Hitler's prophecy
During a speech at the Reichstag on 30 January 1939, Adolf Hitler predicted "the annihilation of the Jewish race in Europe" in the event of another world war. These words, which were similar to comments that Hitler had previously made to foreign politicians in private meetings, came towards the end of a long speech that dealt with several topics. They were made in the context of Nazi attempts to increase Jewish emigration from Nazi Germany, before the outbreak of World War II.
Allusions to Hitler's prophecy by Nazi leaders and in Nazi propaganda were common from 30 January 1941, when Hitler mentioned it again in a speech. The prophecy took on new meaning with the invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941 and the German declaration of war against the United States that December, accelerating the systematic mass murder of Jews and leading to the globalization of World War II. In late 1941, Nazi propagandist Joseph Goebbels stated that the prophecy was being fulfilled while justifying the mass deportation of Jews from Germany. On 30 September 1942, Hitler referenced the prophecy in another speech, which was adapted into a November issue of Parole der Woche titled "They Will Stop Laughing!!!" Hitler continued to invoke the prophecy as the war went against Germany, even alluding to it in his last will and testament. The prophecy became a leitmotif of the Final Solution as it was frequently used by Nazi leaders when alluding to their systematic murder of Jews, and is the best-known phrase from Hitler's speeches.
The historical significance of the prophecy is debated between the schools of functionalism and intentionalism: intentionalists view it as proof of Hitler's previously developed master plan to systematically murder the European Jews, while functionalists argue that "annihilation" was not meant or understood to mean mass murder, at least initially. The prophecy is cited by historians as an example of Nazi belief in an international Jewish conspiracy and Jewish responsibility for World War II. Despite its vagueness—the prophecy does not explain how the "annihilation" will come about—it is also cited as evidence that Germans were aware that Jews were being exterminated. The prophecy has been compared to other instances of incitement to genocide.
Background
According to historian Ian Kershaw, upon Nazi Party leader Adolf Hitler seizure of power on 30 January 1933, the Nazi mass movement was already "proto-genocidal" and "held together by the utopian vision of national salvation, to be achieved through racial cleansing at the core of which was the 'removal' of the Jews".[2] In April 1933, the one-day Nazi boycott of Jewish businesses was announced and SA paramilitaries were posted around Jewish businesses to enforce the boycott.[3] Between 1933 and 1939, more than 400 anti-Jewish laws and decrees were enacted. In April 1933, Jews were barred from holding positions in the civil service; this law also created the Aryan Paragraph, which was later used to define and exclude Jews from organizations and professions. The same year, quotas were imposed on the number of Jewish students allowed to study at schools and universities, as well as the number of Jews allowed to practice medicine and law. In 1935, the Nuremberg Laws were passed, which defined Jews by their ancestry rather than religious confession and formalized their exclusion from society. The Nuremberg Laws also outlawed marriages and sexual relationships between Jews and "Aryans". Various laws impeded Jews from owning property or earning a living; in the process known as Aryanization, most Jewish-owned businesses had been confiscated and turned over to "Aryan" ownership by 1939.[4]
Hitler had associated the Jews and war in multiple speeches before 1939.[5] In 1931, Hitler said in the event of war, the Jews would be "crushed by the wheels of history";[6] he also characterized the 1933 anti-Nazi boycott as a Jewish declaration of war against Germany.[5] According to historian Claudia Koonz, between taking power in 1933 and his prophecy speech in January 1939, Hitler only "directly vent[ed] his phobic racial hatred" on two occasions: in a 1935 speech announcing the introduction of the Nuremberg Laws, and at the Nuremberg Rally in September 1937. Given that Hitler regularly gave two- and three-hour speeches, "racial policy hardly figured in his pronouncements" overall, according to Koonz. Hitler found subtle ways to signal antisemitism to his core followers while maintaining a moderate public image.[7] In discussions of the proper solution to the Jewish Question in the 1930s, extermination was often discussed as an option by SS officials, although it was usually discarded.[8]
Kristallnacht
In November 1938, the Nazi leadership organized and incited the Kristallnacht pogrom against Jews, in part to bleed off excess antisemitic sentiment from party activists that had been suppressed for diplomatic reasons during the Munich crisis.[9][10] The pogrom involved unprecedented public violence against German Jews, including the burning of synagogues, looting of Jewish-owned stores and residences, and assaults on Jews which (according to official figures) caused 91 deaths. Hitler personally approved the arrest of 30,000 Jews and their incarceration in concentration camps.[11] Kristallnacht evoked disgust among many Germans, although few engaged in overt opposition to the regime's actions.[12] It also aroused considerable international criticism and endangered the German government's efforts to organize and facilitate the emigration of German Jews.[10][13]
Kristallnacht radicalized the anti-Jewish discourse in German society.[8] A propaganda campaign conducted from November 1938 to January 1939 aimed at justifying the pogrom to the German people and blaming it on the Jews.[12] The idea of exterminating Jews became more common.[14] On 12 November, Hermann Göring convened a meeting of Nazi leaders in Hitler's name. Göring stated that "it goes without question that we in Germany also will in the first place think of carrying out a great reckoning with the Jews" if Germany went to war.[15][16] Historian Yehuda Bauer writes that this statement is "very similar to that quoted from Hitler's speech" given on 30 January 1939.[16] On 24 November,[17][18] the SS newspaper Das Schwarze Korps, reflecting on the meeting of 12 November,[19] printed the following statement: "This stage of development [of the Jews] will impose on us the vital necessity to exterminate the Jewish subhumanity as we exterminate all criminals in our law-abiding state: with fire and sword! The outcome will be the actual and final end to Jewry in Germany, its total annihilation."[17] This language reflected the radicalization in party circles,[18] and, according to Bauer, "was written with at least the knowledge that it fitted in with Hitler's views".[20]
Statements to diplomats
On 21 November 1938, Hitler met with the South African defense minister Oswald Pirow and told him that the Jews would be killed if war broke out. The same month, an official of Hitler's chancellery told a British diplomat "that Germany intended to get rid of her Jews, either by emigration or if necessary by starving or killing them, since she would not risk having such a hostile minority in the country in the event of war" and also that Germany "intended to expel or kill off the Jews in Poland, Hungary and the Ukraine" after invading those countries.[21] On 16 January 1939, Hitler met with István Csáky, foreign minister of Hungary.[22] Csáky recalled that "he was sure of only one thing, the Jews would have to disappear from Germany to the last man".[23]
On 21 January, Hitler told František Chvalkovský, foreign minister of Czechoslovakia: "Our Jews will be annihilated. The Jews did not perpetrate 9 November 1918 for nothing; this day will be avenged."[24][25] Hitler added that the Jews were also poisoning Czechoslovakia, prompting an antisemitic diatribe from Chvalkovský.[25] In the same meeting, Hitler threatened the "annihilation" of Czechoslovakia if it did not conform to German demands.[26] According to German historian Hans Mommsen, Hitler was referring to destroying the influence of the Jews rather than calling for their physical destruction.[27] German historian Peter Longerich interprets "annihilation" to refer to emigration or expulsion: Hitler "evidently did not mean the physical destruction of the Jews", but only "the end of their collective existence in Germany".[25] Kershaw argues that, while Hitler was not announcing his intentions to Chvalkovský, "the sentiments were not merely rhetoric or propaganda".[24]
Speech of 30 January 1939
 |
Wikisource has original text related to this article: |
 |
Nazi propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels helped write the speech,[28] which was delivered in the Reichstag on 30 January 1939, the sixth anniversary of Hitler's seizure of power in 1933.[29] The speech lasted two[30] or two-and-a-half hours. It dealt with both the foreign and domestic policies of the Nazi government.[18]
Foreign policy
Hitler discussed the Munich crisis and admitted that he had planned a military invasion after the May Crisis in the event that Czechoslovakia did not capitulate to his demand to surrender the Sudetenland by 2 October 1938. Referencing "a serious blow to the prestige of the Reich" and an "intolerable provocation", Hitler claimed that the Sudetenland had been secured by German determination and willingness to resort to war, rather than by diplomacy.[31] For the first time since Munich, Hitler hinted at further expansion, stating "how important the expansion of our people’s living space (Lebensraum) was in order permanently to secure their food supplies", as Germany currently had "to export in order to buy food".[32] He complained that Germany was prevented from expanding by "the continuing blindness of the former victor powers".[32] Longerich writes that demanding "living space, while simultaneously stressing Germany’s commitment to peace, soon became part of the standard repertoire of German propaganda".[32]
Jews
Although the Évian Conference in July 1938 had failed to open other countries to Jewish emigrants,[33] the Nazis still attempted to hasten the emigration of Jews from Germany. Discussions continued between Göring and George Rublee, director of the Intergovernmental Committee for Refugees.[33][34] Hitler ridiculed "German businessmen devoid of any conscience" who felt sympathy for Jews.[35] He complained that there was "enough space for settlement" in the world for German Jews to go, and contended that Europe could "not become pacified before the Jewish question has been settled".[36][16] In a long rant against Jews,[29] Hitler first mocked them, remarking at "how the whole democratic world [was] oozing with sympathy for the poor tormented Jewish People [and yet] remains hard-hearted when it comes to helping these supposedly most valuable members of the human race".[35][37] He said that it was time to "wrestle the Jewish world enemy to the ground",[35] and that the German government was completely determined "to get rid of these people".[36][38]
Hitler accused Jews of having "nothing of their own, except for political and sanitary diseases" and being parasites on the German nation, turning Germans into "beggars in their own country". He asserted there had to be an end to the misconception that "the good Lord had meant the Jewish nation to live off the body and productive work of other nations", or else the Jews would "succumb to a crisis of unimaginable severity".[29] At this point Hitler got to what Longerich describes as "the core of what he had to say":[38]
I have very often in my lifetime been a prophet and have been mostly derided. At the time of my struggle for power it was in the first instance the Jewish people who only greeted with laughter my prophecies that I would someday take over the leadership of the state and of the entire people of Germany and then, among other things, also bring the Jewish problem to its solution. I believe that this hollow laughter of Jewry in Germany has already stuck in its throat. I want today to be a prophet again: if international finance Jewry inside and outside Europe should succeed in plunging the nations once more into a world war, the result will be not the Bolshevization of the earth and thereby the victory of Jewry, but the annihilation of the Jewish race in Europe.[1]
Hitler claimed that the Jews were trying to incite "millions among the masses of people into a conflict that is utterly senseless for them and serves only Jewish interests".[30]
Dissemination and reactions
Hitler's prediction about the Jews was reprinted in the party newspaper Völkischer Beobachter and in a dedicated pamphlet.[21] The speech was broadcast live on radio.[30] According to Goebbels' explicit instructions to Fritz Hippier, the part of the speech that included Hitler's threat against the Jews was recorded simultaneously in audio and video (a difficult technical achievement at the time) and included in the weekly UFA Wochenschau newsreel after Hitler personally approved it.[39][40][41] Newsreels typically played down the exclusionary aspect of the people's community; January 1939 was the first time that Nazi policies towards the Jews were directly connected to the party leader on newsreels.[42] Historian Richard J. Evans writes that the threat "could not have been more public".[40]
At the time of the speech, Jews and non-Jews inside and outside of Germany were paying close attention to Hitler's statements because of Kristallnacht and the possibility of war.[33] In the following days, the speech attracted significant commentary in Germany.[30] The German-Jewish diarists Luise Solmitz and Victor Klemperer mentioned the speech in their diaries but paid little attention to Hitler's threat.[43] A member of Sopade, a German resistance organization, responded to the speech and argued that "the Jews in Germany are lost unless they can emigrate". In February, another German wrote of "the inexorable extermination [Ausrottung]... What happened to the Armenians in Turkey ... is, more slowly and efficiently being done to the Jews".[44]
The speech also attracted attention outside of Germany, but coverage focused on the geopolitical implications,[45][46] while the threat "was barely noticed at the time", according to Koonz.[45] Some foreign commentators interpreted the speech as "the expression of [Hitler's] will for peace, if only justified German demands" were satisfied, according to historian Norman Domeier.[46] The New York Yiddish newspaper Forverts printed a headline referencing Hitler's threat against the Jews, but the article below it only discussed the threat of war and Hitler's alliances with Italy and Japan. The Warsaw Yiddish newspaper Haynt discussed the speech in several issues beginning on 31 January, but did not emphasize the prophecy. On 31 January, it printed the main points of the speech without mentioning the prophecy; in an analysis of the speech published the next day, Moshe Yustman discussed appeasement and other foreign policy issues.[47]
Allusions
Although Hitler rarely repeated himself,[48] he made over a dozen references to his threat both publicly and privately.[49][50][51] At the height of the Holocaust in 1942, Hitler publicly referenced his prophecy on at least four occasions.[50] Believed to be intentional, he consistently misdated the prophecy to 1 September 1939, when the German invasion of Poland began:[50][52][53] by emphasizing the link between the war and the persecution of the Jews,[52] the persecution could be construed as a justified response to an attack on Germany.[54] Hitler always referenced the prophecy when discussing the extermination of the Jews.[55]
Besides Nazi leaders, army propaganda[56][lower-alpha 1] and ordinary soldiers also referred to the prophecy.[56][lower-alpha 2] Low-ranking Holocaust perpetrator Walter Mattner wrote a letter to his wife justifying the murder of Jewish children and referencing Hitler's prophecy.[58] Jews were also aware of the prophecy,[56] Warsaw Ghetto diarist Chaim Kaplan writing on 1 September 1939 that, since war would break out, Polish Jews might face the fate the Hitler had foretold.[59] On 2 February 1942, Kaplan wrote that Hitler "boasted that his prophecy is beginning to come true: had he not said that if a war would break out in Europe the Jewish people would be annihilated? This process has already begun and will continue until the end is reached."[60] "Hitler's oft-repeated intention to exterminate the Jewish people in Europe" was referenced in the Joint Declaration by Members of the United Nations on 17 December 1942.[61]
The Eternal Jew
Footage of Hitler making the threat was included in the 1940 film The Eternal Jew.[62][63] According to historian Bill Niven, the film makes the case to Germans "that the war was a racial one, a life-or-death struggle against Jews. It makes of Hitler's words of 30 January 1939 a statement of intent and call to arms" juxtaposed with "supposed images of Jewish savagery".[64] The film was a flop and a month after its release was only being shown in one cinema in Berlin.[65] Historian Alon Confino writes that Germans rejected the film because its scenes, shot in German-occupied Poland, were too explicit in showing what "annihilation" might actually entail.[66]
30 January 1941 speech
|
Wikisource has original text related to this article: |
On 30 January 1941, in a speech at the Sportpalast, Hitler mentioned the prophecy.[67][50] Kershaw suggests that although Hitler may have had his threat in mind during the intervening years or was reminded of it by a subordinate, it was most likely the clip from The Eternal Jew that reminded him.[68] Hitler stated:
Not to be forgotten is the comment I’ve already made in the Reichstag, on September 1, 1939 [actually January 30, 1939], that if the world were to be pushed by Jewry into a general war, the role of the whole of Jewry in Europe would be finished . . . Today, they [the Jews] may still be laughing about [that statement], just as they laughed earlier about my prophecies. Now our racial knowledge is spreading from people to people. I hope that those who still are our antagonists will one day recognize the greater domestic enemy and will then make common cause with us: against the international Jewish exploitation and the corruption of nations![69]
In the speech, Hitler implied that his previous threats against German Jews had caused the international Jewish community to influence Western powers into appeasement of Germany, and renewed threats would induce the Jews to convince the British government to make peace.[69] Under the headline "The Jew will be exterminated",[70] the speech was published in German and translated for international media companies. The editors of The New York Times (believed by the Nazis to be at the center of the "Jewish press") wrote that Hitler did not have a record of following through with promises or threats.[71][lower-alpha 3]
At the time of the January 1941 speech, the Nazi leadership was already planning the invasion of the Soviet Union and considering deporting Jews to the conquered territories after a victory. Therefore, Kershaw argues, Hitler's "war against the 'Jewish-Bolshevik' archenemy was taking concrete shape in his mind" and referencing the prophecy was a covert allusion that "the showdown with the Jews was approaching".[50] He also wrote that the reference was a "veiled hint" at something like the Madagascar Plan and "a repeat of the blackmail ploy that he held the Jews in his power as hostages".[68] Although Hitler was "uncertain precisely how the war would bring about the destruction of European Jewry, he was sure that this would be the outcome".[73]
Invasion of the Soviet Union
On 22 June 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union.[74] Goebbels published the essay "Mimicry" in Das Reich on 20 July 1941. It was one of his most influential extended attacks on the Jews,[75] in which he elaborated on Hitler's prophecy.[76] Goebbels argued that the Jews practiced "mimicry" by infiltrating nations and secretly controlling the Allied governments; they were using their power to prolong the war so that Europe would bleed out and be too weak to resist the "Bolshevization" that Jews intended to inflict upon it. He claimed that the Nazis were able to "unmask" them by ignoring historical contingency (the method which historians use to explain events) and threatened a terrible punishment for their alleged guilt.[77][lower-alpha 4]
In mid-August 1941, Goebbels received a report of a mass shooting of Jews in the Baltics and connected the killing to Hitler's prophecy.[78] According to Goebbels' diary entry on 19 August, Hitler mentioned the prophecy when granting Goebbels' request to force Jews in Germany to wear yellow stars after the invasion of the Soviet Union was not as easy as expected. Hitler said that his prophecy was coming true: "the Jews in the East must pay the bill [for the war]; in Germany they have already paid part of it and in the future they will have to pay more[79][80] ... the Jews will not have much cause to laugh in [the] future".[81][82] According to Longerich, Hitler was willing to authorize harsher measures against Jews in Germany because of the mass shootings of Jews in the occupied Soviet Union,[79] which he had ordered before the invasion of the Soviet Union.[83] The diary entry indicates that both Hitler and Goebbels drew a causal connection between the war and the extermination of the Jews.[82]
In September, when Hitler made the decision to deport German Jews into the occupied Soviet Union,[84][85] the Nazi Party printed the prophecy on one of its weekly quotation posters (Wochenspruch der NSDAP):[86] "Should the international Jewish financiers succeed once again in plunging the nations into a world war, the result will not be the victory of the Jews but the annihilation of the Jewish race in Europe."[85] These posters were sent to all of the Nazi Party's local branches[84] and displayed promiently in Berlin[87] and "in every town and village".[85] Koonz writes that Hitler was "investing [his] political capital in the war against the Jews".[87] According to German historian Tobias Jersak, the true meaning may not have been obvious.[85]
In the lead article on 15 October from the periodical Die Judenfrage in Politik, Recht, Kultur und Wirtschaft titled "The War Guilt of the Jews", a series of quotes from various Jews is joined together in an effort to prove that the Jews declared war against Germany; the prophecy is mentioned at the end of the article.[88]
On 25 October, referring to attempts to drown Jewish women in the Pripet marshes, Hitler mentioned his prophecy that asserted the "criminal race" (supposedly responsible for German casualties in World War I and "now again hundreds of thousands") would be destroyed.[89][90][lower-alpha 5] Jersak writes that this "supplied the correct logic for the perpetrators against the background of defeat in the First World War".[55] On 8 November 1941, Hitler referred to the prophecy in his annual speech at the Löwenbräukeller in Munich to the Nazi old guard to commemorate the Beer Hall Putsch. Hitler said that all measures would be taken so that "November 1918 will never happen again".[91][92] The speech was reported on in the Nazi media, with Völkischer Beobachter running the story under the headline "The Jewish Enemy" and concluding with the statement that "the war against the Jewish international is a life and death struggle that must be ruthlessly fought to the end".[70]
"The Jews are Guilty"
 |
On 16 November 1941, Goebbels wrote an article titled "The Jews are Guilty" in Das Reich,[89][95] aiming to justify the ongoing deportation of the Jews.[96] Communications theorist Randall Bytwerk described it "one of [Goebbels'] most vehement anti-Semitic articles".[97]
The historical guilt of world Jewry for the outbreak and expansion of this war has been so extensively demonstrated that there is no need to waste any more words on it. The Jews wanted their war, and now they have it[94] ... At present we are experiencing the realization of this prophecy and so the Jews are meeting with a fate that may be harsh but is also more than deserved. In this case pity or regret is completely inappropriate.[96] In unleashing this war, world Jewry completely misjudged the forces at its disposal. Now it is suffering a gradual process of extermination that it had intended for us and that it would have unleashed against us without hesitation if it had the power to do so. It is now perishing as a result of its own law: An eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth... In this historical dispute every Jew is our enemy, whether he vegetates in a Polish ghetto or scrapes out his parasitic existence in Berlin or Hamburg or blows war trumpets in New York or Washington. Owing to their birth and race, all Jews belong to an international conspiracy against National Socialist Germany. They wish for its defeat and annihilation and do everything in their power to help to bring it about.[94]
The article referred explicitly to Hitler's approval for the annihilation and listed actions that Germans should take against Jews ("enemy of the people") and anyone who associated with them, who was to be "regarded and treated as a Jew".[98] German historian Heinrich August Winkler argues that it was "first and foremost, a warning to the apparently many Germans who sympathized with the Jews", and perhaps "a kind of final warning to the American Jews".[99] The article was the first time a Nazi leader had announced that the annihilation of European Jews had gone from threat to reality.[94] According to American historian Jeffrey Herf, Goebbels presented the international Jewish conspiracy "on the offensive against an innocent, victimized German object".[94]
Goebbels had recycled the article title from a 1932 article he wrote for Der Angriff. Winkler writes that in both cases the Jews were blamed for the failure of the Nazis to achieve their goals, which led to an increase in anti-Jewish aggression.[100] Kershaw suggests that Goebbels probably discussed the article with Hitler before publication.[89] At the time, Das Reich had a circulation above one million,[99][101] and the article was broadcast on German Home Service.[102] Goebbels specifically ordered the article to be distributed to soldiers on the Eastern Front. According to the Security Service (SD), the article "found a strong echo" among Germans, although some churchgoers were critical of it.[101]
Historian Norman Dormeier wrote that the article "made public and legitimized that the Nazi regime was in the process of murdering the Jews of Europe".[46] Many contemporaries dismissed it as another Nazi propaganda lie unrelated to the regime's actual actions towards the Jews. Herf argues that the reference to "extermination" was unambiguous because the German language has words for "impoverishment, discrimination, deportation, and illness".[103] Winkler writes that "[w]hoever read or heard about the 16 November article learned that masses of Jews were being killed in the east",[99] and that the meaning "was impossible to misunderstand or ignore".[104] According to Longerich, the article was a "sufficiently clear answer to the question of what was happening to the Jews who were being deported from Germany".[96]
Friedrich-Wilhelm University speech
Goebbels, who had a doctorate from the University of Heidelberg, presented the narrative to German elites in a speech at Friedrich-Wilhelm University in Berlin on 1 December.[105][106] "We are now experiencing the implementation of this prophecy. . . . [Jewry] is now suffering a gradual process of extermination".[106][lower-alpha 6] The Reich Press Office ordered newspapers to report on this speech as a front-page story,[105] and it was widely broadcast on the radio.[102]
Goebbels justified the violence against the Jews as a preemptive strike against the extreme violence that they supposedly planned to unleash upon Germany, and argued that the anti-Jewish violence was a normal part of war. According to Herf, this "demonstrated that denial of the dimensions of the Holocaust was an essential component of the act itself". Herf writes that the "balance of justification for mass murder and silence about the details was characteristic of Nazi propaganda throughout the Holocaust".[109]
Goebbels used the word extermination (Vernichtung) to refer to what the Soviet Union intended to do if it won the war, referring to the murder of the German intelligentsia. A few minutes later, he used the same word to refer to what the Germans were doing to the Jews. Herf suggests that "some in his audience thought the addition of the adjective 'gradual' before 'process of extermination' may have meant slow starvation or death by exposure", rather than immediate murder by shooting or in death camps.[108] Herf argues that the violent language in his speech points to the most direct interpretation.[110]
War against the United States
On 11 December 1941, Germany declared war on the United States in the wake of the Pearl Harbor attack. The next day, Hitler gave a speech in the Reich Chancellery to Nazi Party leaders.[111] According to Kershaw, Hitler discussed "the consequences of Pearl Harbor, the war in the east, and the glorious future awaiting Germany after final victory", and then referenced his prophecy:[112]
Regarding the Jewish question, the Führer is determined to settle the matter once and for all. He prophesied that if the Jews once again brought about a world war, they would experience their extermination .This was not an empty phrase. The world war is here. The extermination of the Jews must be its necessary consequence. This question must be viewed without any sentimentality. We are here not to express sympathy for the Jews, but only to express sympathy for our own German people. As the German people again has sacrificed 160,000 dead in the eastern campaign, so the originators of this conflict must pay [for these deaths] with their own lives.[113]
Kershaw writes that Hitler's tone was "more menacing and vengeful than ever".[112] The prophecy was initially meant as a warning, but since the Jews had (according to Hitler) started a world war, they would experience the consequences of the war.[112] Herf notes that the speech further emphasized the causal connection between the war and the Holocaust.[113] According to Longerich, Hitler intended to indicate that the systematic murder of Jews that was already underway in the Soviet Union, Poland, and Serbia, should be continued and extended.[114] Historian Christian Gerlach writes that Hitler "never before [referred to his prophecy] as clearly, as unambiguously, or in such a matter-of-fact way as recorded here by Goebbels. What Hitler said was not intended metaphorically or as propaganda".[115] Gerlach argues that this meeting was Hitler's announcement of his decision to murder all of the Jews in Europe,[116] while Goldhagen interprets it to mean that "Hitler had taken the decision" and could now taunt his victims.[117] According to Evans, the theory that Hitler gave the order at this point has been rejected in favor of the theory that Nazi decision-making evolved gradually over time, and Gerlach subsequently distanced himself from the claim.[118] Browning writes that "Hitler gave no explicit order but made unmistakably clear that his prophecy... had to be taken utterly literally".[119]
Kershaw writes that Hitler "still had his 'prophecy' in mind" on 14 December, when he spoke to Alfred Rosenberg about a speech that the latter was preparing. According to Rosenberg, Hitler "said [the Jews] had burdened [the Germans] with the war and brought about the destruction so it was no wonder if they would be the first to feel the consequences".[120] On 16 December, Nazi official Hans Frank repeated the prophecy in similar words as Hitler had used five days earlier, adding: "What is to happen to the Jews? Do you believe they’ll be accommodated in village settlements in the Ostland? They said to us in Berlin: why are you giving us all this trouble? ... Liquidate them yourselves!... We must destroy the Jews wherever we find them." According to Frank, the war could not be considered a complete success unless the Jews were exterminated. Without receiving a written order from Hitler, he understood that the Jews were to be exterminated, although the details had not been worked out at that time.[121]
30 January 1942 speech
|
Wikisource has original text related to this article: |
Ten days after the Wannsee Conference at which the Final Solution was discussed,[122][123] Hitler spoke at the Sportpalast for the ninth anniversary of the Nazi seizure of power. He insulted Winston Churchill and emphasized the difficulty of the ongoing winter fighting on the Eastern Front. He characterized the war as a "fight for the whole of Europe and, thereby, for the whole of civilized humanity" and a race war between Jews and Aryans before referencing the prophecy:[124]
I already stated on 1 September 1939 in the German Reichstag that this war will not come to an end as the Jews imagine, with the extermination of the European-Aryan peoples, but that the result of this war will be the annihilation of Jewry. For the first time the old Jewish law will now be applied: an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth[125]... The hour will come, when the most evil enemy of the world of all time will have played his last part in Europe for at least a thousand years.[126]
The speech was widely covered in the press and, according to Security Service reports, was understood to mean that "the Führer’s fight against the Jews is being fought mercilessly to the end, and that soon the last Jews will have been driven from European soil".[126][127][128] However, the reports also indicate that Germans had a stronger reaction to other issues raised in the speech than the prophecy.[128] Winkler writes that the speech is a paraphrase of Revelation 20 "to convince the Germans of the greatness of their mission in history" in saving Europe from the Jews.[129] According to Longerich, Hitler intended to emphasize that "the further course of the war was inextricably bound up with the fate of the Jews under his regime".[126]
24 February 1942 speech
|
Wikisource has original text related to this article: |
On 24 February, the anniversary of the founding of the Nazi Party, Hitler was absent but instructed Gauleiter Adolf Wagner to read a statement. Hitler implied that even if the war was lost, his prophecy would be fulfilled.[130][131][lower-alpha 7] A paragraph was quoted in Niedersächsische Tageszeitung the next day, under the heading "The Jew is being exterminated".[132] The speech was quoted in a Der Stürmer article of 19 March 1942 titled "The Coming End — the Führer's Prophecy", which explained that Hitler's speech made it clear "[h]ow this solution [to the Jewish question] will come about".[133][lower-alpha 8] The article coincided with the third and fourth waves of deportations of Jews from Germany, which occurred very publicly from March to June 1942 and effectively eliminated the Jewish presence in Germany.[135]
Goebbels diary entry
In March 1942, Goebbels wrote in his diary about the gassing of Jews in the Lublin District of occupied Poland.[136][137] It was the most detail that he ever devoted to the murder of Jews.[138] Goebbels wrote that Jews under German rule were paying for the war effort of the Allied powers:[139]
A judgment is being visited upon the Jews which, barbaric as it is, they have fully deserved. The Führer’s prophecy of the fate in store for them if they started another world war is beginning to come true in the most terrible manner. In these matters, one must not give way to sentimentality. If we did not fight them, the Jews would destroy us. It is a life-and-death struggle between the Aryan race and the Jewish bacillus.[140] ... Here, too, the Führer is the unswerving champion and spokesman of a radical solution.[141]
Jersak observes Goebbels' horror at how the German persecution of Jews "was dispelled by the normative logic of the system": the admission that the treatment was "barbaric" is justified by referring to the prophecy and the Jewish conspiracy, while the sentimentality (which appeals to him) is dispelled by dehumanizing Jews by describing them as a "bacillus".[142]
On 23 May, Hitler presented what Kershaw describes as "a more forthright version of his 'prophecy'" in a closed-door meeting with party leaders in the Reich Chancellery, saying (according to Goebbels) "that the Jews are determined under all circumstances to bring this war to victory for them, since they know that defeat also means for them personal liquidation".[143] Kershaw writes that Hitler was "unmistakably and explicitly linking [the prophecy], in Goebbels’s understanding of what was intended, with the physical liquidation of the Jews".[144]
"They Will Stop Laughing!!!"
|
Wikisource has original text related to this article: |
On 30 September, Hitler delivered another speech at the Sportpalast.[145][146] He reassured his audience that the worst of the war was over.[146] Speaking of the need to retaliate for Allied bombing, he invoked the prophecy "as if the extermination of the Jews were an act of retaliation for the Allied bombing campaign".[145]
"On September 1, 1939, in the meeting of the Reichstag I said two things. First, after we were forced into this war, neither the power of weapons nor the factor of time would defeat us; second, if Jewry unleashes an international world war in order to bring about the extermination (Ausrottung) of the Aryan peoples of Europe, then it will be not the Aryan peoples, but rather Jewry, that will be exterminated [long applause]. The wire pullers of the lunatic in the White House have dragged one people after another into the war. In the same measure, however, an anti-Semitic wave has flooded over the peoples. It will move further and seize one state after another that enters this war. Each will emerge from it one day as an anti-Semitic state. The Jews in Germany once laughed about my prophecies. I don’t know if they are laughing today or if the laughter has already gone out of them. I can promise only one thing. They will stop laughing everywhere. And with this prophecy as well I will be proved right [vociferous expressions of agreement from the audience]."[147]
Kershaw describes this as "the most menacing phrases he had so far used" when referring to the prophecy.[146] The audience responded with enthusiasm; Herf contends "that the Nazi faithful understood that Hitler was telling them in language by then familiar that the Nazi regime was at that moment murdering the Jews".[148] As for Hitler's reference to the Jews not laughing anymore, Herf argues that "[a]ny benign interpretation... strains credulity".[148] Herf stated that the audience may have understood Hitler's addition of "everywhere" to his promise to end Jewish laughter to mean the globalization of the Final Solution. Herf concludes that "all indicated that he had ordered and was then implementing the destruction of the Jews".[148]
The speech was broadcast on the radio, reported to the army, and featured prominently in the press.[145] Six weeks later, quotes from the speech were reproduced in an article titled "They Will Stop Laughing!!!" in Parole der Woche, a wall newspaper which frequently printed antisemitic content.[149][150] The newspaper emphasized a laughing Franklin Roosevelt and his supposed Jewish advisers; "They will stop laughing everywhere!!" was reproduced in large type at the bottom of the page. About 125,000 copies of the newspaper were printed and posted in public places to be viewed by millions of people. Herf acknowledges that there is no reliable evidence as to "how many people had the intellectual curiosity, political acumen, and moral courage to conclude that this wall newspaper was an announcement of mass murder".[149]
8 November 1942 speech
|
Wikisource has original text related to this article: |
On 8 November, during Hitler's annual speech for the Nazi party old guard to commemorate the Beer Hall Putsch,[151] he discussed the war in which Germany had recently suffered reversals (at Stalingrad and in Africa), and stated that there would be no negotiated peace.[152] He referenced his prophecy and said that the result of the war would be "the extermination of Jewry in Europe":[49][153]
National Socialist prophecies are not empty phrases. This is the key power that is the source of all our misfortune: international Jewry. You will recall the Reichstag session in which I stated: If Jewry imagines itself to be able to lead an international world war to exterminate the European races, then the result will not be the extermination of the European races but rather the extermination of Jewry in Europe! [applause] The Jews always laughed at me as a prophet. Those who were laughing then are laughing no longer. Those who are still laughing will in a short time perhaps also no longer be laughing...[154]
Hitler said that the enemy was the same one that Nazis had faced under the Weimar Republic. He argued that Germany lost World War I because it did not understand the great danger posed by internal enemies and the Jews; Nazi Germany would win its war against the "half-Jew Roosevelt" because it had been enlightened.[154][152] Kershaw writes that "[t]he speech was not one of Hitler’s best" because his rhetoric was too out of touch with reality, and had only a superficial effect on listeners according to Security Service reports.[152] Herf argues that "the meaning of Hitler’s words was clear. The Jews had intended to 'exterminate'—that is, to kill—the Europeans" and in return the "Nazi regime was in the process of exterminating—that is, killing—the Jews". In Herf's opinion, the most believable interpretation of the Jews no longer laughing was that "something of a catastrophic nature was being done to them". The applause indicated that the audience approved of Hitler's "justified retaliation against Germany’s greatest enemy".[154]
1943
On 18 February 1943, Goebbels delivered the total war speech at the Sportpalast.[155] According to Herf, the enthusiastic audience reception to Goebbels' calls for total war against the Jewish–Bolshevik enemy indicated that "Hitler’s prophecy was still popular with the Nazi faithful".[156]
On 8 May 1943, Goebbels wrote an article titled "The War and the Jews": "None of the Führer’s prophetic words has come so inevitably true as his prediction that if Jewry succeeded in provoking a second world war, the result would be not the destruction of the Aryan race, rather the wiping out of the Jewish race. This process is of vast importance, and will have unforeseeable consequences that will take time. But it cannot be halted."[56][97] The article reached thousands of readers and millions of radio listeners.[157] According to Herf, the piece "repeated and elaborated on the essential projection mechanism of Nazi propaganda"—that Jews were plotting the extermination of Germans.[158]
In this and other texts, Goebbels combined the big lie or lies—that is, that there was something called international Jewry which was directing a war against Germany; that Germany had not started the war; and that the Allies were lackeys of an unseen but all-powerful international conspiracy—with the truthful assertion that Nazi Germany was at that time murdering the Jews of Europe.[158]
Goebbels wrote that he was satisfied with the reception of the article and planned to increase the use of antisemitism as a propaganda tactic, as he found it second only to Bolshevism in effectiveness.[158] On 18 May, the propaganda ministry delivered copies of "Twilight for the Jews All over the World!" to Nazi officials. The article cited Goebbels' repetition of Hitler's prophecy, adding that antisemitism was rising throughout the world because people had begun to understand that "all the suffering, privations, and deprivation of this war are exclusively due to the Jews, that the war itself is the work of Juda."[159]
1944–45
Hitler continued to refer to his prophecy as the war went against Germany and used it to justify the conflict and its catastrophic consequences.[160] Hitler's comments on the Final Solution also became more explicit; on 3 January 1944, he said that the outcome of the war was unresolved but the end of Jewish life in Europe was "beyond any doubt".[161] On 26 May 1944, after the German invasion of Hungary, he addressed high-ranking army officers at the Berghof[160][162] and said that if the opponents of Nazism prevailed, "Bolshevism would slaughter millions and millions and millions of our intellectuals. Anyone not dying through a shot in the neck would be deported. The children of the upper classes would be taken away and eliminated. This entire bestiality has been organized by the Jews."[163] He described the bombing of Hamburg[163] and dubbed the Hungarian Jewish community as "a seamless web of agents and spies" that undermined its country. Hitler declared that the Jews would be destroyed, just as he had predicted,[160][164] and this was received well by the audience.[164]
Hitler mentioned his prophecy in his New Year's speech on 1 January 1945.[165] On 13 February, he reportedly said "I have fought openly against the Jews. I gave them a last warning at the outbreak of war. I never left them in uncertainty that if they were to plunge the world into war again they would this time not be spared—that the vermin in Europe would be finally eradicated."[166][41] In his last will and testament, signed shortly before his suicide,[166][41][167] Hitler wrote that the true meaning of his prophecy of 1939 was "to exterminate the vermin throughout Europe".[167][lower-alpha 9]
Analysis
Reception by Germans
The threat to annihilate the Jews is the best-known phrase from Hitler's speeches.[169] Kershaw writes that while the Holocaust continued (between 1941 and 1945), "[n]o Nazi leader was left unaware... of the 'prophecy' the Führer had made about the Jews".[50] Kershaw also notes that the prophecy was a "key metaphor for the 'Final Solution'",[170] and "a regular weapon in [Hitler's] rhetorical armoury".[146] Confino writes that "There was only one prophecy in wartime German society, and it meant one thing: Hitler’s promise to annihilate the Jews." The prophecy emerged as "a common, shared, universal idiom among Germans and Jews" for the ongoing genocide.[171]
Confino argues that the prophecy reflected the antisemitism already prevalent in German society.[172] He describes the speech as Hitler's interpretation of the "post-Kristallnacht relations of Germans and Judaism",[173] and the first time since 1933 that Hitler openly threatened the Jews.[173] Confino adds that by invoking the prophecy to discuss new developments in the Holocaust, Hitler reframed the Holocaust in terms of Kristallnacht, "placing [deportation and extermination] within a shared, familiar narrative".[60] According to Confino, "Nazis and other Germans could connect emotionally to the mockery, resentment, and violence expressed in Hitler’s speech because they communicated these emotions themselves in anti-Jewish actions."[172] Koonz writes that "Hitler's decision in January 1939 to speak openly of Jews and even to predict their extermination in the event of war suggested that he believed public opinion had been sufficiently prepared to accept a harsh solution to the Jewish question." She argues that his assessment was correct.[174]
"Annihilation"
.jpg)
The interpretation of the prophecy is debated between the schools of functionalism and intentionalism, which differ in the degree to which they hold that the Holocaust was planned in advance by Hitler versus emerging from the Nazi bureaucracy.[169][175] Early historians of Nazi Germany, such as Helmut Krausnick and Gerald Reitlinger, were convinced that Hitler had already plotted the genocide since the 1920s, and it was therefore unnecessary to prove a direct connection between the speech and the killings. In the 1960s, the school of functionalism emerged, which characterized Hitler as a weak dictator and argued that anti-Jewish policy emerged from Nazi functionaries as the war continued. In the 1990s, attention shifted back to Hitler's role, but this time arguing that he made the decision in 1941.[176]
A key issue is what was meant, or understood, by "annihilation" (Vernichtung) in 1939.[17] Historian Sarah Gordon suggests that Hitler chose the word (also translated "the end" or "destruction") for its vagueness, as he wanted to frighten the Jews into emigrating without explicitly calling for murder, which the reaction to Kristallnacht indicated that the German public opposed.[177] Confino writes that "no one in Germany knew exactly what the word meant or how this metaphor of 'annihilation' would come to pass".[17] He suggests that it evoked Kristallnacht and its burning synagogues, not the gas chambers of Auschwitz or the mass graves at Babi Yar (which did not exist yet). Confino contends that although not even Hitler knew what he meant by "annihilation", the speech demonstrated that Hitler and his listeners already "imagine[d] a world in which extreme violence was applied to get rid of Jews and eliminate Judaism".[37]
Genocide
Intentionalists emphasize the importance of the speech and cite it as proof that the genocide had been planned before the war and did not gradually emerge.[178][179] Lucy Dawidowicz highlighted the speech as "the decision to proceed with [the] irreversible mission", and argued that the German people should have understood it as a prior announcement of the Final Solution.[169][50] German historian Stefan Kley notes that "[i]f Hitler had actually expressed a firm intention to commit genocide at the beginning of 1939, this would not only be a strong indication of his decisive role, but also a refutation" of functionalist arguments.[178]
Herf believes that the prophecy was Hitler's "first unequivocal public threat to exterminate (that is, murder)—not merely to remove, deport, or defeat"— Europe's Jews".[51] Historian Shlomo Aronson described the statement as "an open threat to kill the Jews" and "an open declaration of Hitler’s basic intention to eliminate the Jews", because he was already planning the war.[180] American historian Gerhard Weinberg argues that "the murder of Jews would be an integral part of the war on which [Hitler] had already decided".[181] Historian Robert Wistrich argues that "Hitler's prophecies invariably referred to the murder of Jews":[182] "This was an extraordinary outburst from the leader of a great power and can hardly be reduced to a mere 'metaphor' or a piece of Utopian rhetoric... The vehemence with which Hitler delivered this particular section of his speech, and the frenzied applause of the Reichstag delegates, makes it plain that it was a deadly serious threat."[183]
Historian Daniel Goldhagen views the speech as "a clear declaration of Hitler’s ideal and, given the opportunity, his intent" but not a defined program that would immediately be operational. He adds that "Hitler and other Nazis were at the very least bandying [passing] about the idea of a genocidal 'final solution'".[184] He finds it "almost inexplicable that interpreters today could construe Hitler’s prophecy, his oft-stated intention to destroy the Jews, to have been meant but metaphorically or to have been but meaningless verbiage", noting that Hitler referred to his previous statement as having literal meaning.[185]
Emigration or expulsion
Functionalist scholars tend to emphasize the tactical implications of the speech in holding the Jews in Germany hostage against the behavior of the United States during the coming war, although they acknowledge that the speech establishes a "mental connection between annihilation and war".[186] One indication against this interpretation is that Hitler referred to "European Jews" rather than "German Jews".[187]
Historian Christopher Browning said in an interview that during the 1939 speech, Hitler intended to tell his followers that in the event of war, the Jews would be expelled from Europe. His reference to "the destruction of the Jewish race in Europe means that there will be no more Jews there". Browning said that the speech has to be considered in light of the anti-Jewish policies of the next two years, rather than with the retrospective knowledge of Auschwitz.[188] Browning also wrote that the anti-Jewish policies pursued by the Nazis from 1939 to early 1941 (before the Final Solution), would have resulted in a great reduction in the Jewish population and argues that this would have been viewed as fulfilling the prophecy.[189]
Historian Mark Roseman contends that "there is no evidence that mass extermination was being planned in 1939" and points out that Hitler did not emphasize his prophecy in 1940. He asserts that it is impossible to know "whether [Hitler's] statements demonstrate clear intent or even to ascertain precisely what that intent might have been". He also argues that it is unclear whether "annihilation" referred to expulsion or mass murder and points out that Hitler repeatedly spoke of the forcible banishment of the Jews from Germany.[190]
Koonz writes that Germans at the time "might have understood vernichten to be merely metaphorical—as in to 'smash' or 'wipe out' a rival".[45] Bytwerk argues that "[w]ithin the context of the speech, it is not necessary (or even reasonable) to conclude that Hitler is speaking of the physical destruction of Jews."[191] Mommsen describes the prophecy as no more than "a rhetorical gesture designed to put pressure on the international community" to allow the immigration of German Jews:[169][50] He states: "At that time it was highly unlikely that either the German or the international public could have interpreted his statement as an ill-concealed declaration of a serious intention to liquidate the Jews under German rule in the event of war."[192]
Multiple meanings
Bauer interprets the prophecy as expressing Hitler's determination to get rid of the German Jews. His first choice to resolve the situation was by international agreement that would lead to emigration, then a forcible, violent expulsion. A war, which the Nazi leadership was planning at the time, was another way that Jews might be eliminated.[20] Bauer concludes that "while the Nazi aim was fixed—no Jews in the expanding Reich—the means could be varied as occasion demanded... The threats of annihilation may have been meant seriously by Hitler, Goering, and Himmler-Heydrich, but they were not translated into any operative plan in 1939."[193]
Jersak argues that "Hitler planned to expel the Jews from Germany before he planned to conquer Lebensraum."[194] As evidence, he cites "Hitler's repeated orders between 1937 and 1939 to accelerate Jewish emigration".[195] Jersak argues that if Germany became involved in a world war, Hitler recognized that the Axis would not emerge victorious. Therefore, he considered the systematic killing of Jews a "radical alternative" in case he did not get his way in the war. In this situation, "war would serve as a cover for extermination and the fighting would conceal the real war aim"—the murder of the Jews. Jersak cites Hitler's 1939 statement "Who remembers the extermination of the Armenians?" as evidence that Hitler believed that crimes committed during wartime would be overlooked.[195] Longerich writes that Hitler's prophecy "had several potential layers of meaning", of which the first is Hitler's tactical desire to frighten Jews into emigration.[38]
War
Jewish conspiracy
Hitler's "prophecy" of January 30, 1939, comprised the core of Nazism’s narrative of World War II. A historical subject called "international Jewry" had launched World War II with the intent of bringing about the "Bolshevization" of the world. It would fail. Instead, Nazi Germany would retaliate for this aggression and annihilate the Jews. It would wage a "war" against the Jews in response to the "war" the Jews had started. This reversed logic of self-righteous retaliation constituted the core of Nazi antisemitic propaganda between 1939 and 1945.
Longerich views the 1939 speech as part of a "long-term strategy for assigning blame for the outbreak of an impending war" to the Jews.[32] In February 1939, Himmler advanced the timing for the upcoming world war and believed that it would occur soon rather than in the next decade because of the backlash to Kristallnacht. In notes for a speech, he wrote, "Radical solution of the Jewish problem is prompting Jewry to fight us, if necessary by unleashing a world war." Longerich sees a clear link to Hitler's speech.[197] Gerlach wrote that the prophecy was self-fulfilling because in Hitler's nationalistic mindset, any opposition to Nazism was viewed as the work of an international Jewish conspiracy.[198][199] Hitler and Nazi leaders believed that the Jewish conspiracy was real.[200][201] The prophecy was also believed literally by many Germans; Victor Klemperer was confronted by Germans who told him that Jews had started the war and deserved their fate. Klemperer found that even non-Nazi Germans believed this propaganda.[202]
Herf notes that as Hitler plotted war in 1939, "he ordered his propagandists to assert that exactly the opposite was taking place".[200] Herf writes, "Invisible to those lacking the insight provided by Nazi ideology, this conspiracy was perceived by Hitler and his henchmen as the driving force of modern history... When the major powers opposed Nazi Germany, they were doing so as Judenknechte, or servants of the Jews."[203] This conspiracy theory violates chronology and causality and makes contradictory claims of a master race dominating the world versus the Germans as innocent victims attacked by a powerful Jewish conspiracy.[200] Historian Antony Beevor writes that the prophecy's "breathtaking confusion of cause and effect lay at the heart of Hitler's network of lies and self-deception".[204]
Strategic considerations
Historian David Reynolds argues that "[a]mong Hitler’s many reasons for the speech may well have been Franklin Roosevelt", who was simultaneously trying to persuade Americans to abandon isolationism. Roosevelt also worked to promote the emigration of Jews from Europe.[205] Weinberg contends that, at the time of the prophecy speech, Hitler regretted allowing Neville Chamberlain to avert war in 1938, and was determined to go to war before 1940. According to Weinberg, Hitler already planned to use the war "to effect a demographic revolution on the globe, a revolution in which the systematic killing of all Jews was a central part".[181]
Herf argues that in his speeches referencing the prophecy, Hitler made it clear that he saw a "causal and inherent, not a contingent or accidental, connection with his intent to exterminate the Jews".[113] Kershaw writes that the speech was mostly "a defiant tirade against what he portrayed as Jewish-inspired western war-mongerers"[24] and "the 'prophecy' denoted the indelible link in [Hitler's] mind between war and revenge against the Jews".[50] Confino argues that "The prophecy created a direct link between the war and the mass murder of the Jews."[165] Koonz writes that in his 1939 speech, "Hitler posed as the sole moral arbiter of his Volk at war on two fronts: racial and geopolitical".[44]
Hostages
According to Longerich, Hitler's reference to "international Jewish financiers" envisioned a scenario in which the United States and other western powers intervened to prevent German expansionism in Europe, to which Hitler was already committed: if it came to pass, the "international Jewish financiers" would be blamed for the resulting war, and Jews remaining in Germany would be held as hostages threatened with annihilation. If emigration failed and Western powers intervened in the war, Hitler was "keeping all options open for further radicalizing his Jewish policy".[32] Evans cites the Nazi belief in an international Jewish conspiracy to argue that Hitler's aim was to hold the Jews hostage to prevent American entry into the war. If America did so, the Jews throughout Europe would be murdered: "Nazi terrorism had now acquired an additional dimension: the practice, on the largest possible scale, of hostage-taking".[206] According to Mommsen, because Nazis believed in an international Jewish conspiracy that supposedly controlled the world's governments, it made sense to threaten the Jews in Germany to obtain the compliance of other countries.[207] Aronson also views the threat as "aimed at the West", where the Jews were held hostage to ensure that Hitler could deal with each of the countries separately.[208] Roseman writes that "Hitler's threats were in part a kind of blackmail"; Hitler hoped that by holding German Jews hostage, their brethren in other countries could be controlled.[209] Kershaw states that the prophecy was in part aimed at "deterring the USA from entering the war through the threat of what would then happen to the Jews of Europe".[210] Jersak argues that the speech served as an "early warning to the US not to interfere in Europe. The idea that American Jews in Germany could serve as hostages against another US participation in a possible European war was probably also born at this time."[211]
"World war"
Bauer writes that "the war that Hitler wanted", which was to ally with Poland in an invasion of the Soviet Union, "was not the one he got in September 1939". Even after concluding the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, he attempted to avoid a two-front war by keeping the United Kingdom, United States, and possibly France out of the war.[212] Kley argues that at the time, "world war" meant any major conflict between the European powers, a definition in use by German writers since the Napoleonic Wars. German writers called World War I a "world war" by 1915.[199] Roseman writes that it is not clear when the "world war" began: when Hitler declared war against the British Commonwealth or when he invaded the Soviet Union. Roseman argues that his return to the prophecy in 1941 may have been a reaction to other events rather that "evidence of consistent understanding of what 'world war' meant".[190]
Soviet Union
Golhagen writes that the invasion of the Soviet Union was an opportunity for Hitler "to make good on his promise that a war would result in the annihilation of the Jews of Europe".[213] Bytwerk writes that in wartime "the word 'destruction' takes on a physical connotation missing in peace, and Hitler wanted to make it clear that he was absolutely serious about his threat to destroy the Jews".[191] Jersak argues that "the campaign against the Soviet Union turned into a war against the Jews—culminating in the Holocaust—at that point in time when the premisses that Hitler himself had set for realizing his prophecy could no longer be achieved and his power appeared to be under threat."[214] From September 1941, he contends, anti-Jewish actions were not just justified but also motivated by fear of the Jewish conspiracy.[214] Kershaw writes that the war and Hitler's mission to get rid of Jews "reached its fateful point of convergence in the conception of the 'war of annihilation' against the Soviet Union".[215] According to Longerich, when Hitler referenced his prophecy in November 1941, he intended to cement his leadership role: "All bridges had been burnt and the 'people' had no alternative but to entrust themselves to Hitler’s purportedly superhuman leadership qualities and support his conduct of the war until victory had been achieved."[216]
United States
.jpg)
When the United States entered the war, the Jews lost their value as hostages and could be killed with impunity. From the Nazi perspective, the first part of the prophecy was fulfilled when the European war became a world war.[217] Kershaw writes that the prophecy "was evidently never far from [Hitler's] mind in these weeks as the winter crisis was unfolding in the east" and was "at the forefront of his thoughts in the wake of Pearl Harbor".[218] According to Jersak, around the same time the Nazis determined on the "murder of the last Jew on European soil", which Nazis believed "would break the 'subversive power' of 'International Jewry'".[217] Browning argues against this explanation, noting that the systematic murder of Jews was already taking place in the Soviet Union and Hitler's prophecy was not "tied to a 'world war' defined by American involvement".[219] Longerich writes that Hitler's speech of 12 December 1941 at first "appears to contain nothing really new" but, as Germany was now engaged in a world war, "Hitler’s 'prophecy' inevitably came closer to its realization".[114]
Blame for war destruction
By the winter of 1941–1942, Allied military action, especially strategic bombing, was killing an increasing number of German soldiers and civilians. The Jews were held responsible for each death and would be made to pay in kind. Herf argues that "for millions of Germans, the abstract slogan 'The Jews are guilty' assumed direct emotional significance".[220] According to Kershaw, Hitler viewed the genocide of Jews as "natural revenge for the destruction caused by the Jews – above all in the war which he saw as their work".[218] When the Allies became aware of the systematic murder of Jews and denounced it, Hitler and other Nazi propagandists did not deny the reports. Instead, states Herf, they preferred to "present the Nazi attack on the Jews as a justified act of self-defense, retaliation, and revenge in response to the misfortunes the Jews had inflicted and were at that moment inflicting on Germany".[158]
Communication
Hitler's role in the Holocaust
Hitler was the primary decision maker in the Holocaust[221] and most historians have argued that there was an explicit order from Hitler authorizing the Holocaust.[222] No written order to that effect has been discovered, and most historians argue that it never existed.[223] Instead, Hitler probably gave verbal authorizations to important decisions regarding the Final Solution.[153]
Kershaw contends that both intentionalist and functionalist interpretations are wrong. Although the Nazi extermination of the Jewish people was not fully realized until years later, he argues that the 1939 speech "can nevertheless be seen to hold a key to Hitler’s role in the 'Final Solution'"[50] and is "a key both to Hitler’s mentality, and to the ways he provided 'directions for action'".[166] He argues that Hitler's actions were mostly confined to the realm of propaganda, especially the prophecy,[215] as it was "neither his style, nor his inclination" to involve himself with day-to-day details.[224] The prophecy obviated the need for a Hitler order explicitly authorizing the Holocaust, because the prophecy served as "the transmission belt between Hitler’s own inner conviction that the war would bring about the final destruction of European Jewry and the actions of his underlings" in murdering Jews.[122] Party insiders understood the invocation of the prophecy as a call to radical action against the Jews without explicit instructions.[225] Kershaw argues that the repetition of the prophecy in mass media helped to "condition the general population against humanitarian sympathy for the Jews" and signaled the intensification of the mass murder.[50]
Jersak argues that "the hypothesis of an order for the murder of the European Jews unrelated to that prophecy assumes... that Hitler, who repeatedly referred to his prophecy, did not mean what he said".[41] Jersak contends that the order "must therefore be seen as expressing the realization of his prior resolve", which he stated on 30 January 1939.[41] He interprets the passage in Goebbels' diaries in August 1941, in which Hitler indicates that he believes "with almost uncanny certainty" that his prophecy would come true "in the coming weeks or months", as evidence that the order for the Final Solution had been issued.[226] Historian Eberhard Jäckel writes that the repetition of the prophecy is "truly astounding and its motivation is not readily apparent". Jäckel speculates that Hitler's motivation may have been to indicate his approval of the mass murder or to "have the final solution put on the record".[227] Goldhagen lists the prophecy as one of the "four causally interrelated aspects of Hitler's, and therefore of Germany's, anti-Jewish policy", which show that he planned the genocide in advance.[185] According to Roseman, Hitler's rhetoric, including the frequently repeated prophecy, "provided the justification for others' actions, assuring the perpetrators that murder was appropriate".[228]
Vagueness
Israeli historian David Bankier notes that the prophecy "lacked a space or time frame and gave no details on how the Final Solution would be implemented. In his 'prophecy' the Jews would disappear without an agent"; if Hitler had said that he was going to exterminate the Jews, that would be a policy statement, not a prophecy.[230] Beevor writes that "[d]espite his apocalyptic diatribes against the Jews", Hitler was "remarkably reluctant to hear details of mass killings". Similarly, he tried to keep other types of violence abstract despite having "done more than almost anyone else in history to promote it".[204] Herf describes Goebbels' article "The Jews are Guilty" as "a paradigm of Nazi anti-Semitic propaganda" because it was "blunt and noneuphemistic", but "the extremist language went along with a total absence of revealing details about where, when, and how this mass murder was taking place". In other words, it "left enough ambiguity and absence of detail to promote plausible deniability".[103]
Kershaw writes that despite the "dark hints that his 'prophecy' was being fulfilled",[231] Hitler was:
...consistently keen to conceal the traces of his involvement in the murder of the Jews. Perhaps even at the height of his own power he feared theirs, and the possibility one day of their 'revenge'. Perhaps, sensing that the German people were not ready to learn the deadly secret, he was determined – his own general inclination to secrecy was, as always, a marked one – not to speak of it other than in horrific, but imprecise, terms.[231] ... [Hitler] spoke of [the Holocaust] either by repeating what he knew had long since ceased to be the case; or by alluding to the removal of Jews from Europe (often in the context of his ‘prophecy’) at some distant point in the future.[232]
Kershaw adds that Hitler wanted to "lay claim to his place in 'the glorious secret of our history' while still detaching himself from the sordid and horrific realities of mass killing".[229] Therefore, he never made any statement like Himmler's Posen speeches, even in private with other Nazi leaders. Hitler also wanted to avoid opposition from the bureaucracy or the judicial system, after he signed an order for the euthanasia program.[229] Himmler used the same strategy of vagueness when communicating about the fate of the Jews.[232]
Knowledge of the Holocaust
After the war, Germans claimed ignorance of the Nazi regime's crimes and argued that references to the "annihilation" of Jews had not been understood literally. Historians have disputed these claims.[233][234] Koonz writes that the prophecy was one reason why "no bystander could deny the intention of the Nazi leadership to eradicate Jews, one way or another".[234] Herf writes that when Hitler's prophecy was referenced in German mass media during the war, readers understood that the Jews had been declared "guilty" for the war and that the Nazi regime was carrying out its previously announced threat to exterminate them.[235] References to the prophecy in mass media spread "an awareness, while avoiding detailed or explicit information, that the destruction of the Jews was inexorably taking place", according to Kershaw.[225]
Bankier writes that the prophecy "left no possible doubts that, in one way or another, the fate of the Jews would be physical obliteration". He adds that in openly declaring their aims, the Nazi leadership aimed to test the loyalty of ordinary Germans to the regime.[236] Confino argues that Germans knew in general terms about the extermination of Europe's Jews, even if they did not know the details: "By understanding the meaning of the prophecy, Germans became complicit, whatever they knew about Auschwitz and whatever they thought about the extermination."[237] Herf writes that in contrast to his pre-1939 statements, Hitler spoke with "unprecedented clarity, bluntness, and frequency about acting on his threats to exterminate the Jews of Europe".[51] Browning finds it ironic that Nazism's two most prominent spokesmen (Hitler and Goebbels) "could not resist the urge to speak about the mass murder", especially in terms of the prophecy.[238]
Comparisons
At the International Military Tribunal, Der Stürmer publisher Julius Streicher was convicted of crimes against humanity based on his "incitement to murder and extermination" of Jews. The judgement against him cited a January 1943 article he wrote praising Hitler for fulfilling his prophecy to extirpate the Jews.[239] The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda has ruled that predicting genocide can, under certain circumstances, be considered incitement to genocide.[240] Historian Paul R. Bartrop compared Hitler's prophecy to the predictions by convicted génocidaire Théoneste Bagosora before the Rwandan genocide that if the Rwandan Patriotic Front continued its war or if the Arusha Accords were enforced, it would lead to the extermination of all Tutsis.[241] Wistrich argued that Hitler's prophecy is comparable to Iranian president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad's statement that Israel "must be wiped off the map"; in his opinion, "the same genocidal intent is plainly there".[242]
Notes
- A November 1941 newsletter for soldiers explained the difference between prophecy and reality: "“[The prophecy] was a hard, pitiless statement that many did not take seriously[,] interpreting it only in an allegorical manner. But the Jews knew that a death warrant stood behind this prophecy and that it would inevitably come to pass if plutocracy and Bolshevism one day collapsed and were replaced by a new world order."[56]
- One letter from August 1941 reads as follows: "One particular chapter is the fact that the Jewish question is being solved at present with massive thoroughness. As the Führer indeed said in his speech shortly before the beginning of the war: 'If Jewry...'"[56] Kershaw cites another letter from a soldier who cited the prophecy and thanked Der Stürmer for staying true to its antisemitic principles.[57]
- "...inside Germany or outside, no one in the world expects truth from Adolf Hitler. For eight years he has wielded absolute power over a people whose voice is submerged, as it was yesterday at the Sportpalast by the mechanical clamor of the Party claque. In all that time there is not a single precedent to prove that he will either keep a promise or fulfill a threat. If there is any guarantee in his record, in fact, it is that the one thing he will not do is the thing he says he will do. For eight years he has been the sole and uncontradicted spokesman for Germany—and today the word of Germany is worthless."[72] Jeffrey Herf argues that this response "illustrated the difficulty that even the most sophisticated and informed observers had in understanding Hitler".[71]
- "...'the Jews are guilty! The Jews are guilty!' The punishment that will break over them will be frightful. Just as the fist of an awakened Germany once slammed down on this racial rubbish, one day the fist of an awakened Europe will do likewise. Then the Jews’ mimicry will be useless . . . That will be the day of people’s justice over the source of their ruin and downfall. The blow will be delivered without pity and without mercy. The world’s enemy [Weltfeind] will collapse, and Europe will have its peace."[76]
- "This race of criminals has the two million dead of the World War on its conscience, and now it has hundreds of thousands more. Let nobody say to me: We can’t send them into the swamps! Who’s worrying about our people? It’s good if the fear that we are exterminating the Jews goes before us."[90]
- "The historic guilt of world Jewry for the outbreak and expansion of this war is so sufficiently proven that we don’t need to waste any more words about it. The Jews wanted their war, and now they have it. But now the prophecy which the Führer expressed on January 30, 1939, in the German Reichstag is also proving true—namely, that if international finance Jewry should succeed in driving the peoples once again into a world war, the result would not be the Bolshevization of the earth and thus the victory of Jewry but rather the annihilation of the Jewish race in Europe. We are now experiencing the implementation of this prophecy. Jewry is thus now enduring a fate that is hard but is more than deserved. Sympathy or even regret is wholly out of place. World Jewry in unleashing this war made a completely false assessment of the forces at its disposal. It is now suffering a gradual process of extermination [“Es erleidet nun einen allmählichen Vernichtungsprozeß”] that it intended for us and that it would without question have carried out if it had the power to do so."[107] "In this historic confrontation, every Jew is our enemy, whether he is vegetating in a Polish ghetto or enjoying his parasitic existence in Berlin or Hamburg or blowing the trumpets of war in New York or Washington. Owing to their birth and their race, all Jews belong to an international conspiracy against National Socialist Germany. They wish for its defeat and annihilation and do all that is in their power to help bring that about."[108]
- "My prophecy will be fulfilled that in this war not the Aryans will be exterminated but the Jew will be eradicated. Whatever the battle will bring, or how long it may last, this will be the ultimate legacy of this war. And then finally, after the elimination of these parasites, will there come to a suffering world a long period of brotherhood among nations and true peace."[130]
- "How this solution will come about was made clear to the whole non-Jewish world by the Führer of the German People in a proclamation to the peoples of Europe read out on 24 February 1942: 'Today the ideas of our National Socialist and the fascist revolution have conquered great and powerful states, and my prophecy will be fulfilled that through this war the Jews, not Aryan mankind, will be annihilated.'"[134]
- "I also left no doubt that, if the nations of Europe are again to be regarded as mere blocks of shares of these international money and finance conspirators, then that race, too, which is really guilty of this murderous struggle, will be called to account: Jewry! I further left no one in doubt that this time millions of children of Europe’s aryan peoples would not die of hunger, millions of grown men would not suffer death, and hundreds of thousands of women and children not be burnt and bombed to death in the towns, without the real culprit having to atone for his guilt, even if by my more humane means."[168]
References
Citations
- Herf 2006, p. 52.
- Kershaw 2008, p. 101.
- "Boycott of Jewish Businesses". Holocaust Encyclopedia. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Retrieved 14 August 2020.
- "Anti-Jewish Legislation in Prewar Germany". Holocaust Encyclopedia. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Retrieved 14 August 2020.
- Kley 2000, p. 207.
- Roseman 2003, p. 26.
- Koonz 2003, pp. 100–101.
- Confino 2014, p. 152.
- Longerich 2019, p. 589.
- Mommsen 1997, pp. 153–154.
- Longerich 2019, p. 593.
- Longerich 2019, p. 594.
- Niven 2018, p. 166.
- Confino 2014, pp. 152–153.
- Goldhagen 1996, pp. 141–142.
- Bauer 1994, p. 36.
- Confino 2014, p. 153.
- Bauer 1994, p. 35.
- Goldhagen 1996, p. 141.
- Bauer 1994, p. 37.
- Goldhagen 1996, p. 142.
- Longerich 2019, p. 602.
- Browning 2007, p. 209.
- Kershaw 2008, p. 103.
- Longerich 2019, p. 603.
- Longerich 2019, pp. 602–604.
- Mommsen 1997, p. 152.
- Thacker 2010, p. 205.
- Musolff 2013, p. 56.
- Somerville 2012, p. 131.
- Longerich 2019, pp. 605–606.
- Longerich 2019, p. 605.
- Garbarini et al. 2011, p. 103.
- Mommsen 1997, pp. 147–148.
- Koonz 2003, p. 253.
- Mommsen 1997, p. 150.
- Confino 2014, pp. 153–154.
- Longerich 2019, p. 604.
- Kley 2000, p. 210.
- Evans 2006, p. 604.
- Jersak 2008, p. 304.
- Niven 2018, p. 119.
- Garbarini et al. 2011, p. 104.
- Koonz 2003, p. 255.
- Koonz 2003, p. 254.
- Domeier 2019, p. 105.
- Garbarini et al. 2011, p. 105.
- Mommsen 1997, pp. 147, 157.
- Herf 2005, p. 56.
- Kershaw 2008, p. 104.
- Herf 2006, p. 5.
- Longerich 2019, p. 720.
- Jäckel 1981, p. 64.
- Bergen 2010, p. 205.
- Jersak 2008, p. 346.
- Confino 2014, p. 226.
- Kershaw 2008, pp. 144–145.
- Browning 2007, pp. 298–299.
- Garbarini et al. 2011, p. 106.
- Confino 2014, pp. 226–227.
- "Nazi Plan to Kill All Jews Confirmed". History Unfolded: US Newspapers and the Holocaust. Retrieved 12 May 2020.
- Mommsen 1997, p. 157.
- Confino 2014, p. 172.
- Niven 2018, p. 182.
- Confino 2014, pp. 172–173.
- Confino 2014, p. 173.
- Mommsen 1997, p. 156.
- Kershaw 2001, p. 526.
- Herf 2006, p. 77.
- Gellately 2002, p. 147.
- Herf 2006, pp. 77–78.
- Herf 2006, p. 78.
- Kershaw 2001, p. 527.
- Longerich 2019, p. 741.
- Herf 2006, p. 106.
- Herf 2006, p. 108.
- Herf 2006, pp. 107–108.
- Kershaw 2001, p. 683.
- Longerich 2019, p. 764.
- Herf 2006, p. 115–116.
- Kershaw 2008, p. 105.
- Herf 2006, p. 116.
- Longerich 2019, p. 760.
- Kershaw 2008, pp. 105–106.
- Jersak 2008, p. 359.
- Kershaw 2001, p. 697.
- Koonz 2003, p. 267.
- Herf 2006, pp. 119–120.
- Kershaw 2008, p. 106.
- Longerich 2011, p. 538.
- Hitler 2008, pp. 94, 106.
- Herf 2006, pp. 120–121.
- Confino 2014, pp. 214–215.
- Herf 2006, p. 122.
- Herf 2006, pp. 121–122.
- Longerich 2019, p. 779.
- Bytwerk 2005, p. 49.
- Longerich 2019, pp. 779–780.
- Winkler 2007, p. 181.
- Winkler 2007, p. 179.
- Kershaw 2001, p. 709.
- Somerville 2012, p. 144.
- Herf 2006, p. 123.
- Winkler 2007, p. 180.
- Herf 2006, p. 124.
- Confino 2014, p. 188.
- Herf 2006, pp. 124–125.
- Herf 2006, p. 126.
- Herf 2006, p. 127.
- Herf 2006, pp. 126–127.
- Kershaw 2008, pp. 106–107.
- Kershaw 2001, p. 721.
- Herf 2006, p. 132.
- Longerich 2019, p. 786.
- Gerlach 1998, p. 785.
- Kershaw 2008, p. 263.
- Goldhagen 1996, p. 148.
- Evans 2015, p. 340.
- Browning 2007, p. 408.
- Kershaw 2001, pp. 721–722.
- Kershaw 2008, pp. 107, 264–265.
- Kershaw 2008, p. 107.
- Winkler 2007, p. 187.
- Longerich 2019, pp. 793–794.
- Kershaw 2008, pp. 107–108.
- Longerich 2019, p. 794.
- Kershaw 2001, p. 726.
- Gellately 2002, p. 148.
- Winkler 2007, p. 188.
- Confino 2014, pp. 196, 228.
- Longerich 2019, p. 795.
- Kershaw 2008, p. 144.
- Jersak 2008, pp. 326, 361.
- Jersak 2008, p. 361.
- Jersak 2008, pp. 361–362.
- Kershaw 2008, p. 108.
- Jersak 2008, pp. 340, 363.
- Herf 2006, p. 149.
- Herf 2006, p. 150.
- Jersak 2008, pp. 340–341.
- Kershaw 2001, p. 678.
- Jersak 2008, p. 341.
- Kershaw 2001, pp. 753–754.
- Kershaw 2001, pp. 754–755.
- Herf 2006, p. 166.
- Kershaw 2001, p. 783.
- Herf 2006, pp. 166–167.
- Herf 2006, p. 167.
- Herf 2006, p. 168.
- Bytwerk 2005, pp. 48–49.
- Herf 2006, p. 169.
- Kershaw 2001, p. 787.
- Kershaw 2008, p. 109.
- Herf 2006, p. 170.
- Herf 2006, p. 192.
- Herf 2006, pp. 193–195.
- Herf 2006, p. 210.
- Herf 2006, p. 211.
- Herf 2006, p. 212.
- Kershaw 2008, p. 110.
- Confino 2014, p. 228.
- Kershaw 2001, p. 919.
- Kershaw 2001, p. 920.
- Kershaw 2001, p. 921.
- Confino 2014, p. 227.
- Kershaw 2008, p. 111.
- Gordon 1984, p. 134.
- Kershaw 2001, p. 1173.
- Mommsen 1997, p. 147.
- Kershaw 2008, pp. 21, 104.
- Confino 2014, p. 225.
- Confino 2014, p. 154.
- Confino 2014, p. 151.
- Koonz 2003, p. 256.
- Kley 2000, pp. 197–199.
- Kley 2000, pp. 197–198.
- Gordon 1984, p. 133.
- Kley 2000, p. 198.
- Hornshøj-Møller 1999, p. 313.
- Aronson 2004, p. 8.
- Weinberg 2005, p. 306.
- Wistrich 1985, p. 118.
- Wistrich 2001.
- Goldhagen 1996, pp. 142–143.
- Goldhagen 1996, p. 162.
- Kley 2000, pp. 198–199.
- Kley 2000, p. 209.
- Browning, Christopher. "Hitler's Reichstag speech". ww2history.com. Retrieved 22 May 2020.
- Browning 2007, p. 213.
- Roseman 2003, p. 50.
- Bytwerk 2005, p. 39.
- Mommsen 1997, p. 151.
- Bauer 1994, p. 39.
- Jersak 2000, p. 574.
- Jersak 2000, p. 575.
- Herf 2005, p. 63.
- Longerich 2011, p. 386.
- Gerlach 1998, p. 786.
- Kley 2000, p. 199.
- Herf 2006, p. 270.
- Jersak 2008, p. 309.
- Gellately 2002, p. 76.
- Herf 2006, p. 53.
- Beevor 2012, "prophecy".
- Reynolds 2016, pp. 38–39.
- Evans 2006, p. 605.
- Mommsen 1997, pp. 150–151.
- Aronson 2004, p. 9.
- Roseman 2003, p. 27.
- Kershaw 2001, p. 703.
- Jersak 2000, p. 577.
- Bauer 1994, pp. 37–38.
- Goldhagen 1996, p. 147.
- Jersak 2008, p. 307.
- Kershaw 2008, p. 257.
- Longerich 2019, p. 841.
- Jersak 2008, p. 326.
- Kershaw 2001, p. 720.
- Browning 2007, p. 321.
- Herf 2006, pp. 132–133.
- Browning 2007, p. 428.
- Kershaw 2008, p. 95.
- Kershaw 2008, p. 96.
- Kershaw 2001, p. 679.
- Kershaw 2008, p. 21.
- Jersak 2008, p. 308.
- Jäckel 1981, pp. 63–64.
- Roseman 2003, p. 70.
- Kershaw 2001, p. 763.
- Bankier 2009, p. 34.
- Kershaw 2001, p. 718.
- Kershaw 2001, p. 762.
- Musolff 2013, p. 57.
- Koonz 2003, p. 269.
- Herf 2005, p. 58.
- Bankier 2009, p. 35.
- Confino 2014, pp. 228–229.
- Browning 2007, p. 391.
- Maravilla 2008, p. 119.
- Gordon 2017, pp. 285, 290.
- Bartrop 2012, pp. 29–30.
- Wistrich 2010, p. 1137.
Sources
Books
- Aronson, Shlomo (2004). Hitler, the Allies, and the Jews. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-511-51183-7.
- Bauer, Yehuda (1994). Jews for Sale?: Nazi-Jewish Negotiations, 1933-1945. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-06852-8.
- Beevor, Antony (2012). The Second World War. Little, Brown. ISBN 978-0-316-08407-9.
- Browning, Christopher R. (2007). The Origins of the Final Solution: The Evolution of Nazi Jewish Policy, September 1939 – March 1942. University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0-8032-0392-1.
- Confino, Alon (2014). A World Without Jews: The Nazi Imagination from Persecution to Genocide. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-19046-5.
- Evans, Richard J. (2006). The Third Reich in Power. Penguin. ISBN 978-1-4406-4930-1.
- Evans, Richard J. (2015). The Third Reich in History and Memory. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-022841-5.
- Garbarini, Alexandra; Kerenji, Emil; Lambertz, Jan; Patt, Avinoam (2011). Jewish Responses to Persecution: 1938–1940. 2. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-7591-2039-6.
- Gellately, Robert (2002). Backing Hitler: Consent and Coercion in Nazi Germany. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-160452-2.
- Goldhagen, Daniel Jonah (1996). Hitler's Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans and the Holocaust. Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-679-44695-8.
- Gordon, Gregory S. (2017). Atrocity Speech Law: Foundation, Fragmentation, Fruition. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-061270-2.
- Gordon, Sarah Ann (1984). Hitler, Germans, and the "Jewish Question". Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-10162-0.
- Herf, Jeffrey (2006). The Jewish Enemy: Nazi Propaganda during the World War II and the Holocaust. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674038-59-2.
- Jäckel, Eberhard (1981). Hitler's World View: A Blueprint for Power. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-40425-0.
- Kershaw, Ian (2001). Hitler: 1936–1945 Nemesis. Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-192581-3.
- Kershaw, Ian (2008). Hitler, the Germans, and the Final Solution. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-14823-7.
- Koonz, Claudia (2003). The Nazi Conscience. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01172-4.
- Longerich, Peter (2011). Heinrich Himmler: A Life. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-161989-2.
- Longerich, Peter (2019). Hitler: A Biography. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-005673-5.
- Niven, Bill (2018). Hitler and Film: The Führer's Hidden Passion. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-23539-5.
- Roseman, Mark (2003). The Wannsee Conference and the Final Solution: A Reconsideration. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-312-42234-9.
- Somerville, Keith (2012). Radio Propaganda and the Broadcasting of Hatred: Historical Development and Definitions. Springer. ISBN 978-1-137-28415-0.
- Thacker, Toby (2010) [2009]. Joseph Goebbels: Life and Death. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-27866-0.
- Winkler, Heinrich August (2007). Germany: The Long Road West: Volume 2: 1933–1990. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-150061-9.
- Wistrich, Robert S. (1985). Hitler's Apocalypse: Jews and the Nazi Legacy. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 978-0-297-78719-8.
- Wistrich, Robert S. (2001). Hitler and the Holocaust. Random House Publishing Group. ISBN 978-1-58836-097-7.
- Wistrich, Robert S. (2010). A Lethal Obsession: Anti-Semitism from Antiquity to the Global Jihad. Random House Publishing Group. ISBN 978-1-58836-899-7.
Book chapters
- Bankier, David (2009) [2003]. "Signaling the Final Solution to the German People". In Bankier, David; Gutman, Israel (eds.). Nazi Europe and the Final Solution. Berghahn Books. pp. 15–39. ISBN 978-1-84545-410-4.
- Bartrop, Paul R. (2012). A Biographical Encyclopedia of Contemporary Genocide: Portraits of Evil and Good. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-0-313-38679-4.
- Bergen, Doris L. (2010). "Antisemitism in the Nazi Era". Antisemitism: A History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-150110-4.
- Domeier, Norman (2019). "A Scream, Then Silence. Kristallnacht and the American Journalists in Nazi Germany". In Gruner, Wolf; Ross, Steven Joseph (eds.). New Perspectives on Kristallnacht. Purdue University Press. pp. 91–114. ISBN 978-1-61249-616-0.
- Hitler, Adolf (2008). "Speech to the Old Guard in Munich: 8 November 1941". In Bytwerk, Randall L. (ed.). Landmark Speeches of National Socialism. Texas A&M University Press. ISBN 978-1-60344-015-8.
- Hornshøj-Møller, Stig (1999). "Hitler and the Nazi decision-making process to commit the Holocaust: a new proposal". In Charny, Israel W. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Genocide: A-H. ABC-CLIO. pp. 313–315. ISBN 978-0-87436-928-1.
- Jersak, Tobias (2008) [2004]. "Decisions to Murder and to Lie: German War Society and the Holocaust". German Wartime Society 1939-1945: Politicization, Disintegration, and the Struggle for Survival. Germany and the Second World War. IX/I. Clarendon Press. pp. 287–370. ISBN 978-0-19-160860-5.
- Musolff, Andreas (2013). "The Reception of antisemitic imagery in Nazi Germany and popular opinion – lessons for today". In Wodak, Ruth; Richardson, John E. (eds.). Analysing Fascist Discourse: European Fascism in Talk and Text. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-89919-2.
- Weinberg, Gerhard (2005). "Hitler's "Prophecy" (January 30, 1939)". In Levy, Richard S. (ed.). Antisemitism: A Historical Encyclopedia of Prejudice and Persecution. ABC-CLIO. pp. 306–307. ISBN 978-1-85109-439-4.
Journal articles
- Bytwerk, Randall L. (2005). "The Argument for Genocide in Nazi Propaganda". Quarterly Journal of Speech. 91 (1): 37–62. doi:10.1080/00335630500157516.
- Gerlach, Christian (1998). "The Wannsee Conference, the Fate of German Jews, and Hitler's Decision in Principle to Exterminate All European Jews". The Journal of Modern History. 70 (4): 759–812. doi:10.1086/235167.
- Herf, Jeffrey (2005). "The "Jewish War": Goebbels and the Antisemitic Campaigns of the Nazi Propaganda Ministry". Holocaust and Genocide Studies. 19 (1): 51–80. doi:10.1093/hgs/dci003.
- Jersak, Tobias (2000). "Revisited: a new look at Nazi war and extermination planning". The Historical Journal. 43 (2): 565–582. doi:10.1017/S0018246X99001004.
- Kley, Stefan (2000). "Intention, Verkündung, Implementierung: Hitlers Reichstagsrede vom 30. Januar 1939" [Intention, announcement, implementation: Hitler's Reichstag speech of 30 January 1939]. Zeitschrift für die Geschichtswissenschaft (in German). 48 (3): 197–213. ISSN 0044-2828. OCLC 224453284.
- Maravilla, Christopher Scott (2008). "Hate Speech as a War Crime: Public and Direct Incitement to Genocide in International Law". Tulane Journal of International and Comparative Law. 17: 113–144.
- Mommsen, Hans (1997). "Hitler's Reichstag Speech of 30 January 1939". History and Memory. 9 (1/2): 147–161. ISSN 0935-560X. JSTOR 25681003.
- Reynolds, David (2016). "The Origins of the Two 'World Wars': Historical Discourse and International Politics". Journal of Contemporary History. 38 (1): 29–44. doi:10.1177/0022009403038001962.
Further reading
- Burrin, Philippe (1994). Hitler and the Jews: The Genesis of the Holocaust. Edward Arnold. ISBN 978-0-340-59362-2.
- Kershaw, Ian (2006). "Hitler's prophecy and the "Final Solution"". In Zimmermann, Moshe (ed.). On Germans and Jews under the Nazi regime: essays by three generations of historians: a festschrift in honor of Otto Dov Kulka. Hebrew University Magnes Press. pp. 49–66. ISBN 978-965-493-254-7.
- Longerich, Peter (2009). "Davon haben wir nichts gewusst!": Die Deutschen und die Judenverfolgung 1933–1945 ["We didn't know about that!": The Germans and the persecution of the Jews 1933–1945] (in German). Siedler Verlag. ISBN 978-3-641-02398-0.
- Sauer, Christoph (2013) [1998]. Der aufdringliche Text: Sprachpolitik und NS-Ideologie in der "Deutschen Zeitung in den Niederlanden" [The intrusive text: language policy and Nazi ideology in the Deutschen Zeitung in den Niederlanden] (in German). Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-3-663-08347-4.
| Politics | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Events | |||||
| Places of residence |
| ||||
| Personal life | |||||
| Personal belongings | |||||
| Perceptions |
| ||||
| Family |
| ||||
| Other | |||||
| |||||
Nazi propaganda | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Propagandists | |||||||
| Organizations |
| ||||||
| Media |
| ||||||
| Audiences | |||||||
| Themes | |||||||
