Lutheranism

Lutheranism is one of the largest branches of Protestantism that identifies with the teachings of Martin Luther, a 16th-century German reformer. Luther's efforts to reform the theology and practice of the church launched the Protestant Reformation. The reaction of the government and church authorities to the international spread of his writings, beginning with the 95 Theses, divided Western Christianity.[1]

The split between the Lutherans and the Catholics was made public and clear with the 1521 Edict of Worms: the edicts of the Diet condemned Luther and officially banned citizens of the Holy Roman Empire from defending or propagating his ideas, subjecting advocates of Lutheranism to forfeiture of all property, half of the seized property to be forfeit to the imperial government and the remaining half forfeit to the party who brought the accusation.[2]

The divide centered primarily on two points: the proper source of authority in the church, often called the formal principle of the Reformation, and the doctrine of justification, often called the material principle of Lutheran theology.[lower-alpha 1] Lutheranism advocates a doctrine of justification "by grace alone through faith alone on the basis of Scripture alone", the doctrine that scripture is the final authority on all matters of faith. This is in contrast to the belief of the Roman Catholic Church, defined at the Council of Trent, concerning authority coming from both the Scriptures and Tradition.[3]

Unlike Calvinism, Lutherans retain many of the liturgical practices and sacramental teachings of the pre-Reformation Church, with a particular emphasis on the Eucharist, or Lord's Supper. Lutheran theology differs from Reformed theology in Christology, divine grace, the purpose of God's Law, the concept of perseverance of the saints, and predestination.

Etymology

Luther's rose seal, a symbol of Lutheranism

The name Lutheran originated as a derogatory term used against Luther by German Scholastic theologian Dr. Johann Maier von Eck during the Leipzig Debate in July 1519.[4] Eck and other Roman Catholics followed the traditional practice of naming a heresy after its leader, thus labeling all who identified with the theology of Martin Luther as Lutherans.[2]

Martin Luther always disliked the term Lutheran, preferring the term Evangelical, which was derived from εὐαγγέλιον euangelion, a Greek word meaning "good news", i.e. "Gospel".[4] The followers of John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli, and other theologians linked to the Reformed tradition also used that term. To distinguish the two evangelical groups, others began to refer to the two groups as Evangelical Lutheran and Evangelical Reformed. As time passed by, the word Evangelical was dropped. Lutherans themselves began to use the term Lutheran in the middle of the 16th century, in order to distinguish themselves from other groups such as the Anabaptists and Calvinists.

In 1597, theologians in Wittenberg defined the title Lutheran as referring to the true church.[2]

History

Main article: History of Lutheranism

Further information: Reformation

Lutheranism has its roots in the work of Martin Luther, who sought to reform the Western Church to what he considered a more biblical foundation.[5][6]

Spread into northern Europe

Lutheranism spread through all of Scandinavia during the 16th century, as the monarch of Denmark–Norway (also ruling Iceland and the Faroe Islands) and the monarch of Sweden (also ruling Finland) adopted Lutheranism. Through Baltic-German and Swedish rule, Lutheranism also spread into Estonia and Latvia.

Since 1520, regular[7] Lutheran services have been held in Copenhagen. Under the reign of Frederick I (1523–33), Denmark–Norway remained officially Catholic. Although Frederick initially pledged to persecute Lutherans, he soon adopted a policy of protecting Lutheran preachers and reformers, the most significant being Hans Tausen.[8]

During Frederick's reign, Lutheranism made significant inroads in Denmark. At an open meeting in Copenhagen attended by King Christian III in 1536, the people shouted; "We will stand by the holy Gospel, and do not want such bishops anymore".[9] Frederick's son, the later Christian III, was openly Lutheran, which prevented his election to the throne upon his father's death in 1533. However, following his victory in the civil war that followed, in 1536 he became Christian III and advanced the Reformation in Denmark–Norway.

The constitution upon which the Danish Norwegian Church, according to the Church Ordinance, should rest was "The pure word of God, which is the Law and the Gospel".[10] It does not mention the[7] Augsburg Confession. The priests had to[7] understand the Holy Scripture well enough to preach and explain the Gospel and the Epistles for their congregations.

The youths were taught[11] from Luther's Small Catechism, available in Danish since 1532. They were taught to expect at the end of life:[7] "forgiving of their sins", "to be counted as just", and "the eternal life". Instruction is still similar.[12]

Title page of the Swedish Gustav Vasa Bible, translated by the Petri brothers, along with Laurentius Andreae

The first complete Bible in Danish was based on Martin Luther's translation into German. It was published in 1550, with 3,000 copies printed in the first edition; a second edition was published in 1589.[13] Unlike Catholicism, the Lutheran Church does not believe that tradition is a carrier of the "Word of God", or that only the communion of the Bishop of Rome has been entrusted to interpret the "Word of God".[7][14]

The Reformation in Sweden began with Olaus and Laurentius Petri, brothers who took the Reformation to Sweden after studying in Germany. They led Gustav Vasa, elected king in 1523, to Lutheranism. The pope's refusal to allow the replacement of an archbishop who had supported the invading forces opposing Gustav Vasa during the Stockholm Bloodbath led to the severing of any official connection between Sweden and the papacy in 1523.[8]

Four years later, at the Diet of Västerås, the king succeeded in forcing the diet to accept his dominion over the national church. The king was given possession of all church properties, as well as the church appointments and approval of the clergy. While this effectively granted official sanction to Lutheran ideas,[8] Lutheranism did not become official until 1593. At that time the Uppsala Synod declared Holy Scripture the sole guideline for faith, with four documents accepted as faithful and authoritative explanations of it: the Apostles' Creed, the Nicene Creed, the Athanasian Creed, and the unaltered Augsburg Confession of 1530.[15] Mikael Agricola's translation of the first Finnish New Testament was published in 1548.[16]

Counter-Reformation and controversies

After the death of Martin Luther in 1546, the Schmalkaldic War started out as a conflict between two German Lutheran rulers in 1547. Soon, Holy Roman Imperial forces joined the battle and conquered the members of the Schmalkaldic League, oppressing and exiling many German Lutherans as they enforced the terms of the Augsburg Interim. Religious freedom in some areas was secured for Lutherans through the Peace of Passau in 1552, and under the legal principle of Cuius regio, eius religio (the religion of the ruler was to dictate the religion of those ruled) and the Declaratio Ferdinandei (limited religious tolerance) clauses of the Peace of Augsburg in 1555.[17]

A Hundskirche replica

Religious disputes between the Crypto-Calvinists, Philippists, Sacramentarians, Ubiquitarians and Gnesio-Lutherans raged within Lutheranism during the middle of the 16th century. This finally ended with the resolution of the issues in the Formula of Concord. Large numbers of politically and religiously influential leaders met together, debated, and resolved these topics on the basis of Scripture, resulting in the Formula, which over 8,000 leaders signed. The Book of Concord replaced earlier, incomplete collections of doctrine, unifying all German Lutherans with identical doctrine and beginning the period of Lutheran Orthodoxy.

In lands where Catholicism was the state religion, Lutheranism was officially illegal, although enforcement varied. Until the end of the Counter-Reformation, some Lutherans worshipped secretly, such as at the Hundskirke (which translates as dog church or dog altar). It is a triangle-shaped Communion rock in a ditch between crosses in Paternion, Austria. The crowned serpent is possibly an allusion to Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor, while the dog possibly refers to Peter Canisius. Another figure interpreted as a snail carrying a church tower is possibly a metaphor for the Protestant church. Also on the rock is the number 1599 and a phrase translating as "thus gets in the world."[18]

Lutheran orthodoxy

Main article: Lutheran orthodoxy

The University of Jena around 1600. Jena was the center of Gnesio-Lutheran activity during the controversies leading up to the Formula of Concord and afterwards was a center of Lutheran Orthodoxy.

The historical period of Lutheran Orthodoxy is divided into three sections: Early Orthodoxy (1580–1600), High Orthodoxy (1600–1685), and Late Orthodoxy (1685–1730). Lutheran scholasticism developed gradually especially for the purpose of arguing with the Jesuits, and it was finally established by Johann Gerhard. Abraham Calovius represents the climax of the scholastic paradigm in orthodox Lutheranism. Other orthodox Lutheran theologians include Martin Chemnitz, Aegidius Hunnius, Leonhard Hutter, Nicolaus Hunnius, Jesper Rasmussen Brochmand, Salomo Glassius, Johann Hülsemann, Johann Conrad Dannhauer, Johannes Andreas Quenstedt, Johann Friedrich König, and Johann Wilhelm Baier.

Near the end of the Thirty Years' War, the compromising spirit seen in Philip Melanchthon rose up again in Helmstedt School and especially in theology of Georgius Calixtus, causing the syncretistic controversy. Another theological issue that arose was the Crypto-Kenotic controversy.[19]

Danish Queen Sophie Magdalene expressed her Pietist sentiment in 1737 by founding a Lutheran convent.

Late orthodoxy was torn by influences from rationalism, philosophy based on reason, and Pietism, a revival movement in Lutheranism. After a century of vitality, the Pietist theologians Philipp Jakob Spener and August Hermann Francke warned that orthodoxy had degenerated into meaningless intellectualism and formalism, while orthodox theologians found the emotional and subjective focuses of Pietism to be vulnerable to Rationalist propaganda.[20] In 1688, the Finnish Radical Pietist Lars Ulstadius ran down the main aisle of Turku Cathedral naked while screaming that the disgrace of Finnish clergymen would be revealed, like his current disgrace.

The last famous orthodox Lutheran theologian before the rationalist Aufklärung, or Enlightenment, was David Hollatz. Late orthodox theologian Valentin Ernst Löscher took part in the controversy against Pietism. Medieval mystical traditions continued in the works of Martin Moller, Johann Arndt, and Joachim Lütkemann. Pietism became a rival of orthodoxy but adopted some devotional literature by orthodox theologians, including Arndt, Christian Scriver and Stephan Prätorius.

Rationalism

Rationalist philosophers from France and England had an enormous impact during the 18th century, along with the German Rationalists Christian Wolff, Gottfried Leibniz, and Immanuel Kant. Their work led to an increase in rationalist beliefs, "at the expense of faith in God and agreement with the Bible".[20]

In 1709, Valentin Ernst Löscher warned that this new Rationalist view of the world fundamentally changed society by drawing into question every aspect of theology. Instead of considering the authority of divine revelation, he explained, Rationalists relied solely on their personal understanding when searching for truth.[21]

Johann Melchior Goeze (1717–1786), pastor of St. Catherine's Church, Hamburg, wrote apologetical works against Rationalists, including a theological and historical defence against the historical criticism of the Bible.[22]

Dissenting Lutheran pastors were often reprimanded by the government bureaucracy overseeing them, for example, when they tried to correct Rationalist influences in the parish school.[23] As a result of the impact of a local form of rationalism, termed Neology, by the latter half of the 18th century, genuine piety was found almost solely in small Pietist conventicles.[20] However, some of the laity preserved Lutheran orthodoxy from both Pietism and rationalism through reusing old catechisms, hymnbooks, postils, and devotional writings, including those written by Johann Gerhard, Heinrich Müller and Christian Scriver.[24]

Revivals

A nineteenth-century Haugean conventicle.

A layman, Luther scholar Johann Georg Hamann (1730–1788), became famous for countering Rationalism and striving to advance a revival known as the Erweckung, or Awakening.[25] In 1806, Napoleon's invasion of Germany promoted Rationalism and angered German Lutherans, stirring up a desire among the people to preserve Luther's theology from the Rationalist threat. Those associated with this Awakening held that reason was insufficient and pointed out the importance of emotional religious experiences.[26][27]

Small groups sprang up, often in universities, which devoted themselves to Bible study, reading devotional writings, and revival meetings. Although the beginning of this Awakening tended heavily toward Romanticism, patriotism, and experience, the emphasis of the Awakening shifted around 1830 to restoring the traditional liturgy, doctrine, and confessions of the Lutheran church in the Neo-Lutheran movement.[26][27]

This Awakening swept through all of Scandinavia though not Iceland.[28] It developed from both German Neo-Lutheranism and Pietism. Danish pastor and philosopher N. F. S. Grundtvig reshaped church life throughout Denmark through a reform movement beginning in 1830. He also wrote about 1,500 hymns, including God's Word Is Our Great Heritage.[29]

In Norway, Hans Nielsen Hauge, a lay street preacher, emphasized spiritual discipline and sparked the Haugean movement,[30] which was followed by the Johnsonian Awakening within the state-church.[31] The Awakening drove the growth of foreign missions in Norway to non-Christians to a new height, which has never been reached since.[28] In Sweden, Lars Levi Læstadius began the Laestadian movement that emphasized moral reform.[30] In Finland, a farmer, Paavo Ruotsalainen, began the Finnish Awakening when he took to preaching about repentance and prayer.[30]

The Olbers, one of the ships that carried Old Lutherans to the Western Hemisphere.

In 1817, Frederick William III of Prussia ordered the Lutheran and Reformed churches in his territory to unite, forming the Prussian Union of Churches. The unification of the two branches of German Protestantism sparked the Schism of the Old Lutherans. Many Lutherans, called "Old Lutherans", chose to leave the state churches despite imprisonment and military force.[25] Some formed independent church bodies, or "free churches", at home while others left for the United States, Canada and Australia. A similar legislated merger in Silesia prompted thousands to join the Old Lutheran movement. The dispute over ecumenism overshadowed other controversies within German Lutheranism.[32]

Despite political meddling in church life, local and national leaders sought to restore and renew Christianity. Neo-Lutheran Johann Konrad Wilhelm Löhe and Old Lutheran free church leader Friedrich August Brünn[33] both sent young men overseas to serve as pastors to German Americans, while the Inner Mission focused on renewing the situation home.[34] Johann Gottfried Herder, superintendent at Weimar and part of the Inner Mission movement, joined with the Romantic movement with his quest to preserve human emotion and experience from Rationalism.[35]

Ernst Wilhelm Hengstenberg, though raised Reformed, became convinced of the truth of historic Lutheranism as a young man.[36] He led the Neo-Lutheran Repristination School of theology, which advocated a return to the orthodox theologians of the 17th century and opposed modern Bible scholarship.[37] As editor of the periodical Evangelische Kirchenzeitung, he developed it into a major support of Neo-Lutheran revival and used it to attack all forms of theological liberalism and rationalism. Although he received a large amount of slander and ridicule during his forty years at the head of revival, he never gave up his positions.[36]

The theological faculty at the University of Erlangen in Bavaria became another force for reform.[36] There, professor Adolf von Harless, though previously an adherent of rationalism and German idealism, made Erlangen a magnet for revival oriented theologians.[38] Termed the Erlangen School of theology, they developed a new version of the Incarnation,[38] which they felt emphasized the humanity of Jesus better than the ecumenical creeds.[39] As theologians, they used both modern historical critical and Hegelian philosophical methods instead of attempting to revive the orthodoxy of the 17th century.[40]

Friedrich Julius Stahl led the High Church Lutherans. Though raised a Jew, he was baptized as a Christian at the age of 19 through the influence of the Lutheran school he attended. As the leader of a neofeudal Prussian political party, he campaigned for the divine right of kings, the power of the nobility, and episcopal polity for the church. Along with Theodor Kliefoth and August Friedrich Christian Vilmar, he promoted agreement with the Roman Catholic Church with regard to the authority of the institutional church, ex opere operato effectiveness of the sacraments, and the divine authority of clergy. Unlike Catholics, however, they also urged complete agreement with the Book of Concord.[39]

Representing the continuation of the Finnish Awakening to the present, youth are confirmed at the site of Paavo Ruotsalainen's homestead.

The Neo-Lutheran movement managed to slow secularism and counter atheistic Marxism, but it did not fully succeed in Europe.[34] It partly succeeded in continuing the Pietist movement's drive to right social wrongs and focus on individual conversion. The Neo-Lutheran call to renewal failed to achieve widespread popular acceptance because it both began and continued with a lofty, idealistic Romanticism that did not connect with an increasingly industrialized and secularized Europe.[41] At best, the work of local leaders resulted in specific areas with vibrant spiritual renewal, but people in Lutheran areas overall continued to become increasingly distant from church life.[34] Additionally, the revival movements were divided by philosophical traditions. The Repristination school and Old Lutherans tended towards Kantianism, while the Erlangen school promoted a conservative Hegelian perspective. By 1969, Manfried Kober complained that "unbelief is rampant" even within German Lutheran parishes.[42]

Doctrine

Bible

Luther's translation of the Bible, from 1534

Moses and Elijah point the sinner looking for God's salvation to the cross to find it (Theology of the Cross).

Traditionally, Lutherans hold the Bible of the Old and New Testaments to be the only divinely inspired book, the only source of divinely revealed knowledge, and the only norm for Christian teaching.[43] Scripture alone is the formal principle of the faith, the final authority for all matters of faith and morals because of its inspiration, authority, clarity, efficacy, and sufficiency.[44]

The authority of the Scriptures has been challenged during the history of Lutheranism. Martin Luther taught that the Bible was the written Word of God, and the only reliable guide for faith and practice. He held that every passage of Scripture has one straightforward meaning, the literal sense as interpreted by other Scripture.[45] These teachings were accepted during the orthodox Lutheranism of the 17th century.[46] During the 18th century, Rationalism advocated reason rather than the authority of the Bible as the final source of knowledge, but most of the laity did not accept this Rationalist position.[47] In the 19th century, a confessional revival re-emphasized the authority of the Bible and agreement with the Lutheran Confessions.

Today, Lutherans disagree about the inspiration and authority of the Bible. Theological conservatives use the historical-grammatical method of Biblical interpretation, while theological liberals use the higher critical method. The 2008 U.S. Religious Landscape Survey conducted by the Pew Research Center surveyed 1,926 adults in the United States that self-identified as Lutheran. The study found that 30% believed that the Bible was the Word of God and was to be taken literally word for word. 40% held that the Bible was the Word of God, but was not literally true word for word or were unsure if it was literally true word for word. 23% said the Bible was written by men and not the Word of God. 7% did not know, were not sure, or had other positions.[48]

Inspiration

Although many Lutherans today hold less specific views of inspiration, historically, Lutherans affirm that the Bible does not merely contain the Word of God, but every word of it is, because of plenary, verbal inspiration, the direct, immediate word of God.[49] The Apology of the Augsburg Confession identifies Holy Scripture with the Word of God[50] and calls the Holy Spirit the author of the Bible.[51] Because of this, Lutherans confess in the Formula of Concord, "we receive and embrace with our whole heart the prophetic and apostolic Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments as the pure, clear fountain of Israel."[52] The apocryphal books were not written by the prophets nor by inspiration; they contain errors[53] and were never included in the Judean Canon that Jesus used;[54] therefore they are not a part of Holy Scripture.[55] The prophetic and apostolic Scriptures are authentic as written by the prophets and apostles. A correct translation of their writings is God's Word because it has the same meaning as the original Hebrew and Greek.[55] A mistranslation is not God's word, and no human authority can invest it with divine authority.[55]

Clarity

Historically, Lutherans understand the Bible to present all doctrines and commands of the Christian faith clearly.[56] In addition, Lutherans believe that God's Word is freely accessible to every reader or hearer of ordinary intelligence, without requiring any special education.[57] A Lutheran must understand the language that scriptures are presented in, and should not be so preoccupied by error so as to prevent understanding.[58] As a result of this, Lutherans do not believe there is a need to wait for any clergy, pope, scholar, or ecumenical council to explain the real meaning of any part of the Bible.[59]

Efficacy

Lutherans confess that Scripture is united with the power of the Holy Spirit and with it, not only demands, but also creates the acceptance of its teaching.[60] This teaching produces faith and obedience. Holy Scripture is not a dead letter, but rather, the power of the Holy Spirit is inherent in it.[61] Scripture does not compel a mere intellectual assent to its doctrine, resting on logical argumentation, but rather it creates the living agreement of faith.[62] As the Smalcald Articles affirm, "in those things which concern the spoken, outward Word, we must firmly hold that God grants His Spirit or grace to no one, except through or with the preceding outward Word."[63]

Sufficiency

Law and Grace, by Lucas Cranach the Elder. The left side shows humans' condemnation under God's law, while the right side presents God's grace in Christ.

Lutherans are confident that the Bible contains everything that one needs to know in order to obtain salvation and to live a Christian life.[64] There are no deficiencies in Scripture that need to be filled with by tradition, pronouncements of the Pope, new revelations, or present-day development of doctrine.[65]

Law and Gospel

Lutherans understand the Bible as containing two distinct types of content, termed Law and Gospel (or Law and Promises).[66] Properly distinguishing between Law and Gospel prevents the obscuring of the Gospel teaching of justification by grace through faith alone.[67]

The Lutheran Confessions

The Book of Concord, published in 1580, contains ten documents which some Lutherans believe are faithful and authoritative explanations of Holy Scripture. Besides the three Ecumenical Creeds, which date to Roman times, the Book of Concord contains seven credal documents articulating Lutheran theology in the Reformation era.

Title Page from the 1580 Dresden Book of Concord

The doctrinal positions of Lutheran churches are not uniform because the Book of Concord does not hold the same position in all Lutheran churches. For example, the state churches in Scandinavia consider only the Augsburg Confession as a "summary of the faith" in addition to the three ecumenical Creeds.[68] Lutheran pastors, congregations, and church bodies in Germany and the Americas usually agree to teach in harmony with the entire Lutheran Confessions. Some Lutheran church bodies require this pledge to be unconditional because they believe the confessions correctly state what the Bible teaches. Others allow their congregations to do so "insofar as" the Confessions are in agreement with the Bible.

In addition, Lutherans accept the teachings of the first seven ecumenical councils of the Christian Church.[69][70] The Augsburg Confession teaches that "the faith as confessed by Luther and his followers is nothing new, but the true catholic faith, and that their churches represent the true catholic or universal church".[71] When the Lutherans presented the Augsburg Confession to Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, they explained "that each article of faith and practice was true first of all to Holy Scripture, and then also to the teaching of the church fathers and the councils."[71]

Justification

Lutherans believe that whoever has faith in Jesus alone will receive salvation from the grace of God and will enter eternity in heaven instead of eternity in hell after death or at the second coming of Jesus.

The key doctrine, or material principle, of Lutheranism is the doctrine of justification. Lutherans believe that humans are saved from their sins by God's grace alone (Sola Gratia), through faith alone (Sola Fide), on the basis of Scripture alone (Sola Scriptura). Orthodox Lutheran theology holds that God made the world, including humanity, perfect, holy and sinless. However, Adam and Eve chose to disobey God, trusting in their own strength, knowledge, and wisdom.[72][73] Consequently, people are saddled with original sin, born sinful and unable to avoid committing sinful acts.[74] For Lutherans, original sin is the "chief sin, a root and fountainhead of all actual sins."[75]

Lutherans teach that sinners, while capable of doing works that are outwardly "good", are not capable of doing works that satisfy God's justice.[76] Every human thought and deed is infected with sin and sinful motives.[77] Because of this, all humanity deserves eternal damnation in hell.[78] God in eternity has turned His Fatherly heart to this world and planned for its redemption because he loves all people and does not want anyone to be eternally damned.[79]

To this end, "God sent his Son Jesus Christ, our Lord, into the world to redeem and deliver us from the power of the devil, and to bring us to Himself, and to govern us as a King of righteousness, life, and salvation against sin, death, and an evil conscience," as Luther's Large Catechism explains.[80] Because of this, Lutherans teach that salvation is possible only because of the grace of God made manifest in the birth, life, suffering, death, and resurrection, and continuing presence by the power of the Holy Spirit, of Jesus Christ.[81] By God's grace, made known and effective in the person and work of Jesus Christ, a person is forgiven, adopted as a child and heir of God, and given eternal salvation.[82] Christ, because he was entirely obedient to the law with respect to both his human and divine natures, "is a perfect satisfaction and reconciliation of the human race," as the Formula of Concord asserts, and proceeds to summarize:[83]

[Christ] submitted to the law for us, bore our sin, and in going to his Father performed complete and perfect obedience for us poor sinners, from his holy birth to his death. Thereby he covered all our disobedience, which is embedded in our nature and in its thoughts, words, and deeds, so that this disobedience is not reckoned to us as condemnation but is pardoned and forgiven by sheer grace, because of Christ alone.

Lutherans believe that individuals receive this gift of salvation through faith alone.[84] Saving faith is the knowledge of,[85] acceptance of,[86] and trust[87] in the promise of the Gospel.[88] Even faith itself is seen as a gift of God, created in the hearts of Christians[89] by the work of the Holy Spirit through the Word[90] and Baptism.[91] Faith receives the gift of salvation rather than causes salvation.[92] Thus, Lutherans reject the "decision theology" which is common among modern evangelicals.

Since the term grace has been defined differently by other Christian church bodies (e.g. Roman Catholicism[93]) it is important to note that Lutheranism defines grace as entirely limited to God's gifts to us. Justification comes as a pure gift, not something we merit by changed behavior or in which we cooperate. Grace is not about our response to God's gifts, but only His gifts.

Trinity

Lutherans believe in the Trinity

Lutherans are Trinitarian. Lutherans reject the idea that the Father and God the Son are merely faces of the same person, stating that both the Old Testament and the New Testament show them to be two distinct persons.[94] Lutherans believe the Holy Spirit proceeds from both the Father and the Son.[95] In the words of the Athanasian Creed: "We worship one God in Trinity, and Trinity in Unity; Neither confounding the Persons, nor dividing the Substance. For there is one Person of the Father, another of the Son, and another of the Holy Ghost. But the Godhead of the Father, of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost is all one: the glory equal, the majesty coeternal."[96]

Two natures of Christ

Main article: Scholastic Lutheran Christology

Lutherans believe Jesus is the Christ, the savior promised in the Old Testament. They believe he is both by nature God and by nature man in one person, as they confess in Luther's Small Catechism that he is "true God begotten of the Father from eternity and also true man born of the Virgin Mary".[97]

The Augsburg Confession explains:[98]

[T]he Son of God, did assume the human nature in the womb of the blessed Virgin Mary, so that there are two natures, the divine and the human, inseparably enjoined in one Person, one Christ, true God and true man, who was born of the Virgin Mary, truly suffered, was crucified, dead, and buried, that He might reconcile the Father unto us, and be a sacrifice, not only for original guilt, but also for all actual sins of men.

Sacraments

Main article: Lutheran sacraments

A.C. Article IX: Of Confession[99]

Lutherans hold that sacraments are sacred acts of divine institution.[100] Whenever they are properly administered by the use of the physical component commanded by God[101] along with the divine words of institution,[102] God is, in a way specific to each sacrament, present with the Word and physical component.[103] He earnestly offers to all who receive the sacrament[104] forgiveness of sins[105] and eternal salvation.[106] He also works in the recipients to get them to accept these blessings and to increase the assurance of their possession.[107]

Lutherans are not dogmatic about the number of the sacraments.[108] In line with Luther's initial statement in his Large Catechism some speak of only two sacraments,[109] Baptism and Holy Communion, although later in the same work he calls Confession and Absolution[110] "the third sacrament."[111] The definition of sacrament in the Apology of the Augsburg Confession lists Absolution as one of them.[112] With the exception of Laestadian Lutherans, Private Confession is not practiced among Lutherans as often as in the Catholic Church. Rather, it is expected before receiving the Eucharist for the first time.[113][114] Some churches also allow for individual absolution on Saturdays before the Eucharistic service.[115] A general confession and absolution (known as the Penitential Rite) is proclaimed in the Eucharistic liturgy.

Baptism

Lutherans practice infant baptism

Lutherans hold that Baptism is a saving work of God,[116] mandated and instituted by Jesus Christ.[117] Baptism is a "means of grace" through which God creates and strengthens "saving faith" as the "washing of regeneration"[118] in which infants and adults are reborn.[119] Since the creation of faith is exclusively God's work, it does not depend on the actions of the one baptized, whether infant or adult. Even though baptized infants cannot articulate that faith, Lutherans believe that it is present all the same.[120]

It is faith alone that receives these divine gifts, so Lutherans confess that baptism "works forgiveness of sins, delivers from death and the devil, and gives eternal salvation to all who believe this, as the words and promises of God declare."[121] Lutherans hold fast to the Scripture cited in 1 Peter 3:21, "Baptism, which corresponds to this, now saves you, not as a removal of dirt from the body but as an appeal to God for a good conscience, through the resurrection of Jesus Christ."[122] Therefore, Lutherans administer Baptism to both infants[123] and adults.[124] In the special section on infant baptism in his Large Catechism, Luther argues that infant baptism is God-pleasing because persons so baptized were reborn and sanctified by the Holy Spirit.[125][126]

Eucharist

Luther communing John the Steadfast

Lutherans hold that within the Eucharist, also referred to as the Sacrament of the Altar, the Mass, or the Lord's Supper, the true body and blood of Christ are truly present "in, with, and under the forms" of the consecrated bread and wine for all those who eat and drink it,[127] a doctrine that the Formula of Concord calls the sacramental union.[128]

Confession

Main article: Confession (Lutheran Church)

Many Lutherans receive the sacrament of penance before receiving the Eucharist.[129][115] Prior to going to Confessing and receiving Absolution, the faithful are expected to examine their lives in light of the Ten Commandments.[114] An order of Confession and Absolution is contained in the Small Catechism, as well as in liturgical books.[114] Lutherans typically kneel at the communion rails to confess their sins, while the confessor listens and then offers absolution while laying their stole on the penitent's head.[114] Clergy are prohibited from revealing anything said during private Confession and Absolution per the Seal of the Confessional, and face excommunication if it is violated. Apart from this, Laestadian Lutherans have a practice of lay confession.[130]

Conversion

In Lutheranism, conversion or regeneration in the strict sense of the term is the work of divine grace and power by which man, born of the flesh, and void of all power to think, to will, or to do any good thing, and dead in sin is, through the gospel and holy baptism, taken from a state of sin and spiritual death under God's wrath into a state of spiritual life of faith and grace, rendered able to will and to do what is spiritually good and, especially, made to trust in the benefits of the redemption which is in Christ Jesus.[131]

During conversion, one is moved from impenitence to repentance. The Augsburg Confession divides repentance into two parts: "One is contrition, that is, terrors smiting the conscience through the knowledge of sin; the other is faith, which is born of the Gospel, or of absolution, and believes that for Christ's sake, sins are forgiven, comforts the conscience, and delivers it from terrors."[132]

Predestination

A.C. Article 18: Of Free Will

Lutherans adhere to divine monergism, the teaching that salvation is by God's act alone, and therefore reject the idea that humans in their fallen state have a free will concerning spiritual matters.[133] Lutherans believe that although humans have free will concerning civil righteousness, they cannot work spiritual righteousness in the heart without the presence and aid of the Holy Spirit.[134][135] Lutherans believe Christians are "saved";[136] that all who trust in Christ alone and his promises can be certain of their salvation.[137]

According to Lutheranism, the central final hope of the Christian is "the resurrection of the body and the life everlasting" as confessed in the Apostles' Creed rather than predestination. Lutherans disagree with those who make predestination—rather than Christ's suffering, death, and resurrection—the source of salvation. Unlike some Calvinists, Lutherans do not believe in a predestination to damnation,[138] usually referencing "God our Savior, who desires all people to be saved and to come to the knowledge of the truth"[139] as contrary evidence to such a claim. Instead, Lutherans teach eternal damnation is a result of the unbeliever's sins, rejection of the forgiveness of sins, and unbelief.[140]

Divine providence

According to Lutherans, God preserves his creation, cooperates with everything that happens, and guides the universe.[141] While God cooperates with both good and evil deeds, with evil deeds he does so only inasmuch as they are deeds, but not with the evil in them. God concurs with an act's effect, but he does not cooperate in the corruption of an act or the evil of its effect.[142] Lutherans believe everything exists for the sake of the Christian Church, and that God guides everything for its welfare and growth.[143]

The explanation of the Apostles' Creed given in the Small Catechism declares that everything good that people have is given and preserved by God, either directly or through other people or things.[144] Of the services others provide us through family, government, and work, "we receive these blessings not from them, but, through them, from God."[145] Since God uses everyone's useful tasks for good, people should not look down upon some useful vocations as being less worthy than others. Instead people should honor others, no matter how lowly, as being the means God uses to work in the world.[145]

The Broad and the Narrow Way, a popular German Pietist painting, 1866

Good works

Lutherans believe that good works are the fruit of faith,[146] always and in every instance.[147] Good works have their origin in God,[148] not in the fallen human heart or in human striving;[149] their absence would demonstrate that faith, too, is absent.[150] Lutherans do not believe that good works are a factor in obtaining salvation; they believe that we are saved by the grace of God—based on the merit of Christ in his suffering and death—and faith in the Triune God. Good works are the natural result of faith, not the cause of salvation. Although Christians are no longer compelled to keep God's law, they freely and willingly serve God and their neighbors.[151]

"Even though I am a sinner and deserving of death and hell, this shall nonetheless be my consolation and my victory that my Lord Jesus lives and has risen so that He, in the end, might rescue me from sin, death, and hell."—Luther[152]

Judgment and eternal life

Lutherans do not believe in any sort of earthly millennial kingdom of Christ either before or after his second coming on the last day.[153] Lutherans teach that, at death, the souls of Christians are immediately taken into the presence of Jesus,[154] where they await the second coming of Jesus on the last day.[155] On the last day,[156] all the bodies of the dead will be resurrected.[157]

Their souls will then be reunited with the same bodies they had before dying.[158] The bodies will then be changed, those of the wicked to a state of everlasting shame and torment,[159] those of the righteous to an everlasting state of celestial glory.[160] After the resurrection of all the dead,[161] and the change of those still living,[162] all nations shall be gathered before Christ,[163] and he will separate the righteous from the wicked.[164]

Christ will publicly judge[165] all people by the testimony of their deeds,[166] the good works[167] of the righteous in evidence of their faith,[168] and the evil works of the wicked in evidence of their unbelief.[169] He will judge in righteousness[170] in the presence of all people and angels,[171] and his final judgment will be just damnation to everlasting punishment for the wicked and a gracious gift of life everlasting to the righteous.[172]

Protestant beliefs about salvation
This table summarizes the classical views of three Protestant beliefs about salvation.[173]
Topic	Calvinism	Lutheranism	Arminianism
Human will	Total depravity:[174] Humanity possesses "free will",[175] but it is in bondage to sin,[176] until it is "transformed".[177]	Original Sin:[174] Humanity possesses free will in regard to "goods and possessions", but is sinful by nature and unable to contribute to its own salvation.[178][179][180]	Total depravity: Humanity possesses freedom from necessity, but not "freedom from sin” unless enabled by "prevenient grace".[181]
Election	Unconditional election.	Unconditional election.[174][182]	Conditional election in view of foreseen faith or unbelief.[183]
Justification and atonement	Justification by faith alone. Various views regarding the extent of the atonement.[184]	Justification for all men,[185] completed at Christ's death and effective through faith alone.[186][187][188][189]	Justification made possible for all through Christ's death, but only completed upon choosing faith in Jesus.[190]
Conversion	Monergistic,[191] through the means of grace, irresistible.	Monergistic,[192][193] through the means of grace, resistible.[194]	Synergistic, resistible due to the common grace of free will.[195] However, irresistible conversion is possible.[196]
Perseverance and apostasy	Perseverance of the saints: the eternally elect in Christ will certainly persevere in faith.[197]	Falling away is possible,[198] but God gives gospel assurance.[199][200]	Preservation is conditional upon continued faith in Christ; with the possibility of a final apostasy.[201]

Practices

Luther composed hymns and hymn tunes, including "Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott" ("A Mighty Fortress Is Our God")

Liturgy

Further information: Lutheran art, Lutheran hymn, Lutheran chorale, and Hymnody of continental Europe § Reformation

Lutherans place great emphasis on a liturgical approach to worship services;[202] although there are substantial non-liturgical minorities, for example, the Haugean Lutherans from Norway. Martin Luther was a great fan of music, and this is why it forms a large part of Lutheran services; in particular, Luther admired the composers Josquin des Prez and Ludwig Senfl and wanted singing in the church to move away from the ars perfecta (Catholic Sacred Music of the late Renaissance) and towards singing as a Gemeinschaft (community).[203] Lutheran hymns are sometimes known as chorales. Lutheran hymnody is well known for its doctrinal, didactic, and musical richness. Most Lutheran churches are active musically with choirs, handbell choirs, children's choirs, and occasionally change ringing groups that ring bells in a bell tower. Johann Sebastian Bach, a devout Lutheran, composed music for the Lutheran church.

Divine Service at the St. Nicholas church in Luckau, Germany

Lutherans also preserve a liturgical approach to the celebration of the Mass (or the Holy Eucharist/Communion), emphasizing the sacrament as the central act of Christian worship. Lutherans believe that the actual body and blood of Jesus Christ are present in, with and under the bread and the wine. This belief is called Real Presence or sacramental union and is different from consubstantiation and transubstantiation. Additionally Lutherans reject the idea that communion is a mere symbol or memorial. They confess in the Apology of the Augsburg Confession:

[W]e do not abolish the Mass but religiously keep and defend it. Among us the Mass is celebrated every Lord's Day and on other festivals, when the Sacrament is made available to those who wish to partake of it, after they have been examined and absolved. We also keep traditional liturgical forms, such as the order of readings, prayers, vestments, and other similar things.[204]

Besides the Holy Communion (Divine Service), congregations also hold offices, which are worship services without communion. They may include Matins, Vespers, Compline, and Easter Vigil. Private or family offices include the Morning and Evening Prayers from Luther's Small Catechism.[205] Meals are blessed with the Common table prayer, Psalm 145:15–16, or other prayers, and after eating the Lord is thanked, for example, with Psalm 136:1. Luther himself encouraged the use of Psalm verses, such as those already mentioned, along with the Lord's Prayer and another short prayer before and after each meal: Blessing and Thanks at Meals from Luther's Small Catechism.[205] In addition, Lutherans use devotional books, from small daily devotionals, for example, Portals of Prayer, to large breviaries, including the Breviarium Lipsiensae and Treasury of Daily Prayer.

Ukrainian Lutheran Church of the Cross of the Lord in Kremenets, which uses the Byzantine Rite

The predominant rite used by the Lutheran Churches is a Western one based on the Formula missae ("Form of the Mass") although other Lutheran liturgies are also in use, such as those used in the Byzantine Rite Lutheran Churches, such as the Ukrainian Lutheran Church and Evangelical Church of the Augsburg Confession in Slovenia.[206] Although Luther's Deutsche Messe was completely chanted except for the sermon, this is usually not the case today.

In the 1970s, many Lutheran churches began holding contemporary worship services for the purpose of evangelistic outreach. These services were in a variety of styles, depending on the preferences of the congregation. Often they were held alongside a traditional service in order to cater to those who preferred contemporary worship music. Today, few but some Lutheran congregations have contemporary worship as their sole form of worship. Outreach is no longer given as the primary motivation; rather this form of worship is seen as more in keeping with the desires of individual congregations.[207] In Finland, Lutherans have experimented with the St Thomas Mass and Metal Mass in which traditional hymns are adapted to heavy metal. Some Laestadians enter a heavily emotional and ecstatic state during worship. The Lutheran World Federation, in its Nairobi Statement on Worship and Culture, recommended every effort be made to bring church services into a more sensitive position with regard to cultural context.[208]

In 2006, both the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA) and the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod (LCMS), in cooperation with certain foreign English speaking church bodies within their respective fellowships, released new hymnals: Evangelical Lutheran Worship (ELCA) and Lutheran Service Book (LCMS). Along with these, the most widely used among English speaking congregations include: Evangelical Lutheran Hymnary (1996, Evangelical Lutheran Synod), The Lutheran Book of Worship (1978, Lutheran Council in the United States of America), Lutheran Worship (1982, LCMS), Christian Worship (1993, Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod), and The Lutheran Hymnal (1941, Evangelical Lutheran Synodical Conference of North America). In the Lutheran Church of Australia, the official hymnal is the Lutheran Hymnal with Supplement of 1986, which includes a supplement to the Lutheran Hymnal of 1973, itself a replacement for the Australian Lutheran Hymn Book of 1921. Prior to this time, the two Lutheran church bodies in Australia (which merged in 1966) used a bewildering variety of hymnals, usually in the German language. Spanish-speaking ELCA churches frequently use Libro de Liturgia y Cántico (1998, Augsburg Fortress) for services and hymns. For a more complete list, see List of English language Lutheran hymnals.

Missions

Christ Lutheran Church, Narsapur in India

Sizable Lutheran missions arose for the first time during the 19th century. Early missionary attempts during the century after the Reformation did not succeed. However, European traders brought Lutheranism to Africa beginning in the 17th century as they settled along the coasts. During the first half of the 19th century, missionary activity in Africa expanded, including preaching by missionaries, translation of the Bible, and education.[209]

Lutheranism came to India beginning with the work of Bartholomäus Ziegenbalg, where a community totaling several thousand developed, complete with their own translation of the Bible, catechism, their own hymnal, and system of Lutheran schools. In the 1840s, this church experienced a revival through the work of the Leipzig Mission, including Karl Graul.[210] After German missionaries were expelled in 1914, Lutherans in India became entirely autonomous, yet preserved their Lutheran character. In recent years India has relaxed its anti-religious conversion laws, allowing a resurgence in missionary work.

In Latin America, missions began to serve European immigrants of Lutheran background, both those who spoke German and those who no longer did. These churches in turn began to evangelize those in their areas who were not of European background, including indigenous peoples.[211]

In 1892, the first Lutheran missionaries reached Japan. Although work began slowly and a major setback occurred during the hardships of WWII.[212] Lutheranism there has survived and become self-sustaining.[213] After missionaries to China, including those of the Lutheran Church of China, were expelled, they began ministry in Taiwan and Hong Kong, the latter which became a center of Lutheranism in Asia.[213]

The Lutheran Mission in New Guinea, though founded only in 1953, became the largest Lutheran mission in the world in only several decades. Through the work of native lay evangelists, many tribes of diverse languages were reached with the Gospel.[213]

Today the Lutheran World Federation operates Lutheran World Relief, a relief and development agency active in more than 50 countries.

Education

Resurrection Lutheran School is a parochial school of the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod (WELS) in Rochester, MN. The WELS school system is the fourth largest private school system in the United States.[214]

Catechism instruction is considered foundational in most Lutheran churches. Almost all maintain Sunday Schools, and some host or maintain Lutheran schools, at the preschool, elementary, middle, high school, folk high school, or university level. Lifelong study of the catechism is intended for all ages so that the abuses of the pre-Reformation Church will not recur.[215] Lutheran schools have always been a core aspect of Lutheran mission work, starting with Bartholomew Ziegenbalg and Heinrich Putschasu, who began work in India in year 1706.[216] During the Counter-Reformation era in German speaking areas, backstreet Lutheran schools were the main Lutheran institution among crypto-Lutherans.[217]

Pastors almost always have substantial theological educations, including Koine Greek and Biblical Hebrew so that they can refer to the Christian scriptures in the original language. Pastors usually teach in the common language of the local congregation. In the U.S., some congregations and synods historically taught in German, Danish, Finnish, Norwegian, or Swedish, but retention of immigrant languages has been in significant decline since the early and middle 20th century.

Church fellowship

Lutherans were divided about the issue of church fellowship for the first thirty years after Luther's death. Philipp Melanchthon and his Philippist party felt that Christians of different beliefs should join in union with each other without completely agreeing on doctrine. Against them stood the Gnesio-Lutherans, led by Matthias Flacius and the faculty at the University of Jena. They condemned the Philippist position for indifferentism, describing it as a "unionistic compromise" of precious Reformation theology. Instead, they held that genuine unity between Christians and real theological peace was only possible with an honest agreement about every subject of doctrinal controversy.[218]

Georg Calixtus taught at the University of Helmstedt during the Syncretistic controversy.

Complete agreement finally came about in 1577, after the death of both Melanchthon and Flacius, when a new generation of theologians resolved the doctrinal controversies on the basis of Scripture in the Formula of Concord of 1577.[219] Although they decried the visible division of Christians on earth, orthodox Lutherans avoided ecumenical fellowship with other churches, believing that Christians should not, for example, join together for the Lord's Supper or exchange pastors if they do not completely agree about what the Bible teaches. In the 17th century, Georgius Calixtus began a rebellion against this practice, sparking the Syncretistic Controversy with Abraham Calovius as his main opponent.[220]

In the 18th century, there was some ecumenical interest between the Church of Sweden and the Church of England. John Robinson, Bishop of London, planned for a union of the English and Swedish churches in 1718. The plan failed because most Swedish bishops rejected the Calvinism of the Church of England, although Jesper Swedberg and Johannes Gezelius the younger, bishops of Skara, Sweden and Turku, Finland, were in favor.[221] With the encouragement of Swedberg, church fellowship was established between Swedish Lutherans and Anglicans in the Middle Colonies. Over the course of the 1700s and the early 1800s, Swedish Lutherans were absorbed into Anglican churches, with the last original Swedish congregation completing merger into the Episcopal Church in 1846.[222]

In the 19th century, Samuel Simon Schmucker attempted to lead the Evangelical Lutheran General Synod of the United States toward unification with other American Protestants. His attempt to get the synod to reject the Augsburg Confession in favor of his compromising Definite Platform failed. Instead, it sparked a Neo-Lutheran revival, prompting many to form the General Council, including Charles Porterfield Krauth. Their alternative approach was "Lutheran pulpits for Lutheran ministers only and Lutheran altars...for Lutheran communicants only."[223]

Stormtroopers holding German Christian propaganda during the church council elections on 23 July 1933 at St. Mary's Church, Berlin. After that, internal struggles, controversies, reorganization, and splits struck the German Evangelical Church

Beginning in 1867, confessional and liberal minded Lutherans in Germany joined together to form the Common Evangelical Lutheran Conference against the ever looming prospect of a state-mandated union with the Reformed.[224] However, they failed to reach consensus on the degree of shared doctrine necessary for church union.[34] Eventually, the fascist German Christians movement pushed the final national merger of Lutheran, Union, and Reformed church bodies into a single Reich Church in 1933, doing away with the previous umbrella German Evangelical Church Confederation (DEK). As part of denazification the Reich Church was formally done away with in 1945, and certain clergy were removed from their positions. However, the merger between the Lutheran, United, and Reformed state churches was retained under the name Evangelical Church in Germany (EKD). In 1948 the Lutheran church bodies within the EKD founded the United Evangelical Lutheran Church of Germany (VELKD), but it has since been reduced from being an independent legal entity to an administrative unit within the EKD.

Presently, Lutherans are divided over how to interact with other Christian denominations. Some Lutherans assert that everyone must share the "whole counsel of God" (Acts 20:27) in complete unity (1 Cor. 1:10)[225] before pastors can share each other's pulpits, and before communicants commune at each other's altars, a practice termed closed (or close) communion. On the other hand, other Lutherans practice varying degrees of open communion and allow preachers from other Christian denominations in their pulpits.

While not an issue in the majority of Lutheran church bodies, some of them forbid membership in Freemasonry. Partly, this is because the lodge is viewed as spreading Unitarianism, as the Brief Statement of the LCMS reads, "Hence we warn against Unitarianism, which in our country has to a great extent impenetrated the sects and is being spread particularly also through the influence of the lodges."[226] A 1958 report from the publishing house of the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod states that, "Masonry is guilty of idolatry. Its worship and prayers are idol worship. The Masons may not with their hands have made an idol out of gold, silver, wood or stone, but they created one with their own mind and reason out of purely human thoughts and ideas. The latter is an idol no less than the former."[227]

LCMS pastor wearing a chasuble during communion

The largest organizations of Lutheran churches around the world are the Lutheran World Federation (LWF), the Global Confessional and Missional Lutheran Forum, the International Lutheran Council (ILC), and the Confessional Evangelical Lutheran Conference (CELC). These organizations together account for the great majority of Lutheran denominations. The LCMS and the Lutheran Church–Canada are members of the ILC. The WELS and ELS are members of the CELC. Many Lutheran churches are not affiliated with the LWF, the ILC or the CELC: The congregations of the Church of the Lutheran Confession (CLC) are affiliated with their mission organizations in Canada, India, Nepal, Myanmar, and many African nations; and those affiliated with the Church of the Lutheran Brethren are especially active doing mission work in Africa and East Asia.

The Lutheran World Federation-aligned churches do not believe that one church is singularly true in its teachings. According to this belief, Lutheranism is a reform movement rather than a movement into doctrinal correctness. As part of this, in 1999 the LWF and the Roman Catholic Church jointly issued a statement, the Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification, that stated that the LWF and the Catholics both agreed about certain basics of Justification and lifted certain Catholic anathemas formerly applying to the LWF member churches.The LCMS has participated in most of the official dialogues with the Roman Catholic Church since shortly after the Second Vatican Council, though not the one which produced the Joint Declaration and to which they were not invited. While some Lutheran theologians saw the Joint Declaration as a sign that the Catholics were essentially adopting the Lutheran position, other Lutheran theologians disagreed, claiming that, considering the public documentation of the Catholic position, this assertion does not hold up.

Confirmation in Lunder Church, Ringerike, Norway, 2012. The Church of Norway is a member of the Porvoo Communion, which means that these confirmands would be readily transferred into any Anglican church should they ever emigrate.

Besides their intra-Lutheran arrangements, some member churches of the LWF have also declared full communion with non-Lutheran Protestant churches. The Porvoo Communion is a communion of episcopally led Lutheran and Anglican churches in Europe. Beside its membership in the Porvoo Communion, Church of Sweden also has declared full communion with the Philippine Independent Church and the United Methodist Church. The state Protestant churches in Germany many other European countries have signed the Leuenberg Agreement to form the Community of Protestant Churches in Europe. The Evangelical Lutheran Church in America has been involved in ecumenical dialogues with several denominations. The ELCA has declared full communion with multiple American Protestant churches.[228]

Although on paper the LWF churches have all declared have full communion with each other, in practice some churches within the LWF have renounced ties with specific other churches.[229] One development in this ongoing schism is the Global Confessional and Missional Lutheran Forum, which consists of churches and church related organizations tracing their heritage back to mainline American Lutheranism in North America, European state churches, as well as certain African churches. As of 2019, the Forum is not a full communion organization. Similar in this structure is the International Lutheran Council, where issues of communion are left to the individual denominations. Not all ILC churches have declared church-fellowship with each other. In contrast, mutual church-fellowship is part of the CELC member churches, and unlike in the LWF, this is not contradicted by individual statements from any particular member church body.

Læstadian lay preacher from Finnmark, Norway, 1898

Laestadians within certain European state churches maintain close ties to other Laestadians, often called Apostolic Lutherans. Altogether, Laestadians are found in 23 countries across five continents, but there is no single organization which represents them. Laestadians operate Peace Associations to coordinate their churchly efforts. Nearly all are located in Europe, although they there are 15 combined in North America, Ecuador, Togo, and Kenya.

By contrast, the Confessional Evangelical Lutheran Conference and International Lutheran Council as well as some unaffiliated denominations such as the Church of the Lutheran Confession and North American Laestadians maintain that the orthodox confessional Lutheran churches are the only churches with completely correct doctrine. They teach that while other Christian churches teach partially orthodox doctrine and have true Christians as members, the doctrines of those churches contain significant errors. More conservative Lutherans strive to maintain historical distinctiveness while emphasizing doctrinal purity alongside Gospel-motivated outreach. They claim that LWF Lutherans are practicing "fake ecumenism" by desiring church fellowship outside of actual unity of teaching.[230]

Although not an "ecumenical" movement in the formal sense, in the 1990s influences from the megachurches of American evangelicalism have become somewhat common. Many of the largest Lutheran congregations in the United States have been heavily influenced by these "progressive Evangelicals." These influences are sharply criticized by some Lutherans as being foreign to orthodox Lutheran beliefs.[231]

Polity

Hallowed be Thy Name by Lucas Cranach the Elder illustrates a Lutheran pastor preaching Christ crucified. During the Reformation and afterwards, many churches did not have pews, so people would stand or sit on the floor. The elderly might be given a chair or stool.

Lutheran polity varies depending on influences. Although Article XIV of the Augsburg Confession mandates that one must be "properly called" to preach or administer the Sacraments, some Lutherans have a broad view of on what constitutes this and thus allow lay preaching or students still studying to be pastors someday to consecrate the Lord's Supper.[232] Despite considerable diversity, Lutheran polity trends in a geographically predictable manner in Europe, with episcopal governance to the north and east but blended and consistorial-presbyterian type synodical governance in Germany.

Scandinavia

Nathan Söderblom is ordained as archbishop of the Church of Sweden, 1914. Although the Swedish Lutherans can boast of an unbroken line of ordinations going back prior to the Reformation, the bishops of Rome today do not recognize such ordinations as a valid due to the fact they occurred without authorization from the Roman See.

To the north in Scandinavia, the population was more insulated from the influence and politics of the Reformation and thus the Church of Sweden (which at the time included Finland) retained the Apostolic succession,[233] although they did not consider it essential for valid sacraments as the Donatists did in the fourth and fifth centuries and the Roman Catholics do today. Recently, the Swedish succession was introduced into all of the Porvoo Communion churches, all of which have an episcopal polity. Although the Lutheran churches did not require this or change their doctrine, this was important in order for more strictly high church Anglican individuals to feel comfortable recognizing their sacraments as valid. The occasional ordination of a bishop by a priest was not necessarily considered an invalid ordination in the Middle Ages, so the alleged break in the line of succession in the other Nordic Churches would have been considered a violation of canon law rather than an invalid ordination at the time. Moreover, there are no consistent records detailing pre-Reformation ordinations prior to the 12th century.[234]

In the far north of the Scandinavian peninsula are the Sámi people, some of which practice a form of Lutheranism called Apostolic Lutheranism, or Laestadianism due to the efforts of Lars Levi Laestadius. However, others are Orthodox in religion. Some Apostolic Lutherans consider their movement as part of an unbroken line down from the Apostles. In areas where Apostolic Lutherans have their own bishops apart from other Lutheran church organizations, the bishops wield more practical authority than Lutheran clergy typically do. In Russia, Laestadians of Lutheran background cooperate with the Ingrian church, but since Laestadianism is an interdenominational movement, some are Eastern Orthodox. Eastern Orthodox Laestadians are known as Ushkovayzet (article is in Russian).[235]

Eastern Europe and Asian Russia

Lutheran Church of Saint Peter and Saint Paul in St. Petersburg

Although historically Pietism had a significant influence on the understanding of the ministry among Lutherans in the Russian Empire,[lower-alpha 2] today nearly all Russian and Ukrainian Lutherans are influenced by Eastern Orthodox polity. In their culture, giving a high degree of respect and authority to their bishops is necessary for their faith to be seen as legitimate and not sectarian.[236] In Russia, lines of succession between bishops and the canonical authority between their present-day hierarchy is also carefully maintained in order to legitimize the existing Lutheran churches as present day successors of the former Lutheran Church of the Russian Empire originally authorized by Catherine the Great. This allows for the post-Soviet repatriation of Lutheran church buildings to local congregations on the basis of this historical connection.[237]

Germany

In Germany, several dynamics encouraged Lutherans to maintain a different form of polity. First, due to de facto practice during the Nuremberg Religious Peace the subsequent legal principal of Cuius regio, eius religio in the 1555 Peace of Augsburg, German states were officially either Catholic or "Evangelical" (that is, Lutheran under the Augsburg Confession). In some areas both Catholic and Lutheran churches were permitted to co-exist. Because German speaking Catholic areas were nearby Catholic leaning Christians were able to emigrate and there was less of an issue with Catholics choosing to live as crypto-papists in Lutheran areas. Although Reformed leaning Christians were not allowed to have churches, Melancthon wrote Augsburg Confession Variata which some used to claim legal protection as "Evangelical" churches. Many chose to live as crypto-Calvinists either with or without the protection offered by the Variata, but this did not make their influence go away, and as a result the Protestant church in Germany as of 2017 was only about ~40% Lutheran, with most of the rest being United Protestant, a combination of Lutheran and Reformed beliefs and practices.[238]

Schwäbisch Hall Church Order, 1543

In terms of polity, over 17th and 18th centuries the carefully negotiated and highly prescriptive church orders of the Reformation era gave way to a joint cooperation between state control and a Reformed-style blend of consistorial and presbyterian type synodical governance. Just as negotiations over the details in the church orders involved the laity, so did the new synodical governance. Synodical governance had already been practiced in the Reformed Netherlands prior to its adoption by Lutherans. During the formation of the modern German state, ideas about the nature of authority and the best design for governments and organizations came from the philosophies Kant and Hegel, further modifying the polity. When the monarchy and the sovereign governance of the church was ended in 1918, the synods took over the governance of the state churches.

Western Hemisphere and Australia

The Pennsylvania Ministerium published this 1803 hymnal.[239]

During the period of the emigration, Lutherans took their existing ideas about polity with them across the ocean,[240][241] though with the exception of the early Swedish Lutherans immigrants of the New Sweden colony who accepted the rule of the Anglican bishops and became part of the established church, they now had to fund churches on their own. This increased the congregationalist dynamic in the blended consistorial and presbyterian type synodical governance. The first organized church body of Lutherans in America was the Pennsylvania Ministerium, which used Reformed style synodical governance over the 18th and 19th centuries. Their contribution to the development of polity was that smaller synods could in turn form a larger body, also with synodical governance, but without losing their lower level of governance. As a result, the smaller synods gained unprecedented flexibility to join, leave, merge, or stay separate, all without the hand of the state as had been the case in Europe.

During their 19th century persecution, Old Lutheran believers were left in a bind. Resistance to authority was disobedient, but upholding the true doctrine and right practice was also disobedient. Fortunately the doctrine of the lesser magistrate could be employed, whereby clergy could legitimately resist the state and even leave. illegal free churches were set up in Germany and mass emigration occurred. For decades the new churches were mostly dependent on the free churches to send them new ministerial candidates for ordination. These new church bodies also employed synodical governance, but tended to exclude Hegelianism in their constitutions due to its incompatibility with the doctrine of the lesser magistrates. In contrast to Hegelianism where authority flows in from all levels, Kantianism presents authority flowing only from the top down, hence the need for a lesser magistrate to become the new top magistrate.

Lighthouse Lutheran Church, an LCMC congregation in Freedom, Pennsylvania

Over the 20th and 20th century, some Lutheran bodies have adopted a more congregationalist approach, such as the Protest'ant Conference and the Lutheran Congregations in Mission for Christ, or LCMC. The LCMC formed due to a church split after the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America signed an agreement with the Episcopalians to start ordaining all of their new bishops into the Episcopalian Apostolic succession. In other words, this meant that new ELCA bishops, at least at first, would be jointly ordained by Anglican bishops as well as Lutheran bishops so that the more strict Episcopalians would recognize their sacraments as valid. This was offensive to some in the ELCA at the time because of the implications this had on the priesthood of all believers and the nature of ordination.

Today, some churches allow dual-rostering.[242] Situations like this one where a church or church body belongs to multiple larger organizations that do not have ties are termed "triangular fellowship." Another variant are independent Lutheran churches, although for some independent churches the clergy are members of a larger denomination. In other cases, a congregation may belong to a synod, but the pastor may be unaffiliated.[243] In the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America,[244] the Wisconsin Synod, the Evangelical Lutheran Synod, the Church of the Lutheran Confession, and the Missouri Synod, teachers at parochial schools are considered to be ministers of religion, with the latter defending this before the Supreme Court in 2012. However, differences remain in the precise status the status of their teachers.[245]

Brazil

In Brazil there's The Evangelical Church of the Lutheran Confession in Brazil (Igreja Evangélica de Confissão Luterana no Brasil) which is the largest Lutheran denomination in Brazil. It is a member of the Lutheran World Federation, which it joined in 1952. It is a member of the Latin American Council of Churches, the National Council of Christian Churches and the World Council of Churches. The denomination has 1.02 million adherents[1] and 643,693 registered members.

The church ordains women as ministers. In 2011, the denomination released a pastoral letter supporting and accepting the Supreme Court's decision to allow same-sex marriage.

There's also The Evangelical Lutheran Church of Brazil (Portuguese: Igreja Evangélica Luterana do Brasil, IELB) is a Lutheran church, which was founded in 1904 in Rio Grande do Sul, a southern state in Brazil.

The IELB is a conservative, confessional Lutheran synod that holds to the Book of Concord. It started as a mission of the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod and was the Brazilian District of that body. The IELB became an independent church body in 1980. It has about 243,093 members. The IELB is a member of the International Lutheran Council.

The Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod (WELS),started The Brazilian mission, the first for WELS in the Portuguese language, in the early 1980's. Its first work was done in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, in the south of Brazil, alongside some small independent Lutheran churches that had asked for help from WELS. Today, the Brazilian WELS Lutheran Churches are self-supporting and an independent mission partner of the Latin America WELS missions team.

Throughout the world

Further information: Lutheranism by region and Protestantism by country

A church of the Batak Protestant Church in Balige, Indonesia, a merged denomination that includes a Lutheran element.

Today, millions belong to Lutheran churches, which are present on all populated continents.[246] The Lutheran World Federation estimates the total membership of its churches over 74 million.[247] This figure miscounts Lutherans worldwide as not all Lutheran churches belong to this organization, and many members of merged LWF church bodies do not self-identify as Lutheran or attend congregations that self-identify as Lutheran.[248] Lutheran churches in North America, Europe, Latin America and the Caribbean regions are experiencing decreases and no growth in membership, while those in Africa and Asia continue to grow. Lutheranism is the largest religious group in Denmark, the Faroe Islands, Greenland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Latvia, Namibia, and North Dakota and South Dakota in the United States.

View of the altar and the pulpit in the Church of the Ascension in Jerusalem

Lutheranism is also the dominant form of Christianity in the White Mountain and San Carlos Apache nations. In addition, Lutheranism is a main Protestant denomination in Germany (behind United Protestant (Lutheran & Reformed) churches; EKD Protestants form about 24.9% of the country's total population),[249] Estonia, Poland, Austria, Slovakia, Slovenia, Croatia, Serbia, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Papua New Guinea, and Tanzania.[250] Although some convents and monasteries voluntarily closed during the Reformation, and many of the remaining damenstift were shuttered by communist authorities following World War II, the Lüne abbeys are still open. Nearly all active Lutheran orders are located in Europe.

Faith Lutheran School in Hong Kong.

Although Namibia is the only country outside Europe to have a Lutheran majority, there are sizable Lutheran bodies in other African countries. In the following African countries, the total number of Lutherans exceeds 100,000: Nigeria, Central African Republic, Chad, Kenya, Malawi, Congo, Cameroon, Ethiopia, Tanzania, Zimbabwe, and Madagascar. In addition, the following nations also have sizable Lutheran populations: Canada, France, the Czech Republic, Poland, Hungary, Slovakia, Malaysia, India, Indonesia, the Netherlands (as a synod within the PKN and two strictly Lutheran denominations), South Africa, the United Kingdom, and the United States, especially in the heavily German and Scandinavian Upper Midwest.[251][252]

Lutheranism is also a state religion in Iceland, Denmark, Greenland, and the Faroe Islands. Finland has its Lutheran church established as a national church. Similarly, Sweden also has its national church, which was a state church until 2000.[253]

This map shows where members of LWF member churches were located in 2013.[254][lower-alpha 3]

Lutheran World Federation membership by country in 2013.

  More than 10 million   More than 5 million   More than 1 million   More than 500 thousand   More than 100 thousand

See also

• List of Lutheran churches
• List of Lutheran clergy
• List of Lutheran colleges and universities
• List of Lutheran denominations
• List of Lutheran denominations in North America
• List of Lutheran dioceses and archdioceses
• List of Lutheran schools in Australia
• Lutheran orders (both loose social organizations and physical communities such as convents)

Notes

1. Cf. material and formal principles in theology
2. See Edward Wust and Wustism in the Russian Wikipedia for more on this.
3. One of the countries with a higher number of Lutherans is the United States. The LWF does not include the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod and several other Lutheran bodies which together have over 2.5 million members

References

1. MSN Encarta, s.v. "Lutheranism" by George Wolfgang Forell; Christian Cyclopedia, s.v. "Reformation, Lutheran" by Lueker, E. et. al. Archived 2009-10-31. Lutherans believe that the Roman Catholic Church is not the same as the original Christian church.
2. Fahlbusch, Erwin, and Bromiley, Geoffrey William, The Encyclopedia of Christianity, Volume 3. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans, 2003. p. 362.
3. Canons and Decrees of the Council of Trent, Fourth Session, Decree on Sacred Scripture (Denzinger 783 [1501]; Schaff 2:79–81). For a history of the discussion of various interpretations of the Tridentine decree, see Selby, Matthew L., The Relationship Between Scripture and Tradition according to the Council of Trent, unpublished Master's thesis, University of St Thomas, July 2013.
4. Espín, Orlando O. and Nickoloff, James B. An introductory dictionary of theology and religious studies. Collegeville, Minnesota: Liturgical Press, p. 796.
5. "Bethany Lutheran Ministries – Home". Bethany Lutheran Ministries. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
6. Lutherans, Biblehistory.com
7. Rohmann, J. L (1836). Historisk fremstilling af reformationens indførelse i Danmark. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
8. Chapter 12: The Reformation In Germany And Scandinavia, Renaissance and Reformation by William Gilbert.
9. Rohmann, J. L (1836). Historisk fremstilling af reformationens indførelse i Danmark. Kjobenhavn. p. 195. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
10. J. L. Rohmann (1836). Historisk fremstilling af reformationens indførelse i Danmark. Kjobenhavn. p. 202. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
11. Rohmann, J. L (1836). Historisk fremstilling af reformationens indførelse i Danmark. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
12. "Danmarks og Norges Kirke-Ritual (Kirkeritualet)". retsinformation.dk. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
13. Hastings, James (October 2004). A Dictionary of the Bible. ISBN 9781410217301. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
14. "Compendium of the Catechism of the Catholic Church". Retrieved 5 March 2015.
15. N.F. Lutheran Cyclopedia, article, "Upsala, Diet of", New York: Schrivner, 1899. pp. 528–529.
16. Lutheran Cyclopedia, article, "Agricola, Michael", New York: Schrivner, 1899. p. 5.
17. Fuerbringer, L., Concordia Cyclopedia Concordia Publishing House. 1927. p. 425
18. This photograph is of a replica of the original Hundskirche stone. Zeitschrift für Oesterreichische Volkskunde, (Google Books) by Theodor Vernaleken, 1896
19. Lutheran Theology after 1580 article in Christian Cyclopedia
20. Fuerbringer, L., Concordia Cyclopedia Concordia Publishing House. 1927. p. 426
21. Kleinig, Vernon P. "Confessional Lutheranism in Eighteenth-Century Germany." Concordia Theological Quarterly 60(1–2) Jan–April 1996: Part I, Valentin Ernst Loescher p. 102.
22. Kleinig, Vernon P. "Confessional Lutheranism in Eighteenth-Century Germany." Concordia Theological Quarterly 60(1–2) Jan–April 1996: Part II, Melchior Goeze pp. 109–112.
23. Rietschel, William C. An Introduction to the Foundations of Lutheran Education. St. Louis: Concordia, 2000. p. 25 (Although this reference specifically mentions Saxony, government promoted rationalism was a trend across Germany)
24. "Untitled Document". Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
25. Gritsch, Eric W. A History of Lutheranism. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2002. p. 180.
26. Armin Sierszyn: 2000 Jahre Kirchengeschichte, Book.4, Die Neuzeit, p. 155
27. Suelflow, Roy A. Walking With Wise Men. Milwaukee: South Wisconsin District (LCMS), 1967. p. 10
28. Latourette, Kenneth Scott. Christianity in a Revolutionary Age, Volume II, The Nineteenth Century in Europe. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. p. 165.
29. Gritsch, Eric W. A History of Lutheranism. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2002. p. 182.
30. Gritsch, Eric W. A History of Lutheranism. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2002. p. 183.
31. Building God’s Kingdom: Norwegian Missionaries in Highland Madagascar 1866–1903 by Karina Hestad Skeie, p. 22
32. Benton, William, ed. (1974). "Lutheran Churches". Encyclopædia Britannica. 11 (15 ed.). Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. p. 198. ISBN 978-0-85229-290-7.
33. Christian Cyclopedia article on Brünn
34. Gritsch, Eric W. A History of Lutheranism. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2002. p. 184.
35. Gritsch, Eric W. A History of Lutheranism. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2002. p. 187.
36. Latourette, Kenneth Scott. Christianity in a Revolutionary Age, Volume II, The Nineteenth Century in Europe. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1959, p. 21.
37. "Repristination Theology". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 6 April 2010.
38. Latourette, Kenneth Scott. Christianity in a Revolutionary Age, Volume II, The Nineteenth Century in Europe. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. p. 22.
39. Nichols, James Hastings. History of Christianity 1650–1950: Secularization of the West. New York, Ronald Press, 1956, p. 175.
40. Gassmann, Günther, et al. Historical dictionary of Lutheranism. Augsburg Fortress, Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press, 2001. p. 32.
41. Gritsch, Eric W. A History of Lutheranism. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2002. p. 188.
42. Detzler, Wayne A. The Changing Church in Europe. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1979. p. 17. Quotation from Manfred Kober, Theology in Germany, from the Reformation Review, April 1969.
43. For the traditional Lutheran view of the Bible, see Graebner, Augustus Lawrence (1910). Outlines of Doctrinal Theology. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. pp. 3ff. ISBN 978-0-524-04891-7. Archived from the original on 12 July 2006.. For an overview of the doctrine of verbal inspiration in Lutheranism, see Inspiration, Doctrine of in the Christian Cyclopedia.
44. Graebner, Augustus Lawrence (1910). Outlines of Doctrinal Theology. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. pp. 7ff. ISBN 978-0-524-04891-7. Archived from the original on 12 July 2006., Engelder, Theodore E.W. (1934). Popular Symbolics: The Doctrines of the Churches of Christendom and Of Other Religious Bodies Examined in the Light of Scripture. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 29.
45. Braaten, Carl E. (1983). Principles of Lutheran Theology. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, p. 9
46. Preus, Robert. The Inspiration of Scripture: A Study of the Theology of the 17th Century Lutheran Dogmaticians. London: Oliver and Boyd, 1957. p. 39.
47. Benton, William, ed. (1978). "Lutheran Churches". Encyclopædia Britannica. 11 (15 ed.). Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. pp. 197–98. ISBN 978-0-85229-290-7.
48. U.S. Religious Landscape Survey: Religious Beliefs and Practices, Diverse and Politically Relevant. Washington D.C.: Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life. June 2008. p. 127. Accessed online on 27 September 2009 at http://religions.pewforum.org/pdf/report2-religious-landscape-study-full.pdf.
49. Engelder, Theodore E.W. (1934). Popular Symbolics: The Doctrines of the Churches of Christendom and Of Other Religious Bodies Examined in the Light of Scripture. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 26.
50. "God's Word, or Holy Scripture" from the Apology of the Augsburg Confession, Article II, of Original Sin
51. "the Scripture of the Holy Ghost." Apology to the Augsburg Confession, Preface, 9
52. "The Solid Declaration of the Formula of Concord". Retrieved 5 March 2015.
53. Divination: Tobit 6:17, Prayer to the dead: 2 Macc. 12:42, Suicide: 2 Macc. 14:41–46,
54. See Bible, Canon in the Christian Cyclopedia Archived 20 October 2009 at the Wayback Machine
55. Engelder, Theodore E.W. (1934). Popular Symbolics: The Doctrines of the Churches of Christendom and Of Other Religious Bodies Examined in the Light of Scripture. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 27.
56. Psalm 19:8, Psalm 119:105, Psalm 119:130, 2 Timothy 3:15, Deuteronomy 30:11, 2 Peter 1:19, Ephesians 3:3–4, John 8:31–32, 2 Corinthians 4:3–4, John 8:43–47, 2 Peter 3:15–16, Engelder, Theodore E.W. (1934). Popular Symbolics: The Doctrines of the Churches of Christendom and Of Other Religious Bodies Examined in the Light of Scripture. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 29., Graebner, Augustus Lawrence (1910). Outlines of Doctrinal Theology. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. pp. 11–12. ISBN 978-0-524-04891-7. Archived from the original on 12 July 2006.
57. Graebner, Augustus Lawrence (1910). Outlines of Doctrinal Theology. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-524-04891-7. Archived from the original on 12 July 2006., Engelder, Theodore E.W. (1934). Popular Symbolics: The Doctrines of the Churches of Christendom and Of Other Religious Bodies Examined in the Light of Scripture. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 28.
58. Graebner, Augustus Lawrence (1910). Outlines of Doctrinal Theology. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-524-04891-7. Archived from the original on 12 July 2006.
59. Engelder, Theodore E.W. (1934). Popular Symbolics: The Doctrines of the Churches of Christendom and Of Other Religious Bodies Examined in the Light of Scripture. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 28.
60. Romans 1:16, 1 Thessalonians 2:13, Graebner, Augustus Lawrence (1910). Outlines of Doctrinal Theology. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-524-04891-7. Archived from the original on 12 July 2006., Engelder, Theodore E.W. (1934). Popular Symbolics: The Doctrines of the Churches of Christendom and Of Other Religious Bodies Examined in the Light of Scripture. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 27.
61. Romans 1:16, 1 Thessalonians 1:5, Psalm 119:105, 2 Peter 1:19, 2 Timothy 1:16–17,Ephesians 3:3–4, Graebner, Augustus Lawrence (1910). Outlines of Doctrinal Theology. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. pp. 11–12. ISBN 978-0-524-04891-7. Archived from the original on 12 July 2006., Engelder, Theodore E.W. (1934). Popular Symbolics: The Doctrines of the Churches of Christendom and Of Other Religious Bodies Examined in the Light of Scripture. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 28.
62. John 6:63, Revelation 1:3, Ephesians 3:3–4, John 7:17, Graebner, Augustus Lawrence (1910). Outlines of Doctrinal Theology. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 12. ISBN 978-0-524-04891-7. Archived from the original on 12 July 2006., Engelder, Theodore E.W. (1934). Popular Symbolics: The Doctrines of the Churches of Christendom and Of Other Religious Bodies Examined in the Light of Scripture. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 28.
63. "Smalcald Articles – Book of Concord". Retrieved 5 March 2015.
64. 2 Timothy 3:15–17, John 5:39, John 17:20, Psalm 19:7–8, Engelder, Theodore E.W. (1934). Popular Symbolics: The Doctrines of the Churches of Christendom and Of Other Religious Bodies Examined in the Light of Scripture. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 28.
65. Isaiah 8:20, Luke 16:29–31, 2 Timothy 3:16–17, Graebner, Augustus Lawrence (1910). Outlines of Doctrinal Theology. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-524-04891-7. Archived from the original on 7 August 2007., Engelder, Theodore E.W. (1934). Popular Symbolics: The Doctrines of the Churches of Christendom and Of Other Religious Bodies Examined in the Light of Scripture. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 28.
66. "Defense of the Augsburg Confession – Book of Concord". Retrieved 5 March 2015.
67. Walther, C. F. W. The Proper Distinction Between Law and Gospel. W. H. T. Dau, trans. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1929.
68. F.E. Mayer, The Religious Bodies of America. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1954, p. 184. For further information, see The Formula of Concord in the History of Swedish Lutheranism Archived 7 July 2010 at the Wayback Machine by Seth Erlandsson
69. The Ecumenical Councils and Authority in and of the Church (PDF). The Lutheran World Federation. 10 July 1993. The seven ecumenical councils of the early Church were assemblies of the bishops of the Church from all parts of the Roman Empire to clarify and express the apostolic faith. These councils are Nicaea (325 AD), Constantinople I (381), Ephesus (431), Chalcedon (451), Constantinople II (553), Constantinople III (680/81), and Nicaea II (787)... As Lutherans and Orthodox we affirm that the teachings of the ecumenical councils are authoritative for our churches....The Seventh Ecumenical Council, the Second Council of Nicaea in 787, which rejected iconoclasm and restored the veneration of icons in the churches, was not part of the tradition received by the Reformation. Lutherans, however, rejected the iconoclasm of the 16th century, and affirmed the distinction between adoration due to the Triune God alone and all other forms of veneration (CA 21). Through historical research this council has become better known. Nevertheless it does not have the same significance for Lutherans as it does for the Orthodox. Yet, Lutherans and Orthodox are in agreement that the Second Council of Nicaea confirms the christological teaching of the earlier councils and in setting forth the role of images (icons) in the lives of the faithful reaffirms the reality of the incarnation of the eternal Word of God, when it states: "The more frequently, Christ, Mary, the mother of God, and the saints are seen, the more are those who see them drawn to remember and long for those who serve as models, and to pay these icons the tribute of salutation and respectful veneration. Certainly this is not the full adoration in accordance with our faith, which is properly paid only to the divine nature, but it resembles that given to the figure of the honored and life-giving cross, and also to the holy books of the gospels and to other sacred objects" (Definition of the Second Council of Nicaea).
70. Ecumenical Council. Titi Tudorancea Encyclopedia. 1991–2016. The Lutheran World Federation, in ecumenical dialogues with the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople has affirmed all of the first seven councils as ecumenical and authoritative.
71. Ludwig, Alan (12 September 2016). "Luther's Catholic Reformation". The Lutheran Witness. When the Lutherans presented the Augsburg Confession before Emperor Charles V in 1530, they carefully showed that each article of faith and practice was true first of all to Holy Scripture, and then also to the teaching of the church fathers and the councils and even the canon law of the Church of Rome. They boldly claim, "This is about the Sum of our Doctrine, in which, as can be seen, there is nothing that varies from the Scriptures, or from the Church Catholic, or from the Church of Rome as known from its writers" (AC XXI Conclusion 1). The underlying thesis of the Augsburg Confession is that the faith as confessed by Luther and his followers is nothing new, but the true catholic faith, and that their churches represent the true catholic or universal church. In fact, it is actually the Church of Rome that has departed from the ancient faith and practice of the catholic church (see AC XXIII 13, XXVIII 72 and other places).
72. Paul R. Sponheim, "The Origin of Sin", in Christian Dogmatics, Carl E. Braaten and Robert W. Jenson, eds. (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1984), 385–407.
73. Francis Pieper, "Definition of Original Sin", in Christian Dogmatics (St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1953), 1:538.
74. Krauth, C.P.,The Conservative Reformation and Its Theology: As Represented in the Augsburg Confession, and in the History and Literature of the Evangelical Lutheran Church . Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott. 1875. pp. 335–455, Part IX The Specific Doctrines Of The Conservative Reformation: Original Sin.
75. Formula of Concord, Original Sin.
76. Rom. 7:18, 8:7 1 Cor. 2:14, Martin Chemnitz, Examination of the Council of Trent: Vol. I. Trans. Fred Kramer, St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1971, pp. 639–652, "The Third Question: Whether the Good Works of the Regenerate in This Life Are So Perfect that They Fully, Abundantly, and Perfectly Satisfy the Divine Law".
77. Gen. 6:5, 8:21, Mat. 7:17, Krauth, C.P.,The Conservative Reformation and Its Theology: As Represented in the Augsburg Confession, and in the History and Literature of the Evangelical Lutheran Church . Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott. 1875. pp. 388–390, Part IX The Specific Doctrines Of The Conservative Reformation: Original Sin, Thesis VII The Results, Section ii Positive.
78. Dt. 27:26,Rom. 5:12,2 Th. 1:9 Rom. 6:23, Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 38–41, Part VIII. "Sin"
79. 1 Tim. 2:4, Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 43–44, Part X. "Saving Grace", paragraph 55.
80. Triglot Concordia: The Symbolical Books of the Ev. Lutheran Church. St. Louis: Concordia, 1921. Large Catechism, The Lord's Prayer, The Second Petition, Par. 51.
81. Gal. 3:13, Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. p. 43, Part X. "Saving Grace", paragraph 54.
82. Rom. 10:4, Gal. 4:4–5, Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. p. 42, Part X. "Saving Grace", paragraph 52.
83. Solid Declaration of the Formula of Concord, Article III, "Concerning the Righteousness of Faith before God". par. 57–58. trans. Kolb, R., Wengert, T., and Arand, C. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 2000.
84. "Augsburg Confession – Book of Concord". Retrieved 5 March 2015.
85. John 17:3, Luke 1:77,Galatians 4:9, Philippians 3:8, and 1 Timothy 2:4 refer to faith in terms of knowledge.
86. John 5:46 refers to acceptance of the truth of Christ's teaching, while John 3:36 notes the rejection of his teaching.
87. John 3:16,36, Galatians 2:16, Romans 4:20–25, 2 Timothy 1:12 speak of trust, confidence, and belief in Christ. John 3:18 notes belief in the name of Christ, and Mark 1:15 notes belief in the gospel.
88. Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 54–55, Part XIV. "Sin"
89. Ps. 51:10, Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934, p. 57 Part XV. "Conversion", paragraph 78.
90. John 17:20, Rom. 10:17, Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934, p. 101 Part XXV. "The Church", paragraph 141.
91. Titus 3:5, Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934, p. 87 Part XXIII. "Baptism", paragraph 118.
92. Eph. 2:8, Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934, p. 57 Part XV. "Conversion", paragraph 78.
93. The Roman Catholic Catechism, part 3, section 1, chapter 3, article 2, II, paragraphs 2000 and 2001; downloaded February 18, 2017; defines grace as something which brings about a change in us, such that we cooperate in justification and act without sin (i.e. sanctified).
94. Is. 63:8–9, Mueller, J.T., Christian Dogmatics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 158–160, section "The Doctrine of God", part 5. "The Holy Trinity Revealed in the Old Testament",Heb. 1:5, see Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 33–36, Part VI. "The Trinity".
95. The Nicene Creed and the Filioque: A Lutheran Approach by Rev. David Webber for more information
96. Athanasian Creed – for an older Trinitarian Creed used by Lutherans, see the Nicene Creed: the version in Evangelical Lutheran Worship (2006) of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA) and the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada (ELCIC) is the 1988 ecumenical (ELLC) version. But the version in both "Lutheran Service Book" (2006) of the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod (LCMS) and the Lutheran Church Canada (LCC) is that of the 1662 Book of Common Prayer with modernized spelling of the words "catholic" and "apostolic", with changes in capitalization of these and other words, and with "Holy Spirit" in place of "Holy Ghost".
97. Luther's Small Catechism, The Apostles' Creed, Second Article, Graebner, Augustus Lawrence (1910). Outlines of Doctrinal Theology. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. pp. 100ff. ISBN 978-0-524-04891-7. Archived from the original on 12 July 2006.
98. Augsburg confession, Article III. Retrieved 17 April 2010.
99. "Private Absolution ought to be retained in the churches, although in confession an enumeration of all sins is not necessary." Article XI: Of Confession
100. Matthew 28:19, 1 Corinthians 11:23–25, Matthew 26:26–28, Mark 14:22–24, Luke 22:19–20, Graebner, Augustus Lawrence (1910). Outlines of Doctrinal Theology. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 161. ISBN 978-0-524-04891-7.
101. Ephesians 5:27, John 3:5, John 3:23, 1 Corinthians 10:16, Graebner, Augustus Lawrence (1910). Outlines of Doctrinal Theology. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 161. ISBN 978-0-524-04891-7.
102. Ephesians 5:26, 1 Corinthians 10:16, 1 Corinthians 11:24–25, Graebner, Augustus Lawrence (1910). Outlines of Doctrinal Theology. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 161. ISBN 978-0-524-04891-7.
103. Matthew 3:16–17, John 3:5, 1 Corinthians 11:19, Graebner, Augustus Lawrence (1910). Outlines of Doctrinal Theology. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 161. ISBN 978-0-524-04891-7.
104. Luke 7:30, Luke 22:19–20, Graebner, Augustus Lawrence (1910). Outlines of Doctrinal Theology. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 162. ISBN 978-0-524-04891-7.
105. Acts 21:16, Acts 2:38, Luke 3:3, Ephesians 5:26, 1 Peter 3:21, Galatians 3:26–27, Matthew 26:28, Graebner, Augustus Lawrence (1910). Outlines of Doctrinal Theology. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 163. ISBN 978-0-524-04891-7.
106. 1 Peter 3:21, Titus 3:5, Graebner, Augustus Lawrence (1910). Outlines of Doctrinal Theology. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 163. ISBN 978-0-524-04891-7.
107. Titus 3:5, John 3:5, Graebner, Augustus Lawrence (1910). Outlines of Doctrinal Theology. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 163. ISBN 978-0-524-04891-7.
108. The Apology of the Augsburg Confession XIII, 2: "We believe we have the duty not to neglect any of the rites and ceremonies instituted in Scripture, whatever their number. We do not think it makes much difference if, for purposes of teaching, the enumeration varies, provided what is handed down in Scripture is preserved" (cf. Theodore G. Tappert, trans. and ed., The Book of Concord: The Confessions of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1959), 211).
109. Luther's Large Catechism IV, 1: "We have now finished the three chief parts of the common Christian doctrine. Besides these we have yet to speak of our two Sacraments instituted by Christ, of which also every Christian ought to have at least an ordinary, brief instruction, because without them there can be no Christian; although, alas! hitherto no instruction concerning them has been given" (emphasis added; cf. Theodore G. Tappert, trans. and ed., The Book of Concord: The Confessions of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1959), 733).
110. John 20:23, and Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 112–113, Part XXVI "The Ministry", paragraph 156.
111. Luther's Large Catechism IV, 74–75: "And here you see that Baptism, both in its power and signification, comprehends also the third Sacrament, which has been called repentance, as it is really nothing else than Baptism" (emphasis added; cf. Theodore G. Tappert, trans. and ed., The Book of Concord: The Confessions of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1959), 751).
112. The Apology of the Augsburg Confession XIII, 3, 4: "If we define the sacraments as rites, which have the command of God and to which the promise of grace has been added, it is easy to determine what the sacraments are, properly speaking. For humanly instituted rites are not sacraments, properly speaking, because human beings do not have the authority to promise grace. Therefore signs instituted without the command of God are not sure signs of grace, even though they perhaps serve to teach or admonish the common folk. Therefore, the sacraments are actually baptism, the Lord's Supper, and absolution (the sacrament of repentance)" (cf. Tappert, 211). Apology of the Augsburg Confession, Article 13, Of the Number and Use of the Sacraments
113. Apology of the Augsburg Confession, article 24, paragraph 1. Retrieved 16 April 2010.
114. Wendel, David M. (1997). Manual for the Recovery of a Parish Practice of Individual Confession and Absolution (PDF). The Society of the Holy Trinity. pp. 2, 7, 8, 11.
115. Kolb, Robert (2008). Lutheran Ecclesiastical Culture: 1550 – 1675. Brill Publishers. p. 282. ISBN 9789004166417. The North German church ordinances of the late 16th century all include a description of private confession and absolution, which normally took place at the conclusion of Saturday afternoon vespers, and was a requirement for all who desired to commune the following day.
116. 1 Pet. 3:21, Mueller, J.T., Christian Dogmatics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 491–496, section "The Doctrine of Baptism", part 4. "Baptism a True Means of Grace", and Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. p. 87, Part XXIII. "Baptism", paragraph 118.
117. Martin Luther, Small Catechism 4
118. Titus 3:5
119. John 3:3–7
120. "Baptism and Its Purpose". Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod. Archived from the original on 6 February 2009. Retrieved 24 February 2009.
121. Luther, Martin (2009) [1529]. "The Sacrament of Holy Baptism". Luther's Small Catechism. ISBN 978-0-89279-043-2.
122. 1 Peter 3:21
123. Mat. 19:14, Acts 2:38–39, Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. p. 90, Part XXIII. "Baptism", paragraph 122.
124. 1 Cor. 1:14, Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. p. 90, Part XXIII. "Baptism", paragraph 122.
125. Luther, Martin (2009) [1529]. "Of Infant Baptism". Luther's Large Catechism. ISBN 978-1-4264-3861-5.Luther's Large Catechism – Holy Baptism
126. "Augsburg Confession – Book of Concord". Retrieved 5 March 2015.
127. 1 Cor. 10:16, 11:20, 27, Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. p. 95, Part XXIV. "The Lord's Supper", paragraph 131.
128. The Solid Declaration of the Formula of Concord, Article 8, The Holy Supper
129. Richard, James William (1909). The Confessional History of the Lutheran Church. Lutheran Publication Society. p. 113. In the Luthearn Church, private confession was at first voluntary. Later, in portions of the Lutheran Church, it was made obligatory, as a test of orthodoxy, and as a preparation of the Lord's Supper.
130. Granquist, Mark A. (2015). Scandinavian Pietists: Spiritual Writings from 19th-Century Norway, Denmark, Sweden, and Finland. Paulist Press. p. 34. ISBN 9781587684982. Initially, Laestadius exercised his ministry mainly among the indigenous Sami (Lapp) people, but his influence soon spread into areasa of northern Finland, and the Laestadian (or Apostolic Lutheran) movement became predominantly Finnish. Even though he was a university-trained pastor and scientist (he was a renowned botanist), his powerful preaching and spiritual example ignited a lay-awakening movement in the north, a movement that is known for its distinctive religious practices, including lay confession and absolution.
131. Augustus Lawrence Graebner, Lutheran Cyclopedia p. 136, "Conversion"
132. "Augsburg Confession – Book of Concord". Retrieved 5 March 2015.
133. 1 Cor. 2:14, 12:3, Rom. 8:7, Martin Chemnitz, Examination of the Council of Trent: Vol. I. Trans. Fred Kramer, St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1971, pp. 409–453, "Seventh Topic, Concerning Free Will: From the Decree of the Sixth Session of the Council of Trent".
134. Augsburg Confession, Article 18, Of Free Will.
135. Acts 13:48, Eph. 1:4–11, Epitome of the Formula of Concord, Article 11, Election, Mueller, J.T., Christian Dogmatics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 585–589, section "The Doctrine of Eternal Election: 1. The Definition of the Term", and Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 124–128, Part XXXI. "The Election of Grace", paragraph 176.
136. 2 Thess. 2:13, Mueller, J.T., Christian Dogmatics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 589–93, section "The Doctrine of Eternal Election: 2. How Believers are to Consider Their Election, and Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 127–128, Part XXXI. "The Election of Grace", paragraph 180.
137. Rom. 8:33, Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 127–128, Part XXXI. "The Election of Grace", paragraph 179., Engelder, T.E.W., The Certainty of Final Salvation. The Lutheran Witness 2(6). English Evangelical Missouri Synod: Baltimore. 1891, pp. 41ff.
138. 1 Tim. 2:4, 2 Pet. 3:9, Epitome of the Formula of Concord, Article 11, Election, and Engelder's Popular Symbolics, Part XXXI. The Election of Grace, pp. 124–128.
139. 1 Timothy 2:3–4
140. Hos. 13:9, Mueller, J.T., Christian Dogmatics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. p. 637, section "The Doctrine of the Last Things (Eschatology), part 7. "Eternal Damnation", and Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 135–136, Part XXXIX. "Eternal Death", paragraph 196.
141. Mueller, J.T., Christian Dogmatics. Concordia Publishing House. 1934. pp. 189–195 and Fuerbringer, L., Concordia Cyclopedia Concordia Publishing House. 1927. p. 635 and Christian Cyclopedia article on Divine Providence. For further reading, see The Proof Texts of the Catechism with a Practical Commentary, section Divine Providence, p. 212, Wessel, Louis, published in Theological Quarterly, Vol. 11, 1909.
142. Mueller, Steven P.,Called to Believe, Teach, and Confess. Wipf and Stock. 2005. pp. 122–123.
143. Mueller, J.T., Christian Dogmatics. Concordia Publishing House: 1934. pp. 190 and Edward. W. A.,A Short Explanation of Dr. Martin Luther's Small Catechism. Concordia Publishing House. 1946. p. 165. and Divine Providence and Human Adversity Archived 7 July 2010 at the Wayback Machine by Markus O. Koepsell
144. "The Small Catechism". Retrieved 5 March 2015.
145. Luther's Large Catechism, First Commandment
146. John 15:5, Tit. 2:14, Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 62–63, Part XV. "Conversion", paragraph 88 The New Obedience Is The Fruit Of Conversion, The Product Of Faith.
147. 2 Cor. 9:8, Krauth, C.P.,The Conservative Reformation and Its Theology: As Represented in the Augsburg Confession, and in the History and Literature of the Evangelical Lutheran Church . Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott. 1875. pp. 313–314, Part D Confession of the Conservative Reformation: II, Secondary Confessions: Book of Concord, Formula of Concord, Part IV The Doctrinal Result, 2, Section iv, Of Good Works.
148. Phil 2:13, Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. p. 74, Part XIX. "Preservation in Faith", paragraph 102.
149. Rom. 7:18 Heb 11:6, Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 39–40, Part VIII. "Sin", paragraph 46 "Original Sin".
150. "Mat. 7:15–16; NIV – True and False Prophets". Bible Gateway. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
151. Albrecht Beutel, "Luther's Life", tr. Katharina Gustavs, in The Cambridge Companion to Martin Luther, ed. Donald K. McKim (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 11.
152. quoted in Scaer, David. Luther's Concept of the Resurrection Concordia Theological Quarterly 47(3)Archived 4 July 2008 at the Wayback Machine p. 219
153. "Joh 18:36; ESV – Jesus answered, My kingdom is not of..." Bible Gateway. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
154. Luke 23:42–43, 2 Cor. 5:8, Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. p. 130, Part XXXIV. "The State of the Soul in the Interval Between Death and the Resurrection", paragraph 185.
155. 1 Cor. 15:22–24, Francis Pieper, Christian Dogmatics, 505–515; Heinrich Schmid, The Doctrinal Theology of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, 624–32; John Mueller, Christian Dogmatics, 616–619
156. John 6:40, John 6:54
157. John 5:21, John 5:28–29, Matthew 25:32, 2 Corinthians 5:10, Acts 24:15
158. Romans 8:11, Philippians 3:21, 2 Corinthians 5:10, Job 19:26, 1 Corinthians 15:44, 1 Corinthians 15:53, John 5:28, Revelation 20:12
159. Daniel 12:2, Matthew 25:41–46, John 5:29
160. Daniel 12:1–2, John 5:29, 1 Corinthians 15:52, 1 Corinthians 15:42–44, 1 Corinthians 15:49–53, Philippians 3:21, Matthew 13:43, Revelation 7:16
161. John 6:40, John 6:44, John 11:24
162. 1 Corinthians 15:51–52, 1 Thessalonians 4:15–17
163. Matthew 25:32, Romans 14:10, John 5:22, Acts 17:31, Revelation 1:7
164. Matthew 25:32, Mark 16:16
165. 2 Corinthians 5:10, 1 Corinthians 4:5, Romans 2:5, Romans 2:16
166. Romans 2:6, 2 Corinthians 5:10, Matthew 25:35–36, Matthew 25:42–43
167. Isaiah 43:25, Ezekiel 18:22, 1 John 2:28
168. Matthew 25:34–35, John 3:16–18, John 3:36, Revelation 14:13, Galatians 5:6, John 13:35
169. Matthew 25:42, Matthew 7:17–18, John 3:18, John 3:36
170. Romans 2:5, Acts 17:31, Romans 2:16
171. Luke 9:26, Matthew 25:31–32
172. Matthew 25:41, Matthew 25:34, Matthew 25:46, Graebner, Augustus Lawrence (1910). Outlines of Doctrinal Theology. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. pp. 233–8. ISBN 978-0-524-04891-7.
173. Table drawn from, though not copied, from Lange, Lyle W. God So Loved the World: A Study of Christian Doctrine. Milwaukee: Northwestern Publishing House, 2006. p. 448.
174. "Calvinism and Lutheranism Compared". WELS Topical Q&A. Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. Archived from the original on 7 February 2009. Retrieved 26 January 2015. Both (Lutherans and Calvinists) agree on the devastating nature of the fall and that man by nature has no power to aid in his conversions...and that election to salvation is by grace. In Lutheranism the German term for election is Gnadenwahl, election by grace--there is no other kind.
175. John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, trans. Henry Beveridge, III.23.2.
176. John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, trans. Henry Beveridge, II.3.5.
177. John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, trans. Henry Beveridge, III.3.6.
178. WELS Topical Q&A: WELS vs Assembly of God: "[P]eople by nature are dead in their tranbsgressions (sic) and sin and therefore have no ability to decide of Christ (Ephesians 2:1, 5). We do not choose Christ, rather he chose us (John 15:16) We believe that human beings are purely passive in conversion."
179. Augsburg Confessional, Article XVIII, Of Free Will, saying: "(M)an's will has some liberty to choose civil righteousness, and to work things subject to reason. But it has no power, without the Holy Ghost, to work the righteousness of God, that is, spiritual righteousness; since the natural man receiveth not the things of the Spirit of God (1 Cor. 2:14); but this righteousness is wrought in the heart when the Holy Ghost is received through the Word."
180. Henry Cole, trans., Martin Luther on the Bondage of the Will (London, T. Bensley, 1823), 66. The controversial term liberum arbitrium was translated "free-will" by Cole. However Ernest Gordon Rupp and Philip Saville Watson, Luther and Erasmus: Free Will and Salvation (Westminister, 1969) chose "free choice" as their translation.
181. Stanglin, Keith D.; McCall, Thomas H. (15 November 2012). Jacob Arminius: Theologian of Grace. New York: OUP USA. pp. 157–158.
182. The Book of Concord: The Confessions of the Lutheran Church, XI. Election. "Predestination" means "God's ordination to salvation".
183. Olson, Roger E. (2009). Arminian Theology: Myths and Realities. Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press. p. 63. “Arminians accepts divine election, [but] they believe it is conditional."
184. The Westminster Confession, III:6, says that only the "elect" are "effectually called, justified, adopted, sanctified, and saved." However in his Calvin and the Reformed Tradition (Baker, 2012), 45, Richard A. Muller observes that "a sizeable body of literature has interpreted Calvin as teaching "limited atonement", but "an equally sizeable body . . . [interprets] Calvin as teaching "unlimited atonement".
185. "Justification / Salvation". WELS Topical Q&A. Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. Archived from the original on 27 September 2009. Retrieved 29 January 2015. Romans 3:23-24, 5:9, 18 are other passages that lead us to say that it is most appropriate and accurate to say that universal justification is a finished fact. God has forgiven the sins of the whole world whether people believe it or not. He has done more than "made forgiveness possible." All this is for the sake of the perfect substitutionary work of Jesus Christ.
186. "IV. Justification by Grace through Faith". This We Believe. Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. Retrieved 5 February 2015. We believe that God has justified all sinners, that is, he has declared them righteous for the sake of Christ. This is the central message of Scripture upon which the very existence of the church depends. It is a message relevant to people of all times and places, of all races and social levels, for "the result of one trespass was condemnation for all men" (Romans 5:18). All need forgiveness of sins before God, and Scripture proclaims that all have been justified, for "the result of one act of righteousness was justification that brings life for all men" (Romans 5:18). We believe that individuals receive this free gift of forgiveness not on the basis of their own works, but only through faith (Ephesians 2:8–9). ... On the other hand, although Jesus died for all, Scripture says that "whoever does not believe will be condemned" (Mark 16:16). Unbelievers forfeit the forgiveness won for them by Christ (John 8:24).
187. Becker, Siegbert W. "Objective Justification" (PDF). Wisconsin Lutheran Seminary. p. 1. Retrieved 26 January 2015.
188. "Universal Justification". WELS Topical Q&A. Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. Archived from the original on 27 September 2009. Retrieved 5 February 2015. Christ paid for all our sins. God the Father has therefore forgiven them. But to benefit from this verdict we need to hear about it and trust in it. If I deposit money in the bank for you, to benefit from it you need to hear about it and use it. Christ has paid for your sins, but to benefit from it you need to hear about it and believe in it. We need to have faith but we should not think of faith as our contribution. It is a gift of God which the Holy Spirit works in us.
189. Augsburg Confession, Article V, Of Justification. People "cannot be justified before God by their own strength, merits, or works, but are freely justified for Christ's sake, through faith, when they believe that they are received into favor, and that their sins are forgiven for Christ's sake. ..."
190. Stanglin, Keith D.; McCall, Thomas H. (15 November 2012). Jacob Arminius: Theologian of Grace. New York: OUP USA. p. 136. Faith is a condition of justification
191. Paul ChulHong Kang, Justification: The Imputation of Christ's Righteousness from Reformation Theology to the American Great Awakening and the Korean Revivals (Peter Lang, 2006), 70, note 171. Calvin generally defends Augustine’s "monergistic view".
192. Diehl, Walter A. "The Age of Accountability". Wisconsin Lutheran Seminary. Retrieved 10 February 2015. In full accord with Scripture the Lutheran Confessions teach monergism. "In this manner, too, the Holy Scriptures ascribe conversion, faith in Christ, regeneration, renewal and all the belongs to their efficacious beginning and completion, not to the human powers of the natural free will, neither entirely, nor half, nor in any, even the least or most inconsiderable part, but in solidum, that is, entirely, solely, to the divine working and the Holy Ghost" (Trigl. 891, F.C., Sol. Decl., II, 25).
193. Monergism; thefreedictionary.com
194. "Calvinism and Lutheranism Compared". WELS Topical Q&A. Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. Archived from the original on 7 February 2009. Retrieved 9 February 2015.
195. Olson, Roger E. (2009). Arminian Theology: Myths and Realities. Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press. p. 18. Arminian synergism" refers to "evangelical synergism, which affirms the prevenience of grace.
196. Olson, Roger E. (2010). "One more quick sidebar about clarifying Arminianism". My evangelical, Arminian theological musings. Retrieved 27 August 2019. Classical Arminianism does NOT say God never interferes with free will. It says God NEVER foreordains or renders certain evil. [...] An Arminian COULD believe in divine dictation of Scripture and not do violence to his or her Arminian beliefs. [...] Arminianism is not in love with libertarian free will –as if that were central in and of itself. Classical Arminians have gone out of our way (beginning with Arminius himself) to make clear that our sole reasons for believe in free will AS ARMINIANS [...] are 1) to avoid making God the author of sin and evil, and 2) to make clear human responsibility for sin and evil.
197. The Westminster Confession of Faith, Ch XVII, "Of the Perseverance of the Saints".
198. "Once saved always saved". WELS Topical Q&A. Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. Archived from the original on 27 September 2009. Retrieved 7 February 2015. People can fall from faith. The Bible warns, "If you think you are standing firm, be careful that you don't fall" (1 Corinthians 10:12). Some among the Galatians had believed for a while, but had fallen into soul-destroying error. Paul warned them, "You who are trying to be justified by law have been alienated from Christ; you have fallen away from grace" (Galatians 5:4). In his explanation of the parable of the sower, Jesus says, "Those on the rock are the ones who receive the word with joy when they hear it, but they have no root. They believe for a while, but in time of testing they fall away" (Luke 8:13). According to Jesus a person can believe for a while and then fall away. While they believed they possessed eternal salvation, but when they fell from faith they lost God's gracious gift.
199. "Perseverence of the Saints (Once Saved Always Saved)". WELS Topical Q&A. Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. Archived from the original on 27 September 2009. Retrieved 7 February 2015. We cannot contribute one speck to our salvation, but by our own arrogance or carelessness we can throw it away. Therefore, Scripture urges us repeatedly to fight the good fight of faith (Ephesians 6 and 2 Timothy 4 for example). My sins threaten and weaken my faith, but the Spirit through the gospel in word and sacraments strengthens and preserves my faith. That’s why Lutherans typically speak of God’s preservation of faith and not the perseverance of the saints. The key is not our perseverance but the Spirit’s preservation.
200. Demarest, Bruce A. (1997). The Cross and Salvation: The Doctrine of Salvation. Crossway Books. pp. 437–438.
201. Demarest, Bruce A. (1997). The Cross and Salvation: The Doctrine of Salvation. Crossway Books. p. 35. “Many Arminians deny the doctrine of the perseverance of the saints."
202. McGrath, Alister, E. Christianity: An Introduction. 2nd ed. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell, 2006. p. 272.
203. Taruskin, Richard. The Oxford History of Western Music – Volume I (Music in the Earliest Notations to the sixteenth century), pp. 753–758 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010)
204. Apology of the Augsburg Confession, Article XXIV.1
205. See Luther's Small Catechism, Daily Prayers
206. Hämmerli, Maria; Mayer, Jean-François (23 May 2016). Orthodox Identities in Western Europe: Migration, Settlement and Innovation. Routledge. p. 13. ISBN 9781317084914.
207. Principle examples of this in the ELCA include Family of God, Cape Coral FL., The Well, Charlotte NC, Hosanna! of Lakeville, Minnesota, and Church of the Apostles, Seattle WA. Archived 20 August 2006 at the Wayback Machine.
208. "A given culture's values and patterns, insofar as they are consonant with the values of the Gospel, can be used to express the meaning and purpose of Christian worship. Contextualization is a necessary task for the Church's mission in the world, so that the Gospel can be ever more deeply rooted in diverse local cultures." NAIROBI STATEMENT ON WORSHIP AND CULTURE: Contemporary Challenges and Opportunities Archived 22 February 2007 at the Wayback Machine
209. Piepkorn, A.C. Profiles in Belief: Volume II, Protestant Denominations. San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1978. p. 31.
210. Piepkorn, A.C., Profiles in Belief: Volume II, Protestant Denominations. San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1978. p. 32.
211. Piepkorn, A.C., Profiles in Belief: Volume II, Protestant Denominations. San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1978. p. 35.
212. Piepkorn, A.C., Profiles in Belief: Volume II, Protestant Denominations. San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1978. p. 33.
213. Piepkorn, A.C., Profiles in Belief: Volume II, Protestant Denominations. San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1978. p. 34.
214. Hunt, T.; Carper, J. (2012). The Praeger Handbook of Faith-Based Schools in the United States, K-12, Volume 1. ABC-CLIO. p. 177. ISBN 0313391394.
215. Preface to Luther's Large and preface to Luther's Small Catechism.
216. Fahlbusch, Erwin, and Bromiley, Geoffrey William, The Encyclopedia of Christianity, Volume 3. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans, 2003. p. 367.
217. Absolutism and the Eighteenth-Century Origins of Compulsory Schooling in Prussia and Austria (Google Books) by James van Horn Melton, Cambridge University Press, 1988.
218. Klug, Eugene F. and Stahlke, Otto F. Getting into the Formula of Concord. St. Louis: Concordia, 1977. p. 16
219. Klug, Eugene F. and Stahlke, Otto F. Getting into the Formula of Concord. St. Louis: Concordia. p. 18
220. See Lutheran Orthodoxy Under Fire: An Exploratory Study of the Syncretistic Controversy And The Consensus Repetitus Fidei Vere Lutheranae Archived 15 April 2010 at the Wayback Machine and Strenuus Christi Athleta Abraham Calov (1612–1686): Sainted Doctor And Defender of the Church Archived 15 April 2010 at the Wayback Machine, both by Timothy R. Schmeling
221. (in Swedish)Svenskakyrkan.se Archived 30 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine
222. Bente, Friedrich, 1858–1930. American Lutheranism Volume 1: Early History of American Lutheranism: Lutheran Swedes in Delaware. St. Louis: Concordia, 1919, pp. 13–16.
223. Eklund, Emmet E. (1988). His Name Was Jonas: A Biography of Jonas Swenson. Rock Island, Ill.: Augustana Historical Society. p. 99. ISBN 978-0910184366. Retrieved 21 September 2017.
224. Gritsch, Eric W. A History of Lutheranism. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2002. p. 185.
225. For a historical example, see Robert Preus, To Join or Not To Join. North Dakota District of The Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod, 1968.
226. See Brief Statement was adopted as LCMS doctrine in 1932, and from time to time has been adopted by other Lutherans Archived 14 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine
227. Report of the Lutheran Church, The Northwestern Lutheran, p. 281, 31 August 1988.
228. These include, but are not limited to the following: the American Provinces of the Moravian Church, the Episcopal Church in the United States of America, the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.), the Reformed Church in America, the United Methodist Church, and the United Church of Christ.
229. For a similar phenomenon also currently developing, see Anglican realignment.
230. see Ecumenism: Facts and Illusions by Kurt E. Marquart for a short explanation of the modern ecumenism movement from a Confessional Lutheran perspective
231. See scholarly articles on the Church Growth Movement Archived 27 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine from the Wisconsin Lutheran Seminary Library and Implications of the Church Growth Movement for Lutherans: Possibilities and Concerns Archived 14 March 2006 at the Wayback Machine by Harold L. Senkbeil as examples of criticism from confessional Lutherans
232. For some opinions and historical discussion from someone who takes a broader view, see What is a call?: or, When is a call a call, and who makes it such? By Alfred H. Maaske
233. Gassman, Günther; Larson, Duane H.; Olderburg, Mark W. (2011). Historical Dictionary of Lutheranism (2nd ed.). The Scarecrow Press, Inc.
234. Das kirchliche Amt in apostolischer Nachfolge. In: Dorothea Sattler, Gunther Wenz: Das kirchliche Amt in apostolischer Nachfolge. Volume 3: Verständigungen und Differenzen. Herder/ Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Freiburg and Göttingen 2008. ISBN 3-451-29943-7, p. 167–267, and p. 266.
235. Karelian religious movement Uskhovayzet
236. Kirche weltweit Ukraine: "Ihre Gemeinde ist annulliert" 18.09.2016 by Von Helmut Frank]
237. A New "Old" Lutheran Church in Asian Russia by Alexei Streltsov, in Logia, Epiphany 2006: Volume 15, Number 1
238. Zahlen und Fakte zum kirchlichen Leben 2019 Evangelische Kirche in Deutschland
239. This website has text and midi files for the 1865 Pennsylvania Ministerium hymnal.
240. Abdel Ross Wentz (1954), A Basic History of Lutheranism in America, Philadelphia, Pa., p. 41
241. Clifton E. Olmstead (1960), History of Religion in the United States, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., pp. 6, 140
242. For example, the single Lutheran church on the island of Guam is a member of the Lutheran Church-Missouri Synod and the Lutheran Congregations in Mission for Christ. See Lutheran Church of Guam History
243. For example, Trinity New Haven, MO is a member congregation of the Missouri Synod even though their pastor is independent. This congregation was expelled from the Missouri Synod for a while over this, but they challenged it and got back in.
244. Due to influence from former Missourians joining the ELCA in the American Evangelical Lutheran Church
245. One example of these differences are those between the Missouri and Wisconsin Synods.
246. "About Us". Lutheran Church of New Zealand. Retrieved 5 March 2015. However, some Lutherans disagree with the way the Lutheran World Federation arrives at this number, as millions of them actually come from bodies that are largely Reformed, but include some Lutherans. For more information on this, see: Schumacher, William (April 2005). "Theological Observer: How Many Lutherans?" (PDF). Concordia Journal. Archived from the original on 10 June 2007.
247. "Member Churches". The Lutheran World Federation. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
248. "Survey Shows 70.5 Million Members in LWF-Affiliated Churches". The Lutheran World Federation. 14 March 2012. Archived from the original on 15 July 2012. Retrieved 22 July 2012.
249. "Gezählt 2020 - Zahlen und Fakten zum kirchlichen Leben" (PDF). ekd.de. Retrieved 20 July 2020.
250. Encyclopædia Britannica, Dominant Protestant Denomination Per Country, 1995.
251. Lutherans as a Percentage of All Residents, 2000 Archived 30 June 2006 at the Wayback Machine (Map by county). Also see comparable maps of other religions along with specific denominations of Lutheran at the main American Ethnic Geography Archived 9 June 2007 at the Wayback Machine site
252. 2011 World Lutheran Membership Details Archived 24 March 2013 at the Wayback Machine
253. "Sweden Ends Designation of Lutheranism as Official Religion". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
254. The Lutheran World Federation 2013 Membership Figures

Further reading

• ALC Historical Perspective: Nervig, Casper B. Christian Truth and Religious Delusions, Minneapolis: Augsburg Publishing House, 1941.
• Arand, Charles P, and Robert Kolb, eds. The Lutheran Confessions: History and Theology of the Book of Concord (2012)
• Bodensieck, Julius, ed. The encyclopedia of the Lutheran Church (3 vol 1965) vol 1 and 3 online free
• Brauer, James Leonard and Fred L. Precht, eds. Lutheran Worship: History and Practice (1993)
• CLC Perspective: Concerning Church Fellowship: A Statement of Principle. Eau Claire, WI: CLC Book House. 1996.
• Confessional & Historical Perspective: Günther Gassmann & Scott Hendrix. Fortress Introduction to the Lutheran Confessions. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1999. ISBN 0-8006-3162-5.
• European Lutheran perspective: Elert, Werner. The Structure of Lutheranism: the Theology and Philosophy of Life of Lutheranism, Especially in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries, trans. by Walter A. Hansen. Saint Louis, Mo.: Concordia Publishing House, 1962. N.B.: Trans. of Morphologie des Luthertums, vol. 1 of which was published in 1931 at Munich by C.H. Beck'sche Verlagsbuchhandlung, 1931, vol. 2 in German appearing in 1932; the t.p. of this English-language ed. states "Volume One", but there has been no publication, as part of this English ed., of vol. 2.
• Fellowship of Lutheran Congregations Perspective: What True Lutherans Teach. Oak Parks, Ill.: E.L.C. Tract Center, [199?]. 11 p. N.B.: There is no personal author or specific committee credited with this brochure.
• General Council Historical Perspective: Krauth, Charles Porterfield (1875). The Conservative Reformation and Its Theology: As Represented in the Augsburg Confession, and in the History and Theology of the Evangelical Lutheran Church (2nd ed.). Philadelphia: J. P. Lippincott. p. 840. ISBN 978-0-7586-0994-6.
• Granquist, Mark. Lutherans in America: A New History (2015)
• LCA Historical Perspective: Braaten, Carl E. (1983). Principles of Lutheran Theology. Philadelphia: Fortress Press. ISBN 978-0-8006-1689-2.
• LCA Historical Worship Perspective: Reed, Luther D. The Lutheran Liturgy: a Study [especially] of the Common Service of the Lutheran Church in America. Philadelphia, Penn.: Muhlenberg Press, 1947. N.B.: This study also includes some coverage of other Lutheran liturgical services, especially of Matins and Vespers.
• LCMS Perspective: Pieper, Franz (1950–1957). Christian Dogmatics. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 3 Volumes. ISBN 978-0-570-06714-6.
• LCMS Perspective: Engelder, Theodore E.W. (1934). Popular Symbolics: The Doctrines of the Churches of Christendom and Of Other Religious Bodies Examined in the Light of Scripture. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 526.
• LCMS Perspective: Brief Statement of the Doctrinal Position of the Missouri Synod (1932). Saint Louis, Mo.: Concordia Publishing House.
• LCMS Perspective: Graebner, Augustus Lawrence (1910). Outlines of Doctrinal Theology. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 250. ISBN 978-0-524-04891-7. Archived from the original on 9 July 2006.
• LCMS Perspective: Kretzschmar, Karl (198?). What Lutherans Teach. St. Louis, Mo.: Concordia Tract Mission.
• LCMS Perspective: Neuhaus, Richard John (1969). The Lutherans (in "Ecumenical Series"). New York: Paulist Press. N.B.: At the time of the publication of this document, Neuhaus was still a Lutheran pastor, of the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod.
• LCR Perspective: McLaughlin, Wallace H. (1963). We All Believe in One True God: A Summary of Biblical Doctrine. Midland, Michigan: Cross of Christ Press.
• Meyer, Carl S. Moving Frontiers: Readings in the History of the Lutheran Church Missouri Synod (1986)
• Neo-Lutheran Historical Perspective: Schmid, Heinrich Friedrich Ferdinand (1876). The Doctrinal Theology of the Evangelical Lutheran Church. Philadelphia: Lutheran Publication Society. ISBN 978-0-7905-8877-3.
• Norwegian Synod Historical Perspective: Monson, Ingvar Grøthe (1915). The Difference: A Popular Guide to Denominational History and Doctrine. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House.
• Richard, James William (1909) The Confessional History of the Lutheran Church. Philadelphia: Lutheran Publication Society, 1909
• Roeber, A. G. Palatines, Liberty, and Property: German Lutherans in Colonial British America (1998)
• Slovak Synod Historical Perspective: Richter, V. W. (1913). Why Should a Lutheran Not Join Any Sectarian Church?. Streator, Illinois: Svedok Publishing House.
• WELS Perspective: Lange, Lyle W. (2006). God So Loved the World: A Study of Christian Doctrine. Northwestern Publishing House. ISBN 978-0-8100-1744-3.
• Comparison of about 50 Lutheran church bodies in America: Brug, John F. (2009). WELS & Other Lutherans (2nd ed.). Northwestern Publishing House. ISBN 978-0-8100-0543-3.
• Comparison of Catholic, Lutheran, and Protestant doctrine: Jackson, Gregory L. (2007). Catholic, Lutheran, Protestant: A Doctrinal Comparison of Three Christian Confessions (PDF). Glendale, Arizona: Martin Chemnitz Press.

External links

• Moldehnke, Edward F. "Was ist denn eigentlich ein Lutheraner?" Evangelish-Lutherisches Gemeinde-Blatt. Vol. 1, nos. 8–10 (1866). Trans. Nathaniel J. Biebert. "So What Actually Is a Lutheran?" Studium Excitare. Issue No. 12 (2010).
•  "Lutherans" . Collier's New Encyclopedia. 1921.
• A historical study of the Laestadian Lutheran Church, the SRK, and Conservative Laestadianism