanish, French, Iranian, Czechoslavakian, Portuguese, Polish, Mexican, Italian, Irish, et al., ancestors.

— Judge Edwin Hunter, 1980[7]

History of Acadian ancestors
See also: Acadians, New France, and Expulsion of the Acadians

The British Conquest of French Acadia happened in 1710. Over the next 45 years, the Acadians refused to sign an unconditional oath of allegiance to Britain. During this period, Acadians participated in various militia operations against the British and maintained vital supply lines to the French fortress of Louisbourg and Fort Beausejour.[8] During the French and Indian War (part of the Seven Years' War and known by that name in Canada and Europe), the British sought to neutralize the Acadian military threat and to interrupt their vital supply lines to Louisbourg by deporting Acadians from Acadia.[9] During 1755–1763 Acadia consisted of parts of present-day Canada: Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, and the Gaspe Peninsula in the province of Quebec. The deportation of the Acadians from these areas has become known as the Great Upheaval or Le Grand Dérangement.

The Acadians' migration from Canada was spurred by the Treaty of Paris (1763) which ended the war. The treaty terms provided 18 months for unrestrained emigration. Many Acadians moved to the region of the Atakapa in present-day Louisiana, often travelling via the French colony of Saint-Domingue (now Haiti).[10] Joseph Broussard led the first group of 200 Acadians to arrive in Louisiana on February 27, 1765, aboard the Santo Domingo.[11] On April 8, 1765, he was appointed militia captain and commander of the "Acadians of the Atakapas" region in St. Martinville.[12] Some of the settlers wrote to their family scattered around the Atlantic to encourage them to join them at New Orleans. For example, Jean-Baptiste Semer, wrote to his father in France:

My dear father ... you can come here boldly with my dear mother and all the other Acadian families. They will always be better off than in France. There are neither duties nor taxes to pay and the more one works, the more one earns without doing harm to anyone.

— Jean-Baptiste Semer, 1766[13]

The Acadians were scattered throughout the eastern seaboard. Families were split and put on ships with different destinations.[14] Many ended up west of the Mississippi River in what was then French-colonized Louisiana, including territory as far north as Dakota territory. France had ceded the colony to Spain in 1762, prior to their defeat by Britain and two years before the first Acadians began settling in Louisiana. The interim French officials provided land and supplies to the new settlers. The Spanish governor, Bernardo de Gálvez, later proved to be hospitable, permitting the Acadians to continue to speak their language, practice their native religion (Roman Catholicism – which was also the official religion of Spain), and otherwise pursue their livelihoods with minimal interference. Some families and individuals did travel north through the Louisiana territory to set up homes as far north as Wisconsin. Cajuns fought in the American Revolution. Although they fought for Spanish General Galvez, their contribution to the winning of the war has been recognized.[15]

"Galvez leaves New Orleans with an army of Spanish regulars and the Louisiana militia made up of 600 Cajun volunteers and captures the British strongholds of Fort Bute at Bayou Manchac, across from the Acadian settlement at St. Gabriel. On September 7, 1779 Galvez attacked Fort Bute and then on September 21, 1779 attacked and captured Baton Rouge."[16]

A review of participating soldiers shows many common Cajun names among those who fought in the battles of Baton Rouge and West Florida. The Galvez Chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution was formed in memory of those soldiers.[17] The Acadians' joining the fight against the British was partially a reaction to the British having evicted them from Acadia.

The Spanish colonial government settled the earliest group of Acadian exiles west of New Orleans, in what is now south-central Louisiana—an area known at the time as Attakapas, and later the center of the Acadiana region. As Brasseaux wrote, "The oldest of the pioneer communities ... Fausse Point, was established near present-day Loreauville by late June 1765."[18] The Acadians shared the swamps, bayous and prairies with the Attakapa and Chitimacha Native American tribes.

After the end of the American Revolutionary War, about 1,500 more Acadians arrived in New Orleans. About 3,000 Acadians had been deported to France during the Great Upheaval. In 1785, about 1,500 were authorized to emigrate to Louisiana, often to be reunited with their families, or because they could not settle in France.[19] Living in a relatively isolated region until the early 20th century, Cajuns today are largely assimilated into the mainstream society and culture. Some Cajuns live in communities outside Louisiana. Also, some people identify themselves as Cajun culturally despite lacking Acadian ancestry.

Further information: History of the Acadians

Cajuns as Louisiana Creoles

In the modern era it is common to see Cajuns and Louisiana Creoles discussed as being two separate and distinct groups; historically speaking, however, this was not necessarily the case. Many historical accounts exist wherein persons with Acadian surnames and of various races either self-identify or are described by others as Creoles.

The word "Creole", which is a translation of the French Créole (itself borrowed from the Spanish and Portuguese), simply means "born in the New World". It was a non-racial label meant to distinguish the native-born population from immigrants from Europe and Canada as well as from slaves directly imported from Africa. (After the Sale of Louisiana, the term "Creole" was often used to distinguish people of Catholic, Latin backgrounds from newly-arrived Americans and other Protestant anglophones.) Anybody, of any race, was considered Creole if he or she was born in Louisiana, spoke a Latin-based language (usually French or Spanish) and practiced Catholicism. The descendants of the expelled Acadians thus fulfilled the requirement to be considered Creoles, having been born on Louisianian soil while retaining a Catholic francophone identity. Documents from the late eighteenth century, such as militia rolls, make a distinction between "Acadians" (those born before or during Le Grand Dérangement) and "Creoles" (those born after Le Grand Dérangement), often the children of the former group, with identical surnames and belonging to the same families.[20] Today, members of these families—including, among many others, those with surnames such as Broussard, Hébert and Thibodeaux—usually consider these names Cajun rather than Creole.

Sources from the nineteenth century regularly cite Louisianian Acadians as "Creoles" and occasionally make specific references to "Acadian Creoles" in particular. One article in vol. 56 of The Youth's Companion notes that, "The Acadian Creoles of Louisiana are a humane and charitable race—simple-minded and full of queer, superstitious notions, but an orphan thrown upon their care never suffers."[21] The Mouton family, possibly the most influential Acadian family of the period, provides an excellent case study in this regard, with secessionist Alexandre Mouton retaining the famous nickname of "the Creole Hotspur."[22] His son, the Confederate General Alfred Mouton, is also noted in contemporary sources as "a brave and intrepid Creole".[23] Today, by contrast, members of the extensive Mouton family are referred to as "Acadians" or "Cajuns" more often than as "Creoles".

In the twentieth century, the word "Creole" became the subject of much debate. Mainstream Americans (who generally adhered to a strict white/black dichotomy) struggled with the concept of a culturo-linguistic identity not based in race, and "Creole" began to thus be associated with mixed racial origins—a taboo and socially undesirable association for contemporary white Creoles. It was during this time that "Cajun" began to eclipse "Creole" as the default French Louisianian term. Carl Brasseaux notes in Acadian to Cajun, Transformation of a People, that:

Cajun was used by Anglos to refer to all persons of French descent and low economic standing, regardless of their ethnic affiliation. Hence poor Creoles of the bayou and prairie regions came to be permanently identified as Cajun. The term Cajun thus became a socioeconomic classification for the multicultural amalgam of several culturally and linguistically distinct groups.[24]

The above assertion is supported by numerous instances today of persons with non-Acadian surnames identifying as Cajuns. For example, surnames like Guillory, Verret, Fontenot, LaFleur, Romero, Schexnaydre and McGee are commonly held to be Cajun names[25] despite their original bearers not being of Acadian extraction (with Romero, Schexnaydre and McGee having Spanish, German and Irish origins respectively). Furthermore, it is also common for people in parishes such as Evangeline and Avoyelles to identify as Cajuns despite those parishes’ receiving few Acadian migrants in the wake of Le Grand Dérangement.[26] "Cajun" has thus become synonymous with "white French Louisianian", due in part to CODOFIL’s decision to promote Louisiana’s link to Acadia in the so-called "Cajun Renaissance", which began in the 1960s. Since then, the number of white Louisianians identifying as Creoles has dwindled, in part because of the term’s racially ambiguous nature.

It is also common to see various other demographic differences assigned to the Cajun/Creole binary. A typical example is cuisine, wherein many claim that "Cajun" gumbo does not include tomatoes whereas "Creole" gumbo does. However, this distinction is better viewed as a geographic difference rather than an ethnic one. Residents of Acadiana—a historically isolated and rural region—do not typically make gumbo with tomatoes, regardless of ancestry, whereas urban New Orleanians do. "Cajun" cuisine should properly fit under an umbrella of "Creole" cuisine, much like "Cajuns" themselves fit under the "Creole" umbrella.

In any case, Cajuns and Creoles today are often presented as distinct groups, and many Cajuns disavow a Creole identity (and vice-versa). Surnames and geographic location are not necessarily markers of either identity.

Ethnic mixing and alternate origins

Not all Cajuns descend solely from Acadian exiles who settled in south Louisiana in the 18th century, as some have intermarried with other groups. Their members now include people Irish and Spanish ancestry, as well as a lesser extent of Germans and Italians. Also, a lesser admixture exists of Native American Métis and African American Creole. Historian Carl A. Brasseaux asserted that this process of intermarriage created the Cajuns in the first place.[4]

Non-Acadian French Creoles in rural areas were absorbed into Cajun communities. Some Cajun parishes, such as Evangeline and Avoyelles, possess relatively few inhabitants of actual Acadian origin. Their populations descend in many cases from settlers who migrated to the region from Quebec, Mobile, or directly from France (French emigration). Regardless, Acadian influences are generally acknowledged to have prevailed in most sections of south Louisiana.

Many Cajuns also have some ancestors who were not French. Many of the original settlers in Louisiana were Spanish Basques and Spanish Canary Islanders. A later migration included Irish and German immigrants who began to settle in Louisiana before and after the Louisiana Purchase, particularly on the German Coast along the Mississippi River north of New Orleans. People of Latin American origin; a number of early Filipino settlers (notably in Saint Malo, Louisiana) who were known as "Manilamen" from the annual cross-Pacific Galleon or Manila Galleon trade with neighboring Acapulco, Mexico; descendants of African American slaves; and some Cuban Americans have also settled along the Gulf Coast, and in some cases, intermarried into Cajun families.

One obvious result of this cultural mixture is the variety of surnames common among the Cajun population. Surnames of the original Acadian settlers (which are documented) have been augmented by French and non-French family names that have become part of Cajun communities. The spelling of many family names has changed over time. (See, for example, Eaux). [27]

Modern preservation and renewed connections

During the early part of the 20th century, attempts were made to suppress Cajun culture by measures such as forbidding the use of the Cajun French language in schools. After the Compulsory Education Act forced Cajun children to attend formal schools, American teachers threatened, punished, and sometimes beat their Cajun students in an attempt to force them to use English (a language to which many of them had not been exposed before). During World War II, Cajuns often served as French interpreters for American forces in France; this helped to overcome prejudice.[28]

In 1968, the organization of Council for the Development of French in Louisiana was founded to preserve the French language in Louisiana. Besides advocating for their legal rights, Cajuns also recovered ethnic pride and appreciation for their ancestry. Since the mid-1950s, relations between the Cajuns of the U.S. Gulf Coast and Acadians in the Maritimes and New England have been renewed, forming an Acadian identity common to Louisiana, New England, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia.

State Senator Dudley LeBlanc ("Coozan Dud", a Cajun slang nickname for "Cousin Dudley") took a group of Cajuns to Nova Scotia in 1955 for the commemoration of the 200th anniversary of the expulsion. The Congrès Mondial Acadien, a large gathering of Acadians and Cajuns held every five years since 1994, is another example of continued unity.

Sociologists Jacques Henry and Carl L. Bankston III have maintained that the preservation of Cajun ethnic identity is a result of the social class of Cajuns. During the 18th and 19th centuries, "Cajuns" came to be identified as the French-speaking rural people of Southwestern Louisiana. Over the course of the 20th century, the descendants of these rural people became the working class of their region. This change in the social and economic circumstances of families in Southwestern Louisiana created nostalgia for an idealized version of the past. Henry and Bankston point out that "Cajun", which was formerly considered an insulting term, became a term of pride among Louisianans by the beginning of the 21st century.[29] It is common for persons living in the historically Cajun area of Louisiana to self-identify as Cajuns even when they have limited or no Cajun ancestry.

Edwin W. Edwards, Constitution of 1974

Perhaps the greatest proponent and catalyst for reclaiming Cajun and French history of Louisiana is four-term former Louisiana Governor Edwin Edwards. Selected to serve as honorary chair of the Eighteenth Century Louisiana panel of the 2014 academic Enlightenment Conference in Montréal,[30] the former Governor in a video address[31] said[32] "One of the legacies of which I am most proud is Louisiana's 1974 Constitution and its provision that the 'right of the people to preserve, foster, and promote their respective historic linguistic and cultural origins is recognized'."[33]

As the late LSU Law Center professor Lee Hargrave wrote, in reference to the protection of cultural heritage, "Proponents of the section were primarily Francophones concerned with the protection of the French Acadian culture. Representatives of the Council for the Development of French in Louisiana appeared before the committee several times to urge some recognition of cultural rights, and delegates from Lafayette and Lake Charles worked strongly for the proposal."[34]

Montréal panelist and New Orleans Créole historian Jari Honora explained that Edwards "is a perfect commentator for this panel given his advocacy for Louisiana's Francophone cultural communities during his four terms as governor. After several decades of 'Americanization' and suppression of French language and culture in Louisiana, Governor Edwards' conscious self-identification as an Acadian descendant marked a high-point for the Cajun/Creole cultural renaissance in this state."[35]

Culture
The 22 parishes of Acadiana: The Cajun heartland of Louisiana is highlighted in darker red.

Geography
Main article: Acadiana

Geography had a strong correlation to Cajun lifestyles. Most Cajuns resided in Acadiana, where their descendants are still predominant. Cajun populations today are found also in the area southwest of New Orleans and scattered in areas adjacent to the French Louisiana region, such as to the north in Alexandria, Louisiana. Strong Cajun roots, influence, and culture can also be found in parts of Southern Mississippi. These areas include Bay St. Louis, Pass Christian, Gulfport, Gautier, Natchez, D'Iberville, and Biloxi, Mississippi. Over the years, many Cajuns and Creoles also migrated to the Houston, Beaumont and Port Arthur areas of Southeast Texas, in especially large numbers as they followed oil-related jobs in the 1970s and 1980s, when oil companies moved jobs from Louisiana to Texas. However, the city of Lafayette is referred to as "The Heart of Acadiana" because of its location, and it is a major center of Cajun culture.

Music
Main article: Cajun music

Cajun music is evolved from its roots in the music of the French-speaking Catholics of Canada. In earlier years, the fiddle was the predominant instrument, but gradually the accordion has come to share the limelight. Cajun music gained national attention in 2007, when the Grammy Award for Best Zydeco or Cajun Music Album category was created.[36]

Further information: Music of Louisiana

Cuisine
Cajun boudin rolled into a ball and deep fried
Main article: Cajun cuisine

Due to Le Grand Dérangement, many Acadians were invited to settle in Louisiana by the Spanish Governor Galvez. Unfamiliar with the terrain, they assimilated Creole and Native American influences into their Acadian traditions. Cajun cuisine focused on local ingredients and wild game (e.g., duck, rabbit), vegetables (e.g., okra, mirlitons), and grains. Coastal communities relied heavily on fish and shellfish. Seafood, especially shellfish, is still very popular in the region and remains a dominant feature of many classic Cajun dishes like seafood gumbo and court boullion.

Since many Cajuns were farmers and not especially wealthy, they were known for not wasting any part of a butchered animal. Many rural communities held a weekly boucherie, which is a communal butchering of an animal, often a pig. Each family received a share of the meat. Some high-profile foods like cracklins and boudin are examples of Cajun cuisine that are widely popular.[37]

Language

Cajun French is a misnomer for the French that was spoken before the Acadians arrived. It is a variety or dialect of the French language spoken primarily in Louisiana. At one time as many as seven dialects were spread across the Cajun heartland.

Recent documentation has been made of Cajun English, a French-influenced dialect of English spoken by Cajuns, either as a second language, in the case of the older members of the community, or as a first language by younger Cajuns.

Further information: List of Louisiana parishes by French-speaking population

Religious traditions

"Our Lady of the Assumption" is Patroness of the Acadians (Cajuns). In 1638, the colonies of France, to include Acadie, and France were consecrated by the Pope and the King to Mary under the aforementioned title; the date of consecration was August 15 which is the Solemnity of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary and is a Holy Day of Obligation for Roman Catholics (Source 4).

Traditional Catholic religious observances such as Mardi Gras, Lent, and Holy Week are integral to many Cajun communities. Likewise, these traditional Catholic religious observances may further be understood from Cultural Catholicism in Cajun-Creole Louisiana by Marcia Gaudet[38] which tells that such traditional religious observances, although they may not be "strictly theological and liturgical forms", are still integral and necessary to many and remain religiously valid as "unofficial religious customs and traditions are certainly a part of Roman Catholicism as it is practiced".[39]

Mardi Gras
Musicians playing at a traditional Courir de Mardi Gras
Main article: Courir de Mardi Gras

Mardi Gras (French for "Fat Tuesday", also known as Shrove Tuesday) is the day before Ash Wednesday, which marks the beginning of Lent, a 40-day period of fasting and reflection in preparation for Easter Sunday. Mardi Gras was historically a time to use up the foods that were not to be used during Lent, including fat, eggs, and meat.

Mardi Gras celebrations in rural Acadiana are distinct from the more widely known celebrations in New Orleans and other metropolitan areas. A distinct feature of the Cajun celebration centers on the Courir de Mardi Gras (translated: fat Tuesday run).[40] A group of people, usually on horseback and wearing capuchons (a cone-shaped ceremonial hat) and traditional costumes, approach a farmhouse and ask for something for the community gumbo pot. Often, the farmer or his wife allows the riders to have a chicken, if they can catch it. The group then puts on a show, comically attempting to catch the chicken set out in a large open area. Songs are sung, jokes are told, and skits are acted out. When the chicken is caught, it is added to the pot at the end of the day.[40] The courir held in the small town of Mamou has become well known. This tradition has much in common with the observance of La Chandeleur, or Candlemas (February 2), by Acadians in Nova Scotia.

Easter

On Pâques (French for Easter), a game called pâquer, or pâque-pâque was played. Contestants selected hard-boiled eggs, paired off, and tapped the eggs together – the player whose egg did not crack was declared the winner. This is an old European tradition that has survived in Acadia until today. Today, Easter is still celebrated by Cajuns with the traditional game of paque, but is now also celebrated in the same fashion as Christians throughout the United States with candy-filled baskets, "Easter bunny" stories, dyed eggs, and Easter egg hunts.

Folk beliefs

One folk custom is belief in a traiteur, or healer, whose primary method of treatment involves the laying on of hands and of prayers. An important part of this folk religion, the traiteur combines Catholic prayer and medicinal remedies to treat a variety of ailments, including earaches, toothaches, warts, tumors, angina, and bleeding. Another is in the rougarou, a version of a loup garou (French for werewolf), that will hunt down and kill Catholics who do not follow the rules of Lent. In some communities, the loup garou of legend has taken on an almost protective role. Children are warned that loups garous can read souls, and that they only hunt and kill evil men and women and misbehaved horses.

Celebrations and gatherings

Cajuns, along with other Cajun Country residents, have a reputation for a joie de vivre (French for "joy of living"), in which hard work is appreciated as much as "let the good times roll / laissez les bon temps rouler".

Community gatherings

In the culture, a coup de main (French for "to give a hand") is an occasion when the community gathers to assist one of their members with time-consuming or arduous tasks. Examples might include a barn raising, harvests, or assistance for the elderly or sick.

Festivals
Cajun fiddler at 1938 National Rice Festival, photographed by Russell Lee

The majority of Cajun festivals include a fais do-do ("go to sleep" in French, originating from encouraging children to fall asleep in the rafters of the dance hall as the parents danced late into the night) or street dance, usually to a live local band. Crowds at these festivals can range from a few hundred to more than 100,000.

Further information: List of festivals in Louisiana

Other festivals outside Louisiana
  • In Texas, the Winnie Rice Festival and other celebrations often highlight the Cajun influence in Southeast Texas.
  • The Cajun Heritage Fest in Port Arthur, Texas celebrates Cajun music and cuisine and features events such as a crawfish eating contest and crawfish racing.
  • Major Cajun/Zydeco festivals are held annually in Rhode Island, which does not have a sizable Cajun population, but is home to many Franco-Americans of Québécois and Acadian descent. It features Cajun culture and food, as well as authentic Louisiana musical acts both famous and unknown, drawing attendance not only from the strong Cajun/Zydeco music scene in Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York City, and California, but also from all over the world. In recent years, the festival became so popular, now several such large summer festivals are held near the Connecticut–Rhode Island border: The Great Connecticut Cajun and Zydeco Music & Arts Festival, The Blast From The Bayou Cajun and Zydeco Festival, also in California the Cajun/Zydeco Festival; Bay Area Ardenwood Historic Farm, Fremont, Calif. and The Simi Valley Cajun and Blues Music Festival.[41]

In media
A statue of Evangeline—fictional heroine of the poem Evangeline by Longfellow—at St. Martinville, Louisiana. The statue was donated by actress Dolores del Río, who also posed for it. In a 1929 silent film by director Edwin Carewe, del Rio portrayed Evangeline.

Documentary films

Film

Literature
  • Evangeline (1847), an epic poem by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, is loosely based on the events surrounding the 1755 deportation. It became an American classic and contributed to a rebirth of Acadian identity in both Maritime Canada and in Louisiana.
  • Bayou Folk (1894) by Kate Chopin, who wrote about the Creoles and Cajuns (Acadiens)
  • Several volumes on Cajun culture and history by children's book author Mary Alice Fontenot
  • Acadian Waltz (2013) by Alexandrea Weis, who wrote about the Cajun culture
  • Acadie, Then and Now (2014) by Warren Perrin, Mary Perrin, Phil Comeau, a collection of 65 articles on Cajun/Acadian culture and history

Songs
  • "Jambalaya (On the Bayou)" (1952) is credited to Hank Williams, about life, parties, and stereotypical Cajun cuisine. The music is taken from the Cajun song "Grand Texas".
  • "Acadian Driftwood" (1975), a popular song based on the Acadian Expulsion by Robbie Robertson, appeared on The Band's album Northern Lights – Southern Cross.
  • "Louisiana Man" (1961), an autobiographical song written and performed by Doug Kershaw, became the first song broadcast back to Earth from the Moon by the astronauts of Apollo 12. Over the years, the song has been recorded by hundreds of artists, sold millions of copies and become a standard of modern Cajun music.
  • "Jolie Blonde" (or "Jolie Blon", "Jole Blon", or "Joli Blon"), with lyrics and song history of the traditional Cajun waltz, is often referred to as "the Cajun national anthem".
  • "Mississippi Queen" is a 1970 song by Mountain about a Cajun woman visiting from Mississippi.
  • "Elvis Presley Was a Cajun" is a song from the 1991 Irish film The Commitments, in which a two-piece band plays along to the lyric "Elvis was a Cajun, he had a Cajun heart."
  • "Amos Moses" (1970), a song by Jerry Reed, is about a fictional one-armed alligator-hunting Cajun man.
  • "Perfect Day", a song by Lady Antebellum, starts off with the singer seeing "a Cajun man with a red guitar singing on the side of the street" and throwing "a handful of change in his beat-up case and [saying] play me a country beat".
  • "Cajun Hell", a song by American thrash metal band Exodus, from 1989 album Fabulous Disaster.

Notable people
For a more comprehensive list, see List of Cajuns.
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See also

References

Citations
  1. James Minahan (January 1, 2002). Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations: A-C. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 355. ISBN 978-0-313-32109-2.
  2. Valdman, Albert; Kevin J. Rottet, eds. (2009). Dictionary of Louisiana French: As Spoken in Cajun, Creole, and American Indian Communities. University Press of Mississippi. p. 98. ISBN 978-1-60473-404-1.
  3. Landry, Christophe. "A Creole Melting Pot: the Politics of Language, Race, and Identity in southwest Louisiana, 1918-45". Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  4. Carl A. Brasseaux, Acadian to Cajun: Transformation of a People. Jackson, Miss.: University Press of House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary, 2nd edition
  5. Cecyle Trepanier, "The Cajunization of French Louisiana: forging a regional identity". Geographical Journal (1991): 161-171.
  6. Morley, William F. E. (1979) [1966]. "Verrazzano, Giovanni da". In Brown, George Williams (ed.). Dictionary of Canadian Biography. I (1000–1700) (online ed.). University of Toronto Press.
  7. "ROACH v. DRESSER IND. VAL - 494 F.Supp. 215 (1980) - supp2151669 - Leagle.com".
  8. John Grenier, Far Reaches of Empire: War in Nova Scotia 1710–1760, Oklahoma Press. 2008
  9. Patterson, Stephen E. (1998). "Indian-White Relations in Nova Scotia, 1749-61: A Study in Political Interaction". In P.A. Buckner; Gail G. Campbell; David Frank (eds.). The Acadiensis Reader: Atlantic Canada Before Confederation (3rd ed.). Acadiensis Press. pp. 105-106. ISBN 978-0-919107-44-1.
    • Patterson, Stephen E. (1994). "1744–1763: Colonial Wars and Aboriginal Peoples". In Phillip Buckner; John G. Reid (eds.). The Atlantic Region to Confederation: A History. University of Toronto Press. p. 144. ISBN 978-1-4875-1676-5. JSTOR 10.3138/j.ctt15jjfrm.
  10. Gabriel Debien, "The Acadians in Santo-Domingo, 1764–1789" in: Glenn R. Conrad, ed., The Cajuns: Essays on their History and Culture, Lafayette, La., 1978, 21–96.
  11. "Carencro High School- Preparing Students for Life". Archived from the original on May 21, 2009. Retrieved May 3, 2016.
  12. "History:1755-Joseph Broussard dit Beausoleil (c. 1702–1765)". Archived from the original on May 20, 2009. Retrieved March 14, 2009.
  13. "Letter by Jean-Baptiste Semer, an Acadian in New Orleans, to His Father in Le Havre, April 20, 1766". Transl. Bey Grieve. Louisiana History 48 (spring 2007): 219–26 Link to full transcription of the Letter by Jean-Baptist Semer
  14. John Mack Faragher (2005). A Great and Noble Scheme: The Tragic Story of the Expulsion of the French Acadians from their American Homeland, New York: W. W. Norton, 562 pages ISBN 0-393-05135-8 Online excerpt
  15. "Acadia:Acadians:American Revolution:Acadian & French Canadian Ancestral Home". Retrieved May 3, 2016.
  16. Haarmann, Albert (October 1960). "The Spanish Conquest of British West Florida, 1779–1781". The Florida Historical Quarterly. 39 (2): 112. JSTOR 30150253.
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  18. Brasseaux, Carl A. (1987). The Founding of New Acadia: The Beginnings of Acadian Life in Louisiana, 1765–1803. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press. pp. 91–92.
  19. Jean-Francois Mouhot (2009), Les Réfugiés Acadiens en France (1758–1785): L'Impossible Réintégration? Quebec: Septentrion, 456p.
  20. Landry, Christophe. "1792 Spanish Militia, Attakapas Post" (PDF).
  21. The Youth's Companion. 56. Summer 2019 [1883]. Missing or empty |title= (help)
  22. Arceneaux, William (1981). Acadian General Alfred Mouton and the Civil War.
  23. Thompson, Maurice (1888). The Story of Louisiana.
  24. Brasseaux, Carl (1992). Acadian to Cajun: Transformation of a People.
  25. "Cajun Surnames | RealCajunRecipes.com: la cuisine de maw-maw!". RealCajunRecipes.com. November 25, 2013. Retrieved August 2, 2019.
  26. "Creole pride | EvangelineToday.com | Ville Platte Gazette, Mamou Acadian Press, Basile Weekly | Evangeline Parish, La". archive.evangelinetoday.com. Retrieved August 2, 2019.
  27. Reaser, Jeffrey; Wilbanks, Eric; Wojcik, Karissa; Wolfram, Walt (March 15, 2018). Language Variety in the New South: Contemporary Perspectives on Change and Variation. UNC Press Books. ISBN 9781469638812.
  28. Tidwell, Michael. Bayou Farewell: The Rich Life and Tragic Death of Louisiana's Cajun Coast. Vintage Departures: New York, 2004.
  29. "Blue Collar Bayou: Louisiana Cajuns in the New Economy of Ethnicity". greenwood.com. Archived from the original on November 14, 2006.
  30. Desrosiers, Nicolas. "UQAM – Société canadienne d'étude du dix-huitième siècle – Programme". Retrieved May 3, 2016.
  31. Edwin W. Edwards Honorary Chair, Enlightenment Conference, Montreal, 18 Oct. 2014. October 21, 2014. Retrieved May 3, 2016 – via YouTube.
  32. Eaton, Fernin. "Introductory remarks by former four-term Louisiana Governor Edwin W. Edwards, Honorary Chair, Montreal Enlightenment Conference, October 18, 2014". Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  33. Art. XII, Sec. 4, Louisiana Constitution, 1974 http://senate.legis.state.la.us/documents/constitution/Article12.htm
  34. Hargrave, Lee (1982). "'Statutory' and 'Hortatory' Provisions of the Louisiana Constitution of 1974". Louisiana Law Review. 43 (3): 647–689.
  35. Fernin Eaton. "Edwin W. Edwards, four-term former Governor of Louisiana, to chair Enlightenment panel in Montreal". Retrieved May 3, 2016. Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  36. "GRAMMY.com". GRAMMY.com.
  37. Michael Stern (June 4, 2009). 500 Things to Eat Before It's Too Late: And the Very Best Places to Eat Them. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2009. ISBN 978-0-547-05907-5. Retrieved November 24, 2009.
  38. article from Louisiana Division of the Arts | Department of Culture, Recreation & Tourism – Louisiana Folklife Festival program books, the Louisiana Folklore Miscellany, the Smithsonian Folklife Festival program book
  39. Gaudet, Marcia. "Cultural Catholicism in Cajun-Creole Louisiana". Louisiana Folk Life.
  40. Hoyt-Goldsmith, Diane; Migdale, Lawrence (September 1995). Mardi Gras: a Cajun country celebration. Holiday House. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-8234-1184-9. fête de la quémande.
  41. The Simi Valley Cajun and Blues Music Festival

General sources
  • Hebert-Leiter, Maria, Becoming Cajun, Becoming American: The Acadian in American Literature from Longfellow to James Lee Burke. Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 2009. ISBN 978-0-8071-3435-1.
  • Jobb, Dean, The Cajuns: A People's Story of Exile and Triumph, John Wiley & Sons, 2005 (published in Canada as The Acadians: A People's Story of Exile and Triumph)
  • Fete De L'Assomption De La Vierge Marie, 15 aout 2015, 250 ans, L'Eglise Saint Martin du Tours et la foi Catholique, His Excellency Glen John Provost, D.D.
  • Homily of the Priest, St. Martin de Tours Roman Catholic Church, Friday of the Sixteenth Week in Ordinary Time, Year 2017 of the Gregorian Calendar (See Mt. 13:18–23—the Reading is in the Roman Missal for this day)
  • United States Conference of Catholic Bishops, Catechism of the Catholic Church, Statement number 1831
  • United States Conference of Catholic Bishops, New American Bible, copyright 1987, Book of James, Cpt. 1, Vs. 5
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