Okinawan language

The Okinawan language (沖縄口/ウチナーグチ, Uchināguchi, [ʔut͡ɕinaːɡut͡ɕi]) or Central Okinawan, is a Northern Ryukyuan language spoken primarily in the southern half of the island of Okinawa, as well as in the surrounding islands of Kerama, Kumejima, Tonaki, Aguni and a number of smaller peripheral islands.[4] Central Okinawan distinguishes itself from the speech of Northern Okinawa, which is classified independently as the Kunigami language. Both languages are listed by UNESCO as endangered.[5]

Not to be confused with Okinawan Japanese.

Okinawan
沖縄口/ウチナーグチ, Uchināguchi
Pronunciation	[ʔut͡ɕinaːɡut͡ɕi]
Native to	Japan
Region	Okinawa Islands
Native speakers	980,000 (2000)[1]
Language family	Japonic Ryukyuan Northern Ryukyuan Okinawan
Writing system	Japanese, Okinawan, Rōmaji
Language codes
ISO 639-3	ryu
Glottolog	cent2126[2]
Linguasphere	45-CAC-ai 45-CAC-aj 45-CAC-ak[3]
South–Central Okinawan or Shuri–Naha

Though Okinawan encompasses a number of local dialects,[6] the Shuri–Naha variant is generally recognized as the de facto standard,[7] as it had been used as the official language of the Ryūkyū Kingdom[8] since the reign of King Shō Shin (1477–1526). Moreover, as the former capital of Shuri was built around the royal palace, the language used by the royal court became the regional and literary standard,[8][7] which thus flourished in songs and poems written during that era.

Today, most Okinawans speak Okinawan Japanese, although there is a small number who still speaks the Okinawan language, most often the elderly.[9] Within Japan, Okinawan is often not seen as a language unto itself but is referred to as the Okinawan dialect (沖縄方言, Okinawa hōgen) or more specifically the Central and Southern Okinawan dialects (沖縄中南部諸方言, Okinawa Chūnanbu Sho hōgen). Okinawan speakers are undergoing language shift as they switch to Japanese, since language use in Okinawa today is far from stable. Okinawans are assimilating and accenting standard Japanese due to the similarity of the two languages, the standardized and centralized education system, the media, business and social contact with mainlanders and previous attempts from Japan to suppress the native languages.[10] Okinawan is still kept alive in popular music, tourist shows and in theaters featuring a local drama called Uchinā shibai, which depict local customs and manners.[11]

History

Pre-Ryukyu Kingdom

Okinawan is a Japonic language, derived from Proto-Japonic and is therefore related to Japanese. The split between Old Japanese and the Ryukyuan languages has been estimated to have occurred as early as the first century AD to as late as the twelfth century AD. Chinese and Japanese characters were first introduced by a Japanese missionary in 1265.[12]

Ryukyu Kingdom era

Pre-Satsuma

Hiragana was much more popular than kanji; poems were commonly written solely in hiragana or with little kanji. Okinawan became the official language under King Shō Shin.

Post-Satsuma to annexation

After Ryukyu became a vassal of Satsuma Domain, kanji gained more prominence in poetry; however, official Ryukyuan documents were written in Classical Chinese.

In 1609, the Ryukyu Kingdom was colonized by the Satsuma Domain in the south of Japan. However, Satsuma did not fully invade the Ryukyu in fear of colliding with China, which had a stronger trading relationship with the Ryukyu at the time.[13]

Japanese annexation to end of World War II

When Ryukyu was annexed by Japan in 1879, the majority of people on Okinawa Island spoke Okinawan. Within ten years, the Japanese government began an assimilation policy of Japanization, where Ryukyuan languages were gradually suppressed. The education system was the heart of Japanization, where Okinawan children were taught Japanese and punished for speaking their native language, being told that their language was just a "dialect". By 1945, many Okinawans spoke Japanese, and many were bilingual. During the Battle of Okinawa, some Okinawans were killed by Japanese soldiers for speaking Okinawan.

Language shift to Japanese in Ryukyu/Okinawa began in 1879 when the Japanese government annexed Ryukyu and established Okinawa Prefecture. The prefectural office mainly consisted of people from Kagoshima Prefecture where the Satsuma Domain used to be. This caused the modernization of Okinawa as well as language shift to Japanese. As a result, Japanese became the standard language for administration, education, media, and literature.[13]

In 1902, the National Language Research Council (国語調査委員会) began the linguistic unification of Japan to Standard Japanese. This caused the linguistic stigmatization of many local varieties in Japan including Okinawan. As the discrimination accelerated, Okinawans themselves started to abandon their languages and shifted to Standard Japanese.[13]

American occupation

Under American administration, there was an attempt to revive and standardize Okinawan, but this proved difficult and was shelved in favor of Japanese. General Douglas MacArthur attempted to promote Okinawan languages and culture through education.[14] Multiple English words were introduced.

Return to Japan to present day

After Okinawa's reversion to Japanese sovereignty, Japanese continued to be the dominant language used, and the majority of the youngest generations only speak Okinawan Japanese. There have been attempts to revive Okinawan by notable people such as Byron Fija and Seijin Noborikawa, but few native Okinawans desire to learn the language.[15]

Outside of Japan

The Okinawan language is still spoken by communities of Okinawan immigrants in Brazil. The first immigrants from the island of Okinawa to Brazil landed in the Port of Santos in 1908 drawn by the hint of work and farmable land. Once in a new country and far from their homeland, they found themselves in a place where there was no prohibition of their language, allowing them to willingly speak, celebrate and preserve their speech and culture, up to the present day. Currently the Okinawan-Japanese centers and communities in the State of São Paulo are a world reference to this language helping it to stay alive.[16]

Classification

Okinawan is sometimes grouped with Kunigami as the Okinawan languages; however, not all linguists accept this grouping, some claiming that Kunigami is a dialect of Okinawan.[13] Okinawan is also grouped with Amami (or the Amami languages) as the Northern Ryukyuan languages.

Dialect of the Japanese language

Since the creation of Okinawa Prefecture, Okinawan has been labeled a dialect of Japanese as part of a policy of assimilation. Later, Japanese linguists, such as Tōjō Misao, who studied the Ryukyuan languages argued that they are indeed dialects. This is due to the misconception that Japan is a homogeneous state (one people, one language, one nation), and classifying the Ryukyuan languages as such would discredit this belief.[17] The present-day official stance of the Japanese government remains that Okinawan is a dialect, and it is common within the Japanese population for it to be called 沖縄方言 (okinawa hōgen) or 沖縄弁 (okinawa-ben), which means "Okinawa dialect (of Japanese)". The policy of assimilation, coupled with increased interaction between Japan and Okinawa through media and economics, has led to the development of Okinawan Japanese, which is a dialect of Japanese.

Dialects of the Ryukyuan language

Okinawan linguist Seizen Nakasone states that the Ryukyuan languages are in fact groupings of similar dialects. As each community has its own distinct dialect, there is no "one language". Nakasone attributes this diversity to the isolation caused by immobility, citing the story of his mother who wanted to visit the town of Nago but never made the 25 km trip before she died of old age.[18]

Its own distinct language

Outside Japan, Okinawan is considered a separate language from Japanese. This was first proposed by Basil Hall Chamberlain, who compared the relationship between Okinawan and Japanese to that of the Romance languages. UNESCO has marked it as an endangered language.

Sociolinguistics

UNESCO listed six Okinawan language varieties as endangered languages in 2009.[19] The endangerment of Okinawan is largely due to the shift to Standard Japanese. Throughout history, Okinawan languages have been treated as dialects of Standard Japanese. For instance, in the 20th century, many schools used "dialect tags" to punish the students who spoke in Okinawan.[20] Consequently, many of the remaining speakers today are choosing not to transmit their languages to younger generation due to the stigmatization of the languages in the past.[13]

There have been several revitalization efforts made to reverse this language shift. However, Okinawan is still poorly taught in formal institutions due to the lack of support from the Okinawan Education Council: education in Okinawa is conducted exclusively in Japanese, and children do not study Okinawan as their second language at school. As a result, at least two generations of Okinawans have grown up without any proficiency in their local languages both at home and school.[13]

Phonology

Vowels

	Front	Central	Back
Close	i iː	(ɨ)	u uː
Close-Mid	e eː		o oː
Open		a aː

The Okinawan language has five vowels, all of which may be long or short, though the short vowels /e/ and /o/ are quite rare,[21] as they occur only in a few native Okinawan words with heavy syllables with the pattern /Ceɴ/ or /Coɴ/, such as /meɴsoːɾeː/ mensōrē "welcome" or /toɴɸaː/ tonfā. The close back vowels /u/ and /uː/ are truly rounded, rather than the compressed vowels of standard Japanese. A sixth vowel /ɨ/ is sometimes posited in order to explain why sequences containing a historically raised /e/ fail to trigger palatalization as with /i/: */te/ → /tɨː/ tī "hand", */ti/ → /t͡ɕiː/ chī "blood". Acoustically, however, /ɨ/ is pronounced no differently from /i/, possibly because palatalization preceded this vowel shift.

Consonants

The Okinawan language counts some 20 distinctive segments shown in the chart below, with major allophones presented in parentheses.

IPA chart of Okinawan consonants

	Labial	Alveolar	Alveolo- palatal	Palatal	Labio- velar	Velar	Glottal
Nasal	m	n				(ŋ)
Plosive	p   b	t   d	t͡ɕ   d͡ʑ		kʷ   ɡʷ	k   ɡ	ʔ
Fricative	ɸ	s  (z)	(ɕ)	(ç)			h
Flap		ɾ
Approximant				j	w

The only consonant that can occur as a syllable coda is the archiphoneme |n|. Many analyses treat it as an additional phoneme /N/, the moraic nasal, though it never contrasts with /n/ or /m/.

The consonant system of the Okinawan language is fairly similar to that of standard Japanese, but it does present a few differences on the phonemic and allophonic level. Namely, Okinawan retains the labialized consonants /kʷ/ and /ɡʷ/ which were lost in Late Middle Japanese, possesses a glottal stop /ʔ/, features a voiceless bilabial fricative /ɸ/ distinct from the aspirate /h/, and has two distinctive affricates which arose from a number of different sound processes. Additionally, Okinawan lacks the major allophones [t͡s] and [d͡z] found in Japanese, having historically fronted the vowel /u/ to /i/ after the alveolars /t d s z/, consequently merging [t͡su] tsu into [t͡ɕi] chi, [su] su into [ɕi] shi, and both [d͡zu] dzu and [zu] zu into [d͡ʑi] ji. It also lacks /z/ as a distinctive phoneme, having merged it into /d͡ʑ/.

Bilabial and glottal fricatives

The bilabial fricative /ɸ/ has sometimes been transcribed as the cluster /hw/, since, like Japanese, /h/ allophonically labializes into [ɸ] before the high vowel /u/, and /ɸ/ does not occur before the rounded vowel /o/. This suggests that an overlap between /ɸ/ and /h/ exists, and so the contrast in front of other vowels can be denoted through labialization. However, this analysis fails to take account of the fact that Okinawan has not fully undergone the diachronic change */p/ → /ɸ/ → */h/ as in Japanese, and that the suggested clusterization and labialization into */hw/ is unmotivated.[22] Consequently, the existence of /ɸ/ must be regarded as independent of /h/, even though the two overlap. Barring a few words that resulted from the former change, the aspirate /h/ also arose from the odd lenition of /k/ and /s/, as well as words loaned from other dialects. Before the glide /j/ and the high vowel /i/, it is pronounced closer to [ç], as in Japanese.

Palatalization

The plosive consonants /t/ and /k/ historically palatalized and affricated into /t͡ɕ/ before and occasionally following the glide /j/ and the high vowel /i/: */kiri/ → /t͡ɕiɾi/ chiri "fog", and */k(i)jora/ → /t͡ɕuɾa/ chura- "beautiful". This change preceded vowel raising, so that instances where /i/ arose from */e/ did not trigger palatalization: */ke/ → /kiː/ kī "hair". Their voiced counterparts /d/ and /ɡ/ underwent the same effect, becoming /d͡ʑ/ under such conditions: */unaɡi/ → /ʔɴnad͡ʑi/ Qnnaji "eel", and */nokoɡiri/ → /nukud͡ʑiɾi/ nukujiri "saw"; but */kaɡeɴ/ → /kaɡiɴ/ kagin "seasoning".

Both /t/ and /d/ may or may not also allophonically affricate before the mid vowel /e/, though this pronunciation is increasingly rare. Similarly, the fricative consonant /s/ palatalizes into [ɕ] before the glide /j/ and the vowel /i/, including when /i/ historically derives from /e/: */sekai/ → [ɕikeː] shikē "world". It may also palatalize before the vowel /e/, especially so in the context of topicalization: [duɕi] dushi → [duɕeː] dusē or dushē "(topic) friend".

In general, sequences containing the palatal consonant /j/ are relatively rare and tend to exhibit depalatalization. For example, /mj/ tends to merge with /n/ ([mjaːku] myāku → [naːku] nāku "Miyako"); */rj/ has merged into /ɾ/ and /d/ (*/rjuː/ → /ɾuː/ rū ~ /duː/ dū "dragon"); and /sj/ has mostly become /s/ (/sjui/ shui → /sui/ sui "Shuri").

Flapping and fortition

The voiced plosive /d/ and the flap /ɾ/ tend to merge, with the first becoming a flap in word-medial position, and the second sometimes becoming a plosive in word-initial position. For example, /ɾuː/ rū "dragon" may be strengthened into /duː/ dū, and /hasidu/ hashidu "door" conversely flaps into /hasiɾu/ hashiru. The two sounds do, however, still remain distinct in a number of words and verbal constructions.

Glottal stop

Okinawan also features a distinctive glottal stop /ʔ/ that historically arose from a process of glottalization of word-initial vowels.[23] Hence, all vowels in Okinawan are predictably glottalized at the beginning of words (*/ame/ → /ʔami/ ami "rain"), save for a few exceptions. High vowel loss or assimilation following this process created a contrast with glottalized approximants and nasal consonants.[23] Compare */uwa/ → /ʔwa/ Qwa "pig" to /wa/ wa "I", or */ine/ → /ʔɴni/ Qnni "rice plant" to */mune/ → /ɴni/ nni "chest".[24]

Moraic nasal

The moraic nasal /N/ has been posited in most descriptions of Okinawan phonology. Like Japanese, /N/ (transcribed using the small capital /ɴ/) occupies a full mora and its precise place of articulation will vary depending on the following consonant. Before other labial consonants, it will be pronounced closer to a syllabic bilabial nasal [m̩], as in /ʔɴma/ [ʔm̩ma] Qnma "horse". Before velar and labiovelar consonants, it will be pronounced as a syllabic velar nasal [ŋ̍], as in /biɴɡata/ [biŋ̍ɡata] bingata, a method of dying clothes. And before alveolar and alveolo-palatal consonants, it becomes a syllabic alveolar nasal /n̩/, as in /kaɴda/ [kan̩da] kanda "vine". Elsewhere, its exact realization remains unspecified, and it may vary depending on the first sound of the next word or morpheme. In isolation and at the end of utterances, it is realized as a velar nasal [ŋ̍].

Correspondences with Japanese

There is a sort of "formula" for Ryukyuanizing Japanese words: turning e into i, ki into chi, gi into ji, o into u, and -awa into -ā. This formula fits with the transliteration of Okinawa into Uchinā and has been noted as evidence that Okinawan is a dialect of Japanese, however it does not explain unrelated words such as arigatō and nifēdēbiru (for "thank you").

Correspondences between Japanese and Okinawan

Japanese	Okinawan	Notes
/e/	/iː/[25]
/i/
/a/	/a/[25]
/o/	/u/[25]
/u/
/ai/	/eː/
/ae/
/au/	/oː/
/ao/
/aja/
/k/	/k/	/ɡ/ also occurs
/ka/	/ka/	/ha/ also occurs
/ki/	/t͡ɕi/	[t͡ɕi]
/ku/	/ku/	/hu/, [ɸu] also occurs
/si/	/si/	/hi/, [çi] also occurs
/su/	/si/	[ɕi]; formerly distinguished as [si] /hi/ [çi] also occurs
/tu/	/t͡ɕi/	[t͡ɕi]; formerly distinguished as [t͡si]
/da/	/ra/	[d] and [ɾ] have merged
/de/	/ri/
/do/	/ru/
/ni/	/ni/	Moraic /ɴ/ also occurs
/nu/	/nu/
/ha/	/ɸa/	/pa/ also occurs, but rarely
/hi/	/pi/ ~ /hi/
/he/
/mi/	/mi/	Moraic /ɴ/ also occurs
/mu/	/mu/
/ri/	/i/	/iri/ is unaffected
/wa/	/wa/	Tends to become /a/ medially

Orthography

The Tamaoton no Hinomon (玉陵の碑文), referred to as the Tamaudun no Hinomon in modern Japanese, is the oldest known inscription of Okinawan using both hiragana and kanji.

The Okinawan language was historically written using an admixture of kanji and hiragana. The hiragana syllabary is believed to have first been introduced from mainland Japan to the Ryukyu Kingdom some time during the reign of king Shunten in the early thirteenth century.[26][27] It is likely that Okinawans were already in contact with hanzi (Chinese characters) due to extensive trade between the Ryukyu Kingdom and China, Japan and Korea. However, hiragana gained more widespread acceptance throughout the Ryukyu Islands, and most documents and letters were exclusively transcribed using this script, in contrast to in Japan where writing solely in hiragana was considered "women's script". The Omoro Saushi (おもろさうし), a sixteenth-century compilation of songs and poetry,[28] and a few preserved writs of appointments dating from the same century were written solely in Hiragana.[29] Kanji were gradually adopted due to the growing influence of mainland Japan and to the linguistic affinity between the Okinawan and Japanese languages.[30] However, it was mainly limited to affairs of high importance and to documents sent towards the mainland. The oldest inscription of Okinawan exemplifying its use along with Hiragana can be found on a stone stele at the Tamaudun mausoleum, dating back to 1501.[31][32]

After the invasion of Okinawa by the Shimazu clan of Satsuma in 1609, Okinawan ceased to be used in official affairs.[26] It was replaced by standard Japanese writing and a form of Classical Chinese writing known as kanbun.[26] Despite this change, Okinawan still continued to prosper in local literature up until the nineteenth century. Following the Meiji Restoration, the Japanese government abolished the domain system and formally annexed the Ryukyu Islands to Japan as the Okinawa Prefecture in 1879.[33] To promote national unity, the government then introduced standard education and opened Japanese-language schools based on the Tokyo dialect.[33] Students were discouraged and chastised for speaking or even writing in the local "dialect", notably through the use of "dialect cards" (方言札). As a result, Okinawan gradually ceased to be written entirely until the American takeover in 1945.

Since then, Japanese and American scholars have variously transcribed the regional language using a number of ad hoc romanization schemes or the katakana syllabary to demarcate its foreign nature with standard Japanese. Proponents of Okinawan tend to be more traditionalist and continue to write the language using hiragana with kanji. In any case, no standard or consensus concerning spelling issues has ever been formalized, so discrepancies between modern literary works are common.

Syllabary

Technically, they are not syllables, but rather morae. Each mora in Okinawan will consist of one or two kana characters. If two, then a smaller version of kana follows the normal sized kana. In each cell of the table below, the top row is the kana (hiragana to the left, katakana to the right of the dot), the middle row in rōmaji (Hepburn romanization), and the bottom row in IPA.

Vowel Consonant	a	i	u	e	o	ya	yi	yu	ye	yo	wa	wi	wu	we	wo	n
(none)	あ・ア a [a]	い・イ i [i]	う・ウ u [u]	え・エ e [e]	お・オ o [o]	や・ヤ ya [ja]	いぃ・イィ yi [ji]	ゆ・ユ yu [ju]	えぇ・エェ ye [je]	よ・ヨ yo [jo]	わ・ワ wa [wa]	ゐ・ヰ wi [wi]	をぅ・ヲゥ wu [wu]	ゑ・ヱ we [we]	を・ヲ wo [wo]	ん・ン n [ɴ] ([n̩], [ŋ̣], [ṃ])
Q (glottal stop)	あ・ア Qa [ʔa]	い・イ Qi [ʔi]	う・ウ Qu [ʔu]	え・エ Qe [ʔe]	お・オ Qo [ʔo]	っや・ッヤ Qya [ʔʲa]		っゆ・ッユ Qyu [ʔʲu]		っよ・ッヨ Qyo [ʔʲo]	っわ・ッワ Qwa [ʔʷa]	っゐ・ッヰ Qwi [ʔʷi]		っゑ・ッヱ Qwe [ʔʷe]	っを・ッヲ Qwo [ʔʷo]	っん・ッン Qn [ʔɴ] ([ʔn̩], [ʔṃ])
k	か・カ ka [ka]	き・キ ki [ki]	く・ク ku [ku]	け・ケ ke [ke]	こ・コ ko [ko]	きゃ・キャ kya [kʲa]		きゅ・キュ kyu [kʲu]		きょ・キョ kyo [kʲo]	くゎ・クヮ kwa [kʷa]	くぃ・クィ kwi [kʷi]		くぇ・クェ kwe [kʷe]	くぉ・クォ kwo [kʷo]
g	が・ガ ga [ɡa]	ぎ・ギ gi [ɡi]	ぐ・グ gu [ɡu]	げ・ゲ ge [ɡe]	ご・ゴ go [ɡo]	ぎゃ・ギャ gya [ɡʲa]		ぎゅ・ギュ gyu [ɡʲu]		ぎょ・ギョ gyo [ɡʲo]	ぐゎ・グヮ gwa [ɡʷa]	ぐぃ・グィ gwi [ɡʷi]		ぐぇ・グェ gwe [ɡʷe]	ぐぉ・グォ gwo [ɡʷo]
s	さ・サ sa [sa]	すぃ・スィ si [si]	す・ス su [su]	せ・セ se [se]	そ・ソ so [so]
sh	しゃ・シャ sha [ɕa]	し・シ shi [ɕi]	しゅ・シュ shu [ɕu]	しぇ・シェ she [ɕe]	しょ・ショ sho [ɕo]
z	ざ・ザ za [za]	ずぃ・ズィ zi [zi]	ず・ズ zu [zu]	ぜ・ゼ ze [ze]	ぞ・ゾ zo [zo]
j	じゃ・ジャ (ぢゃ・ヂャ) ja [dʑa]	じ・ジ (ぢ・ヂ) ji [dʑi]	じゅ・ヂュ (ぢゅ・ヂュ) ju [dʑu]	じぇ・ジェ (ぢぇ・ヂェ) je [dʑe]	じょ・ジョ (ぢょ・ヂョ) jo [dʑo]
t	た・タ ta [ta]	てぃ・ティ ti [ti]	とぅ・トゥ tu [tu]	て・テ te [te]	と・ト to [to]
d	だ・ダ da [da]	でぃ・ディ di [di]	どぅ・ドゥ du [du]	で・デ de [de]	ど・ド do [do]
ts	つぁ・ツァ tsa [t͡sa]	つぃ・ツィ tsi [t͡si]	つ・ツ tsu [t͡su]	つぇ・ツェ tse [t͡se]	つぉ・ツォ tso [t͡so]
ch	ちゃ・チャ cha [t͡ɕa]	ち・チ chi [t͡ɕi]	ちゅ・チュ chu [t͡ɕu]	ちぇ・チェ che [t͡ɕe]	ちょ・チョ cho [t͡ɕo]	ya		yu		yo
n	な・ナ na [na]	に・ニ ni [ni]	ぬ・ヌ nu [nu]	ね・ネ ne [ne]	の・ノ no [no]	にゃ・ニャ nya [ɲa]		にゅ・ニュ nyu [ɲu]		にょ・ニョ nyo [ɲo]	long vowel double consonant 〜（あ、い、う、え、お）・ー ~(a, i, u, e, o) ~[Vː] っ・ッ (Any consonant) [Cː]
h	は・ハ ha [ha]	ひ・ヒ hi [çi]		へ・ヘ he [he]	ほ・ホ ho [ho]	ひゃ・ヒャ hya [ça]		ひゅ・ヒュ hyu [çu]		ひょ・ヒョ hyo [ço]
f	ふぁ・ファ fa [ɸa]	ふぃ・フィ fi [ɸi]	ふ・フ fu/hu [ɸu]	ふぇ・フェ fe [ɸe]	ふぉ・フォ fo [ɸo]
b	ば・バ ba [ba]	び・ビ bi [bi]	ぶ・ブ bu [bu]	べ・ベ be [be]	ぼ・ボ bo [bo]
p	ぱ・パ pa [pa]	ぴ・ピ pi [pi]	ぷ・プ pu [pu]	ぺ・ペ pe [pe]	ぽ・ポ po [po]
m	ま・マ ma [ma]	み・ミ mi [mi]	む・ム mu [mu]	め・メ me [me]	も・モ mo [mo]	みゃ・ミャ mya [mʲa]		みゅ・ミュ myu [mʲu]		みょ・ミョ myo [mʲo]
r	ら・ラ ra [ɾa]	り・リ ri [ɾi]	る・ル ru [ɾu]	れ・レ re [ɾe]	ろ・ロ ro [ɾo]	りゃ・リャ rya [ɾʲa]		りゅ・リュ ryu [ɾʲu]		りょ・リョ ryo [ɾʲo]

Grammar

Okinawan follows a subject–object–verb word order and makes large use of particles as in Japanese. Okinawan dialects retain a number of grammatical features of classical Japanese, such as a distinction between the terminal form (終止形) and the attributive form (連体形), the genitive function of が ga (lost in the Shuri dialect), the nominative function of ぬ nu (Japanese: の no), as well as honorific/plain distribution of ga and nu in nominative use.

Okinawan conjugation

書く kaku to write
		Classical		Shuri
Irrealis	未然形	書か	kaka-	kaka-
Continuative	連用形	書き	kaki-	kachi-
Terminal	終止形	書く	kaku	kachun
Attributive	連体形	書く	kaku	kachuru
Realis	已然形	書け	kake-	kaki-
Imperative	命令形	書け	kake	kaki

One etymology given for the -un and -uru endings is the continuative form suffixed with uri (Classical Japanese: 居り wori, to be; to exist): -un developed from the terminal form uri; -uru developed from the attributive form uru, i.e.:

• kachuru derives from kachi-uru;
• kachun derives from kachi-uri; and
• yumun (Japanese: 読む yomu, to read) derives from yumi + uri.

A similar etymology is given for the terminal -san and attributive -saru endings for adjectives: the stem suffixed with さ sa (nominalises adjectives, i.e. high → height, hot → heat), suffixed with ari (Classical Japanese: 有り ari, to exist; to have), i.e.:

• takasan (Japanese: 高い takai, high; tall) derives from taka-sa-ari;
• achisan (Japanese: 暑い atsui, hot; warm) derives from atsu-sa-ari; and
• yutasaru (good; pleasant) derives from yuta-sa-aru.

Parts of speech

Nature of the part of speech in a sentence							Part of speech
Independent	No conjugation	Can become a subject					Noun (名詞)
							Pronoun (代名詞)
		Cannot become a subject		Other words come after	Modifies	Modifies a declinable word	Adverb (副詞)
						Modifies a substantive	Prenominal adjective (連体詞)
					Connects		Conjunction (接続詞)
				Other words may not come after			Interjection / exclamation (感動詞)
	Conjugates	Declinable word	Shows movements		Conclusive form ends in "ん (n)"		Verb (動詞)
			Shows the property or state		Conclusive form ends in "さん (san)"		Adjective (形容詞)
			Shows existence or decision of a certain thing		"やん (yan)" attaches to a substantive such as a noun		Existential-identificative verb (存在動詞)
			Shows state of existence of events		"やん (yan)" attaches to the word that shows state		Adjectival verb (形容動詞)
Dependent	Conjugates	Makes up for the meanings of conjugated words			Conclusive form ends in "ん (n)"		Auxiliary Verb (助動詞)
	No conjugation	Attaches to other words and shows the relationship between words					Particle (助詞)
		Attaches to the head of a word and adds meaning or makes a new word					Prefix (接頭語)
		Attaches to the end of a word and adds meaning or makes a new word					Suffix (接尾語)

Nouns (名詞)

Nouns are classified as independent, non-conjugating part of speech that can become a subject of a sentence

Pronouns (代名詞)

Pronouns are classified the same as nouns, except that pronouns are more broad.

Okinawan pronouns

		Singular				Plural
		Personal	Demonstrative			Personal	Demonstrative
			Thing	Place	Direction		Thing	Place	Direction
1st person		我ん (wan) わー (wā) わみ (wami)				我達 (wattā) いがろー (igarō)
2nd person		やー (yā) やーみ (yāmi) なー (nā) なーみ (nāmi) 御所 (unju)				いったー (ittā) なったー (nattā) うんじゅなーたー (unjunātā)
3rd person	Proximal	くり (kuri)	くり (kuri)	くま (kuma)	くま (kuma) くがた (kugata)	くったー (kuttā)	くったー (kuttā)	くま (kuma)	くま (kuma) くがた (kugata)
	Medial	うり (uri)	うり (uri)	うま (uma)	うま (uma) うがた (ugata)	うったー (uttā)	うったー (uttā)	うま (uma)	うま (uma) うがた (ugata)
	Distal	あり (ari)	あり (ari)	あま (ama)	あま (ama) あがた (agata)	あったー (attā)	あったー (attā)	あま (ama)	あま (ama) あがた (agata)
Indefinite		たー (tā) た (ta)	じる (jiru)	まー (mā)	まー (mā) まーかた (mākata)	たったー (tattā)	じる (jiru)	まー (mā)	まー (mā) まーかた (mākata)

Adverbs (副詞)

Adverbs are classified as an independent, non-conjugating part of speech that cannot become a subject of a sentence and modifies a declinable word (用言; verbs, adverbs, adjectives) that comes after the adverb. There are two main categories to adverbs and several subcategories within each category, as shown in the table below.

Okinawan adverbs

	Adverbs that shows state or condition
Shows...	Okinawan	Japanese	English	Example
Time	ひっちー (hitchī)	しょっちゅう (shotchū) いつも (itsumo) 始終 (shijū)	Always	あぬ夫婦（ふぃとぅんだー）　ひっちー、たっくゎいむっくゎいびけーそーん。 Anu fitundā hitchī, takkwaimukkwai bikēsōn. あの夫婦はいつも、寄り添ってばかりいる。 Ano fūfu wa itsumo, yorisotte bakari iru. That couple is always sticking close.
	まーるけーてぃ (mārukēti)	たまに (tamani)	Occasionally	子（くゎ）ー　まーるけーてぃ、親（うや）ぬ加勢（かしー）しーが行（い）ちゅん。 Kwā mārukēti, uya nu kashīshīga ichun. 子供はたまに、親の手伝いに行く。 Kodomo wa tamani, oya no tetsudai ni iku. The kid occasionally goes to help his/her parent.
	ちゃーき (chāki)	直ぐ (sugu)	Already	くぬ車（くるま）ーちゃーき、けーやんでぃとーんたん。 Kunu kurumā chāki, kēyanditōntan. この車は直ぐ、壊れてしまっていた。 Kono kuruma wa sugu, kowarete shimatteita. This car broke already.
	やがてぃ (yagati)	やがて	Shortly	やがてぃ、太陽（てぃだ）ぬ落（う）てぃゆしが、御所（うんじょ）ー来（く）ーん。 Yagati, tida nu utiyushiga, unjuō kūn. やがて、太陽が落ちるが、あなたはこない。 Yagate, taiyō ga ochiruga, anata wa konai. The sun will disappear shortly, but you are not here.
	未だ (nāda)	まだ (mada)	Yet	彼女（あり）が　胆（ちもー）　未（なー）だ、直（のー）らん。 Ariga chimō nāda, nōran. 彼女の機嫌はまだ、直らない。 Kanojo no kigen wa mada, naoranai. Her mood has yet to become better.
	ちゃー (chā)	いつも (itsumo)	Always	あまぬ犬（いのー）　ちゃー、あびとーん。 Ama nu inō chā, abitōn. あそこの犬はいつも、吠えている。 Asoko no inu wa itsumo, hoeteiru. The dog over there is always barking.
	ちゅてーや (chutēya)	少しは (sukoshiwa) ちょっとは (chottowa)	A little	ちゅてーや、待（ま）っちょーきよー。 Chutēya, matchōkiyō. 少しは、待っておいてよ。 Sukoshiwa, matteoiteyo. Wait a little.
	あっとぅむす (attumusu)	急に (kyūni)	Suddenly	どぅしぬ　あっとぅむす、はっ来（ち）ょーたんどー。 Dushi nu attumusu, hachōtandō. 友達が急に、来ていたよ。 Tomodachi ga kyūni, kiteitayo. My friend suddenly came.
	まるひーじーや (maruhījīya)	普段は (fudanwa)	Normally	隣（とぅない）ぬ三郎主（さんだーすー）や　まるひーじーや　寝（に）んてぃどぅ居（う）ゆる。 Tunai nu Sandāsū ya maruhījīya nintidūyuru. 隣の三郎爺は普段は寝ている。 Tonari no Sandā-jī fudanwa neteiru. Sanda is normally sleeping.
	いっとぅちゃー (ittuchā)	しばらくは (shibarakuwa)	A little while	いっとぅちゃー、門口（じょーぐち）んじ　待（ま）っちょーけー。 Ittuchā, jōguchi nji matchōkē. しばらくは、門で待っておけ。 Shibarakuwa, mon de matteoke. Wait at the gate a little while.
Quantity	いふぃ (ifi)	少し (sukoshi)	A little	三郎（さんだー）、いふぇー、汝（やー）たましから　分（わ）きてぃ取（とぅ）らせー。 Sandā, ifē, yā tamashi kara wakititurasē. 三郎、少しは君の分から分けてくれ。 Sandā, sukoshi wa kimi no bun kara waketekure. Sanda, please share a little bit of yours.
	ちゃっさきー (chassakī)	沢山 (takusan)	Many, a lot of	御主前（うすめー）や　山（やま）から　ちゃっさきー、薪（たむん）、持（む）ち来（ち）ぇーん。 Usumē ya yama kara chassakī, tamun, muchichēn. お爺さんは山から沢山、薪を持ってきてある。 Ojī-san wa yama kara takusan, maki wo mottekitearu. The old man brought a lot of firewood.
	はてぃるか (hatiruka)	随分 (zuibun)	A lot	昨日（ちぬー）や　はてぃるか、歩（あ）っちゃん。 Chinū ya hatiruka, atchan. 昨日は随分、歩いた。 Kinō wa zuibun, aruita. I walked a lot yesterday.
	ぐゎさない (gwasanai)	わんさか (wansaka)	Abundant	我達（わったー）　畑（はる）んかいや　黍（うーじぇー）　ぐゎさない、まんどーんどー。 Wattā haru nkai ya ūjē gwasanai, mandōndō. 私達の畑には砂糖黍はわんさかあるよ。 Watashitachi no hatake ni wa satōkibi wa wansaka aruyo. We have abundant sugar cane in our farm.
	満っちゃきー (mitchakī) 満っちゃかー (mitchakā)	一杯 (ippai)	A lot	芋（んむ）やれー、しんめーん鍋（なーび）んかい　満（み）っちゃきー（満（み）っちゃかー）、あんどー。 Nmu yarē, shinmēn nābi nkai mitchakī (mitchakā), andō. 芋なら大鍋に、一杯、あるよ。 Imo nara ōnabe ni, ippai, aruyo. We have a lot of potatoes in the big pot.
	ゆっかりうっさ (yukkariussa)	随分 (zuibun)	A lot	糸満（いくまん）んかいや　清（ちゅ）ら顔（かーぎ）ぬ　ゆっかりうっさ、居（う）ゆんでぃ。 Ikuman nkai ya churakāgi nu yukkariussa, uyu ndi. 糸満には美人が随分、いるそうだ。 Itoman ni wa bijin ga zuibin, iru sōda. I heard that there are a lot of beautiful women in Itoman.
	うすまさ (usumasa)	恐ろしく (osoroshiku)	Extremely, a lot of	がじゃん坂（びら）んかいや　うすまさ、がじゃんぬ居（う）ゆたんでぃ。 Gajanbira nkai ya usumasa, gajan nu uyuta ndi. ガジャンビラには恐ろしく、蚊がいたそうだ。 Gajanbira ni wa osoroshiku, ka ga ita sōda. I heard that there were a lot of mosquitoes in Gajanbira.
	まんたきー (mantakī)	一杯 (ippai)	Full, a lot	水（みじ）ー　まんたきー、入（い）りてぃ、たじらしよー。 Mijī mantakī, iriti, dajirashiyō. 水は一杯、入れて、焚いてね。 Mizu wa ippai, irete, taitene. Put full of water and heat it.
	なーふぃん (nāfin)	もっと (motto)	More	くぬ湯（ゆ）んかい水（みじぇー）、なーふぃん、んべーてぃ呉（くぃ）れー。 Kunu yu nkai mijē, nāfin, nbētikwirē. このお湯に水をもっと、足してくれ。 Kono oyu ni mizu wo motto, tashitekure. Add more water to this hot water.
	軽ってんぐゎ (kattengwa)	少しだけ (sukoshidake)	A little	今日（ちゅー）ぬ持飯（むちばん）めーや　軽（か）ってんぐゎ、容（い）りてぃ取（とぅ）らせー。 Chiyū nu muchiban mēya kattengwa, irititurasē. 今日の弁当は少しだけ、入れてちょうだい。 Kyō no bentō wa sukoshidake, iretechōdai. Please give me just a little for today's bento box.
Degree	でーじな (dējina)	大変 (taihen)	Very	御所（うんじゅ）が　三線（さんしん）ぬ皮（かー）や　でーじな、上等（じょーとー）やんやー。 Unju ga sanshin nu kā ya dējina, jōtō yan'yā あなたの三味線の皮は大変、上等ですね。 Anata no shamisen no kawa wa taihen, jōtō desune. The leather of your shamisen is expensive.
	じまま (jimama)	随分 (zuibun)	Fairly, quite	我（わ）んねー　若さいにーや　じまま、勉強（びんちょー）しゃん。 Wannē wakasainī ya jimama, binchō shan. 私は若い頃は、随分、勉強した。 Watashi wa wakaikoro wa, zuibun, benkyō shita. When I was young, I used to study quite a lot.
	よねー (yonē)	そんなには (sonnaniwa)	Not too much	今度（くんどぅ）ぬ正月（しょーぐゎち）え　よねー、ゆくららんさー。 Kundu nu shōgwachi e yonē, yukuraransā. 今度の正月は、そんなには、休めないな。 Kondo no shōgatsu wa, sonnaniwa, yasumenaina. I cannot rest too much during this New Year's celebration.
	いーるく (īruku)	良く (yoku)	Often	くぬ海んじえ　いーるく、泳（うい）じゅんどー。 Kunu umi nji e īruku, uijundō. この海では、良く、泳ぐよ。 Kono umi de wa, yoku, oyoguyo. I often swim in this ocean.
	にりるか (niriruka)	うんざりするほど (unzarisuruhodo)	To a sickening degree	昨日（ちぬー）や　にりるか、荷（にー）、かやーちゃん。 Chinū ya niriruka, nī, kayāchan. 昨日は、うんざりするほど、荷を運んだ。 Kinō wa, unzarisuruhodo, ni wo hokonda. I carried luggage to a sickening degree yesterday.
	わじるか (wajiruka)	怒るほど (okoruhodo)	To the extent someone gets irritated	次郎（じらー）が　作（ちゅく）たる書類や　課長（かちょー）が　わじるか、間違（ばっぺー）とーたん。 Jirā ga chukutaru shorui ya kachō ga wajiruka, bappētōtan. 次郎が作った書類は課長が怒るほど、間違っていた。 Jirā ga tsukutta shorui wa kachō ga okoruhodo, machigetteita. The documents that Jira made had so many errors that the department chief got irritated.
	あいゆか (aiyuka)	とても (totemo)	Very	我（わ）んねー　あいゆか、腸（わた）ぬ病（や）でぃ、ひらきとーたん。 Wannē aiyuka, wata nu yadi, hirakitōtan. 私はとても、お腹が痛くて、しゃがんでいた。 Watashi wa totemo, onaka ga itakute, shagandeita. I had a very bad stomach ache and was squatting down.
	ゆくん (yukun)	余計 (yokei)	Even more	いったー兄（やっちい）や　ゆくん、ちじどぅやる。 Ittā yatchī ya yukun, chijiduyaru. 君達の兄は余計、駄目だ。 Kimitachi no ani wa yokei, dame da. Your brother is even worse.
	たった (tatta)	余計 (yokei)	Even more	時間ぬ経（た）ちいねー、彼（あり）が　病（やんめー）や　たった、悪（わ）っさなゆんどー。 Jikan nu tachīnē, ari ga yanmē ya tatta, wassanayundō. 時間が経てば、彼の病気は余計、悪くなるよ。 Jikan ga tateba, kare no byōki wa yokei, warukunaruyo. If you wait longer, his illness will be even worse.
	ちゅふぁーら (chufāra)	一杯 (ippai)	Full, enough	むのー　なー、ちゅふぁーら、食（か）だん。 Munō nā, chufāra, kadan. 食事はもう、一杯、食べた。 Shokuji wa mō, ippai, tabeta. I have already had enough food
	あんすかー (ansukā)	それほどは (sorehodowa)	Not so...	主（すー）や　三線（さんしん）や　あんすかー、上手（じょーじ）えあらん。 Sū ya sanshin ya ansukā, jōji earan. お父さんは三味線はそれほどは、上手ではない。 Otō-san wa shamisen sorehodowa jōzu dewanai. Father is not so good at shamisen.
	散ん散んとぅ (chinchintu)	散り散りに (chirijirini)	Dispersed, scattered	くまぬまんぐらー　散（ち）ん散（ち）んとぅどぅ、家（やー）やーたる。 Kuma nu mangurā chinchintu du, yā yātaru. この辺りは散り散りに家がなった。 Kono atari wa chirijirini ie ga natta. Houses were scattered in this area.
Situation	早く (hēku)	早く (hayaku)	Quickly	今日（ちゅー）や　早（へー）く、揃（す）てぃ取（とぅ）らしよー。 Chū ya hēku, sutiturashiyō. 今日は早く、集まってくれよ。 Kyō wa hayaku, atsumattekureyo. Please gather quickly today.
	ようんなー (younnā)	ゆっくり (yukkuri)	Slowly	むのー慌（あわ）慌てぃらんようい、ようんなー、食（か）めー。 Munō awatiran'youi, younnā, kamē. 食事は慌てず、ゆっくり、食べよ。 Shokuji wa awatezu, yukkuri, tabeyo. Don't rush when you eat, eat slowly.
	なんくる (nankuru)	自ずと (onozuto)	Naturally	とーないねー、なんくる、じんぶんぬん　出（ん）じてぃ来（ち）ゅーさに。 Tōnainē, nankuru, jinbunmen njitichūsani. いざとなれば、自ずと、知恵も出てくるだろう。 Iza to nareba, onozuto, chie mo detekuru darō. When the time comes, ideas will automatically come to our minds.
	ゆったいくゎったい (yuttaikwattai)	どんぶらこと (donburakoto)	Adverb for something heavy floating down on water	川（かー）ぬ上（うい）ぬ傍（はた）から　まぎ桃（むむ）ぬ　ゆったいくゎったい、流（るー）りてぃ来（ち）ゃん。 Kā nu ui nu hata kara magi mumu nu yuttaikwattai, rūritichan. 川の上の方から大きな桃がどんぶらこと、流れて来た。 Kawa no ue no hō kara ōkina momo ga donburakoto, nagaretekita. A giant peach came floating down the river.
	なぐりなぐりとぅ (nagurinaguritu)	なごりなごりと (nagorinagorito)	Reluctantly, Nostalgically	なぐりなぐりとぅ、別りぬ挨拶（えーさち）すん。 Nagurinaguritu, wakari nu ēsachi sun. なごりなごりと、別れの挨拶をする。 Nagorinagorito, wakare no aisatsu wo suru. We said goodbye reluctantly.
	しんじんとぅ (shinjintu)	しみじみと (shimijimito)	Nostalgically	しんじんとぅ、節歌やてぃん、歌てぃんだ。 Shinjintu, fushiuta yatin, utatinda. しみじみと、節歌でも、歌ってみよう。 Shimijimito, fushiuta demo, utattemiyō. Let's sing a traditional song nostalgically.
	次第次第 (shidēshidē)	次第に (shidaini)	Gradually	太陽（てぃだ）ー　西（いりー）んかい　次第次第（しでーしでー）、落（う）てぃてぃ行ちゅん。 Tidā irī nkai shidēshidē, utitīchun. 太陽は西へ次第に、沈んで行く。 Taiyō wa nishi he shidaini, shizundeiku. The sun gradually sets to the west.
	ちゅらーさ (churāsa)	残らず (nokorazu)	Completely	烏（がらさー）ぬ　ちり袋（ぶくる）、ちゅらーさ、きざあちねーらん。 Garasā nu chiribukuru, churāsa, kizāchinēran. 烏がゴミ袋を、残らず、漁ってしまった。 Karasu ga gomibukuro, nokorazu, asatteshimatta. The crows completely rummaged through the garbage bags.
	どぅく (duku)	あまりにも (amarinimo)	Too much, excessively	どぅく、ゆくしびけー、しーねー、罰（ばち）、被（かん）じゅん。 Duku, yukushi bikē, shīnē, bachi, kanjun. あまりにも、嘘ばかりついたら、罰が当たる。 Amarinimo, uso bakari tsuitara, batsu ga ataru. If you tell too many lies, you will incur divine punishment.
	だんだんだんだん (dandandandan)	段々 (dandan)	Gradually	汝（なー）笛（ふぁんそー）ぬ音（うとぅ）お　だんだんだんだん、ましなとおん。 Nā fansō nu utu o dandandandan, mashinatōn. あなたの笛の音は段々、良くなっている。 Anata no fue no oto wa dandan, yokunatteiru. You are gradually becoming better at playing flute.
	次第に (shidēni)	次第に (shidaini)	Gradually	いがろうん、次第（しでえ）に、年（とぅし）、取（とぅ）たんやあ。 Igaroun, shidēni, tushi, tutan'yā. 我々も次第に歳を取ったね。 Wareware mo shidaini toshi wo totta ne. We have gradually gotten old.
	どぅくだら (dukudara)	ひどく (hidoku)	Badly	どぅくだら、ひみちしいねえ、医者（いさ）んかい診しらんでえ。 Dukudara, himichi shīnē, isa nkai mishirandē. ひどく、せき込んだら、医者に診せないと。 Hidoku, seki kondara, isha ni misenaito. If you start to cough badly, you have to go see a doctor.
	まっすぐ (massugu)	まっすぐ (massugu)	Straight	くまから　あまんかい　まっすぐ、行ちいねえ、海んかい出（ん）じゆん。 Kuma kara ama nkai massugu, ichīnē, umi nkai njiyun. ここからあそこへ、まっすぐ、行くと、海に出る。 Koko kara asoko he, massugu, ikuto, umi ni deru. If you go straight from there, you will see the ocean.
	まっとうば (mattouba)	正しく (tadashiku)	Correctly	汝（なー）や　沖縄口（うちなーぐちぇ）ー　まっとうば、使（ちか）りよお。 Nā ya uchināguchē mattouba, chikariyō. 君は沖縄語を正しく使ってよ。 Kimi wa okinawago wo tadashiku tsukatteyo. Please use Okinawan correctly.
	だってぃどぅ (dattidu)	ちゃんと (chanto)	Properly	家（やー）や　だってぃどぅ、作（ちゅく）ゆんどお。 Yā ya dattidu, chukuyundō. 家はちゃんと、作るんだよ。 Ie wa chanto, tsukurundayo. You must build a house properly.
	だてん (daten)	きちんと (kichinto)	Neatly	あんまあや　今日（ちゅう）や　だてん、すがとおん。 Anmā ya chū ya daten, sugatōn. 母は今日はきちんと、身なりを整えている。 Haha wa kyō wa kichinto, minari wo totonoeteiru. My mother has dressed neatly today.
	さっぱっとぅ (sappattu)	さっぱり (sappari)	Freshly	断髪（だんぱち）さあに、さっぱっとぅ、そおん。 Danpachi sāni, sappattu, sōn. 散髪をして、さっぱりしている。 Sanbatsu wo shite, sappari shiteiru. Looking fresh after a haircut.
	しかっとぅ (shikattu)	しっかり (shikkari)	Carefully	親（うや）ぬ言（ゆ）し、しかっとぅ、聞（ち）ちょうきよお。 Uya nu yushi, shikattu, chichoukiyō. 親の言うことをしっかり、聞いておけよ。 Oya no iukoto wo shikkari, kiiteokeyo. Listen to your parents carefully.
	うかっとぅお (ukattuo)	うかつには (ukatsuniwa)	Thoughtlessly, carelessly	あんしん、試験ー、うかっとぅお、受きららん。 Anshin, shikennō, ukattuo, ukiraran. それでも、試験はうかつには受けられない。 Soredemo, shiken wa ukatsuniwa ukerarenai. You cannot take the exam thoughtlessly.
	たった (tatta)	余計 (yokei)	Even more	うぬ病（やんめー）や　にじいねえ、たった、悪（わ）っさなゆんどお。 Unu yanmē ya nijīnē, tatta, wassanayundō. その病気は我慢すると、余計、悪くなるよ。 Sono byōki wa gaman suru to, yokei, warukunaruyo. If you endure your illness too much, it will get even worse.
Adverbs that shows judgement
Shows...	Okinawan	Japanese	English	Example
Assumption	むし (mushi)	もし (moshi)	If	むし、言いばっぺえしいねえ、如何（いちゃ）すか。 Mushi, ībappēshīnē, icha suka. もし、言い間違えたら、どうするか。 Moshi, iimachigaetara, dō suruka. What would we do if we said something wrong.
	たとぅい (tatui)	例え (tatoe)	Even if	たとぅい、大風（うふかじ）ぬ　吹ちん、くぬ家（やあ）や　倒（とお）おりらん。 Tatui, ufukaji nu fuchin, kunu yā ya tōoriran. 例え、大風が吹いても、この家は倒れない。 Tatoe, ōkaze ga fuitemo, kono ie wa taorenai. Even if a strong wind blew, this house will not fall down.
	例れー (taturē)	例えば (tatoeba)	For example, if you compare	例れー、沖縄（うちなー）や　大和（やまとぅ）ぬハワイやさ。 Taturē, Uchinā ya Yamatu nu Hawai yasa. 例えば沖縄は日本のハワイさ。 Tatoteba Okinawa wa Nihon no Hawai sa. If you compare, Okinawa is like Japan's Hawaii.
Supposition	いやりん (iyarin)	きっと（いかにも） (kitto (ikanimo))	Indeed, surely	いやりん、くぬ鳥（すーさー）や　山原（やんばる）くぇーなどぅ　やさに。 Iyarin, kunu sūsā ya yanbaru kwēna du yasani. きっと（いかにも）、この鳥は山原クイナなのだろうか。 Kitto (ikanimo), kono tori wa yanbaru kuina nano darōka. Surely this bird must be an Okinawa rail.
	まさか (masaka)	まさか (masaka)	No way, no idea, unlikely, it is impossible that...	まさか、ちゅ村（しま）んかい　従弟（いちく）ぬ　しまゆんでー、思（うまー）んたん。 Masaka, chu shima nkai ichiku nu shimayu ndē, umāntan. まさか、同じ村に従弟が住んでいるとは思わなかった。 Masaka, onaji mura ni itoko ga sundeiru towa omowanakatta. I had no idea that my cousin lived in the same village.
	むしや (mushiya)	もしや (moshiya)	By chance	むしや、うんじょー　我（わん）とぅちるめーや　あらに。 もしや、あなたは私と同じ歳ではないだろうか。 Are you as old as I am by any chance?
	むしか (mushika)	もしや (moshiya)	Perhaps	むしか、今頃（なまぐる）、我事（わあくとぅ）、心配（しわ）しえ居（う）らんさに。 もしや、今頃、私のことを心配していないだろうな。 Perhaps, they might be worried about me now.
	まさか (masaka)	まさか (masaka)	No way, no idea, unlikely, it is impossible that...	まさか、今日（ちゅう）や　う祭（まち）いんでえ　思（うま）あんたん。 Masaka chyuuya umachī ndē umāntan まさか、今日はウマチーとは思わなかった。 I had no idea that today was the festival day.
	あたまに (atamani)	ほんとに (hontoni)	Really (intensifier)	あたまに、今日（ちゅう）や　暑（あち）さっさあやあ。 ほんとに、今日は暑いねえ。 It’s really hot today.
Wish	どうでぃん (doudin)	どうか (dōka)	Please	どうでぃん、我（わあ）が　御願（うにげ）え、聞（ち）ちたぼうり。 どうか、私のお願いを聞いてください。 Please could you do me a favor?
	たんでぃ (tandi)	どうぞ (dōzo)	Please	たんでぃ、我（わん）にんかい　水（みじ）、飲（ぬ）まち呉（くぃ）みそおれえ。 どうぞ、私に水を飲ましてください。 Please let me drink some water.
	必じ (kannaji)	必ず (kanarazu)	Always, have to	二男（じな）ぬうや　必（かんな）じ、サッカー部んかい　入（い）ゆんでぃ。 二男は必ず、サッカー部に入るんだと。 The second oldest son has to join the soccer team.
	如何しん (chāshin)	どうしても (dōshitemo)	Have to, at any cost	あぬ映画（えいぐゎ）、如何（ちゃあ）しん、見（ん）じいぶしゃん。 あの映画をどうしても、見たい。 I want to watch the movie at any cost.
Doubt	如何し (chāshi)	どうやって (dōyatte)	How	くぬパソコンや　如何（ちゃあ）し、動（んじゅ）かすが。 このパソコンはどうやって、動かすのか。 How do you use this computer?
	みったい (mittai)	一体 (ittai)	Really	みったい、うんじゅおー、我どぅ　抑（うせ）えとおるい。 一体、あなたは私を馬鹿にしているのか。 Really, are you making fun of me?
	あんすか (ansuka)	そんなに (sonnani)	So much, really	後（くし）ぬあばあや　あんすか、歌上手（うたじょうじい）やんなあ。 後隣りのあ姉さんはそんなに、歌が上手なのか。 Is the lady next door really good at singing?
	何んち (nūnchi)	何故 (naze)	Why	何（ぬう）んち、父（すう）や　行かんが。 何故、父は行かないか。 Why doesn't father want to go?
Denial or negation	あちらん (achiran)	一向に (ikkōni)	Completely, at all	ちゃっさ、あさがちしん、あちらん前（めー）あがちんならん。 いくら、焦っても、一向に、前に進むことも出来ない。 No matter how much we hurry, we cannot make any progress at all.
	じょーい (jōi)	絶対 (zettai)	Definitely	うぬ石ー童（わらび）のーじょーい、持（む）っちいゆさん。 この石は子供は絶対、持てない。 This rock, the child definitely cannot hold.
	ちゃっさん (chassan)	度を超して (do o koshite)	Go too far	ちゃっさん、遊（あし）ばんしえーまし。 度を超して、遊ばない方が良い。 You should not go too far when you're playing.
	いふぃん (ifin)	少しも (sukoshimo)	At all	どぅく、忙（いちゅな）さぬ、いふぃん、ゆくららん。 あまりにも、忙しくて、少しも、休めない。 I'm so busy I cannot rest at all.
	如何ん (chān)	どうすることも (dōsurukotomo)	Cannot do anything	じかじん　聞（ち）かんくとぅ、如何（ちゃー）ん、ならん。 言うことも聞かないから、どうすることも出来ない。 They don't listen, so I cannot do anything.
Decision	じゅんに (junni)	本当に (hontōni)	Really, truly	くぬ三線（さんしん）や　じゅんに、秀物（そうむん）やっさー。 この三味線は本当に、立派なものだな。 This is a truly amazing Sanshin.
	必じ (kannaji)	必ず (kanarazu)	Definitely	我（わ）んねー必（かんな）じ、御所（うんじゅ）ぬ所（とぅくる）んかい　行ちゃん。 私は必ず、あなたの所に行く。 I will definitely go to your place.
	うん如おりー (ungutuorī)	そのような事 (sonoyōnakoto)	Such a thing	うん如（ぐと）ーりーや　当い前（めー）なかい、誰（たー）がん　なゆん。 そのような事は、当然、誰にでもできる。 Anybody can do such a thing.
Others	いちゃんだん (ichandan)	むやみに (muyamini)	Recklessly	昔（んかし）ん人（ちょ）ーいちゃんだん、戦、そーたん。 昔の人はむやみに戦争をしていた。 People used to recklessly start wars in the past.
	うったてぃ (uttati)	わざと (wazato)	On purpose	あんぐゎーなかい　見（ん）だりーんねーし、二歳（にーせー）やうったてぃ、どぅ返（げー）りゆたん。 女の子に見られようと、青年はわざと、転びよった。 The boy fell on purpose so that the girl would notice him.
	なー (nā)	もう (mō)	Already	客（ちゃこ）ーなー、去（は）いたん。 お客さんはもう、行ってしまった。 The guests are already gone.

Prenominal adjectives (連体詞)

Prenominal adjectives (連体詞)

Prenominal adjectives are classified the same as adverbs, except instead of modifying a declinable word, it modifies a substantive (体言; nouns and pronouns).
Okinawan	Japanese	English
いぃー (yī)	良い (ii)	good

Conjunctions (接続詞)

Conjunctions (接続詞)

Conjunctions are classified as an independent, non-conjugating part of speech that connects words coming after to words coming before.
Okinawan	Japanese	English
あんさびーくとぅ (ansabīkutu)	そういうわけですから (sō iu wake desukara)	"For that reason"
あんし (anshi)	それで (sorede) それから (sorekara)	"And then"
やくとぅ (yakutu)	だから (dakara)	"So"
やしが (yashiga)	しかし (shikashi) そうではあるが (sōde wa aruga)	"But"

Interjections and exclamations (感動詞)

Interjections and exclamations (感動詞)

Interjections are classified as an independent, non-conjugating part of speech, where it does not modify or connect anything, and other words may not come after it.
Okinawan	Japanese	English	Notes
あい (ai)	おや (oya)	Oh / wow	驚きの気持ちを表す Expression of surprise
あきさみよー (akisamiyō)	あらまあ (aramā)	Oh dear	Expression of dismay, concern, or worry
あきとーなー (akitōnā)	おやまあ (oyamā)	Oh dear	失敗した時や驚いた時などに発する Expression of dismay, concern, or worry
うー (ū)	はい (hai)	Yes	Honorific "yes"
あいびらん (aibiran) をぅーをぅー (wūwū)	いいえ (īe)	No	目上の人に対して用いる Honorific "no"
だー (dā)	おい (oi) どれ (dore) ほら (hora)	Hey
とー (tō)	ほら (hora) よし (yoshi)	All right	Expression of pleasure, joy, or permission
とーとー (tōtō)	よしよし (yoshiyoshi) ほらほら (horahora)
はっさみよー (hassamiyō)	おやまあ (oyamā)	Oh dear	呆れ返った時などに発する語
んちゃ (ncha)	なるほど (naruhodo) やっぱり (yappari) 予定通りだ (yoteidōrida)	Sure enough, As I expected

Verbs (動詞)

Verbs are classified as an independent, conjugating part of speech that shows movements. The conclusive form ends in ん (n).

Adjectives (形容詞)

Adjectives are classified as an independent, conjugating part of speech that shows property or state. The conclusive form ends in さん (san).

(存在動詞)

存在動詞 are classified as an independent, conjugating part of speech that shows existence or decision of a certain thing. やん (yan) attaches to a substantive.

Adjectival verbs (形容動詞)

Adjectival verbs are classified as an independent, conjugating part of speech that shows the state of existence of events. やん (yan) attaches to words that shows state.

Auxiliary verbs (助動詞)

Auxiliary verbs (助動詞)

Auxiliary verbs are classified as a dependent, conjugating part of speech that makes up the meanings of conjugated words. The conclusive form ends in ん (n).
Okinawan	Japanese	English	Example
あぎーん (agīn) あぎゆん (agiyun)	しつつある (shitsutsuaru)
ぎさん (gisan)	そうだ (sōda)
ぐとーん (gutōn)	のようだ (noyōda)
しみゆん (shimiyun) すん (sun)	させる (saseru)
ぶさん (busan)	したい (shitai)
みしぇーびーん (mishēbīn)	なさいます (nasaimasu)
みしぇーん (mishēn)	なさる (nasaru)
ゆーすん (yūsun)	ことができる (kotogadekiru)
りゆん (riyun) りーん (rīn)	れる (reru) られる (rareru)

Particles (助詞)

Particles (助詞)

Case markers (格助詞)
Attaches to a substantive and marks the relationship between other words.
Okinawan	Japanese	Notes/English	Example
ぬ (nu) が (ga)	が (ga)	Subject marker. Normally ぬ (nu). However, if a pronoun is the subject of the sentence, が (ga) is used. が (ga) can also be used for names. ぬ (nu) can be used for any situation.	犬（いん）ぬあびゆん。我（わあ）があびゆん。 犬が吠える。私が喋る。
っし (sshi)	で (de)	Indicates the means by which something is achieved.	バスっし行 (い)ちゃびら。 バスで行こう。 Let's go by bus.
Ø (Archaic: ゆ (yu))	を (wo)	Modern Okinawan does not use a direct object particle, like casual Japanese speech. "yu" exists mainly in old literary composition.
なかい (nakai)	へ (e)・に (ni)	手段・方法
やか (yaka)	より (yori)	"as much as"; upper limit	彼 (あり)やか大和口 (やまとぅぐち)ぬ上手 (じょおじ)やあらん。 彼より日本語が上手ではない。 My Japanese isn't as good as his.
さーに (sāni)	で (de)	Indicates the means by which something is achieved.	沖縄口 (うちなーぐち)さーに手紙 (てぃがみ)書 (か)ちゃん。 沖縄語で手紙を書いた。 I wrote the letter in Okinawan.
から (kara)	から (kara)	起点
んかい (nkai)	へ (e)	"to, in"; direction	沖縄 (うちなー)んかいめんそーれー! 沖縄へようこそ！ Welcome to Okinawa!
なーりー (nārī)		場所・位置
をぅてぃ (wuti)		Indicates the location where an action pertaining to an animate subject takes place. Derives from the participle form of the verb をぅん wun "to be, to exist".
をぅとーてぃ (wutōti)		Progressive form of をぅてぃ, and also includes time.	くまをぅとーてぃ憩 (ゆくぃ)欲 (ぶ)さん。 ここで休みたい。 I want to rest (at) here.
んじ (nji)	で (de)	場所
ん (n)		所属等
ぬ (nu)	の (no)	Possessive marker. It may be difficult to differentiate between the subject marker ぬ (nu) and possessive marker ぬ (nu).	豚（うわー）ぬ肉（しし）、食（か）みーねー、体（からだ）んかいましやん。 豚の肉を食べると体に良い。
ぬ→「〜している」「〜である」「〜い・しい」pp459.
とぅ (tu)	と (to)	相手
んでぃ (ndi)	と (to)	Quotative.
に (ni)		時・場所等
Adverbial Particles (副助詞)
Okinawan	Japanese	Notes/English	Example
びけー (bikē)	だけ (dake)
びけーん (bikēn)	ばかり (bakari)	"only; limit"	ローマ字 (じ)びけーんぬ書物 (すむち)。 ローマ字ばかりの書物。 A romaji only book.
だき (daki)	だけ (dake)
までぃ (madi)	まで (made)	"up to, until, as far as"	くぬ電車 (でんしゃ)あ、首里 (しゅい)までぃ行 (い)ちゃびーん。帰 (けー)るまでぃ待 (ま)ちょーいびーん。 この電車は首里まで行く。帰るまで待つ。 This train goes as far as Shuri. I'll wait until you come home.
くれー (kurē)	ぐらい (gurai)	"around, about, approximately"	十分 (じっぷん)くれーかかゆん。 十分ぐらいかかる。 It will take about 10 minutes.
ふどぅ (fudu)	ほど (hodo)
あたい (atai)	ぐらい (gurai)等	as much as; upper limit.	うぬ建物 (たてぃむの)ー思 (うむ)ゆるあたい高 (たか)こーねーやびらん。 あの建物は思うぐらい高くないよ。 That building is not as tall as you imagine it to be.
んちょーん (nchōn)	さえ (sae)
うっさ (ussa)	だけ (dake)等
うっぴ (uppi)	だけ (dake)等		寝 (に)んじ欲 (ぶ)しゃるうっぴ寝 (に)んでぃん済 (す)まびいん。 寝たいだけ寝ていいよ。 You can sleep as much as you want.
うひ (uhi)	だけ (dake)等
さく (saku)	ほど (hodo)、だけ (dake)
Binding particles (係助詞)
Okinawan	Japanese	Notes/English	Example
や (ya)	は (wa)	Topic particle for long vowels, proper nouns, or names. For other nouns, the particle fuses with short vowels. a → ā, i → ē, u → ō, e → ē, o → ō, n → nō. Pronoun 我ん (wan?) (I) becomes topicalized as 我んねー (wannē?) instead of 我んのー (wannō?) or 我んや (wan'ya?), although the latter does appear in some musical or literary works.
あー (ā)
えー (ē)
おー (ō)
のー (nō)			,
ん (n)	も (mo)	"Also"
やてぃん (yatin)	でも (demo)	"even, also in"	宇宙 (うちゅー)からやてぃん万里 (まんり)ぬ長城 (ちょーじょー)ぬ見 (み)いゆん。大和 (やまとぅ)やてぃんいんちりーん口 (ぐち)を勉強 (びんちょー)すん。 万里の長城は宇宙からでも見れる。日本でも英語を習う The Great Wall of China can even be seen from space. Also in Japan, we study English.
がん (gan)	でも (demo)
ぬん (nun)	でも (demo)
しか (shika)	しか (shika)
てぃらむん (tiramun)	たるもの (tarumono)
とぅか (tuka)	とか (toka) や (ya)
どぅ (du)	ぞ (zo) こそ (koso)
る (ru)	ぞ (zo) こそ (koso)
Sentence-ending particles (終助詞)
Okinawan	Japanese	Notes/English	Example
が (ga) やが (yaga)	か (ka)	Final interrogatory particle
み (mi)	か (ka)	Final interrogatory particle
に (ni)		可否疑問
い (i)		強調疑問
がやー (gayā)	かな (kana)
さに (sani)	だろう (darō)
なー (nā)	の (no)	Final particle expressing 問いかけ・念押し
ばー (bā)		軽い疑問
どー (dō)	ぞ (zo) よ (yo)
よ (yo)	よ (yo)
ふー (fū)		軽く言う
な (na)	な (na)	Prohibitive
え (e)		命令
さ (sa)	さ (sa)
でむね (demune)		断定
せー (sē)		断定
Interjectory Particles (間投助詞)
Okinawan	Japanese	Notes/English	Example
てー (tē)	ね (ne)等
よ (yo) よお (yō)	ね (ne) よ (yo)等
や (ya) やあ (yā)	ぬ (nu) よ (yo)等
なー (nā)	ね (ne)等
さり (sari)	ねえ (nē)等
ひゃー (hyā)		意外、軽蔑
Conjunctive particles (接続助詞)

Prefixes (接頭語)

Suffixes (接尾語)

Others

Copula

Okinawan	Past tense	Japanese
あびーん (abīn) いびーん (ibīn)	A	ます (masu)
		です (desu)
やいびーん (yaibīn)
でーびる (dēbiru)	A
		でございます (degozaimasu)

Question words (疑問詞)

Okinawan	Japanese	English
いくち (ikuchi)	いくつ (ikutsu)	"How much"
いち (ichi)	いつ (itsu)	"When"
じる (jiru)	どれ (dore)	"Which"
たー (tā)	誰 (dare)	"Who"
たったー (tattā)	誰々 (daredare)	"Who" (plural)
ちゃー (chā)	どう (dō)	"How" (in what way)
ちぁっさ (chassa)	どれだけ (doredake) いくら (ikura)	"How much"
ちゃっぴ (chappi) ちゃぬあたい (chanuatai)	どれほど (dorehodo)	"How"
ちゃぬ (chanu)	どの (dono) どのような (donoyōna)	"What kind"
ぬー (nū)	何 (nani)	"What"
ぬーんち (nūnchi)	どうして (dōshite)	"Why"
まー (mā)	どこ (doko)	"Where"

Example

Sample text in Standard Okinawan (Shuri-Naha dialect)

In Kanji

人間ー誰ん生まりやぎーなー自由やい、また、胴大切に思ゆる肝とぅ胴守らんでぃる肝ー、誰やてぃんゆぬ如授かとーるむんやん。人間ー元からいー矩ぬ備わとーくとぅ、互ーに兄弟やんでぃる考ーさーに事に当たらんだれーならん。(without ruby)

人間（にんじの）ー誰（たー）ん生（ん）まりやぎーなー自由（じゆ）やい、また、胴（どぅー）大切（てーしち）に思（うむ）ゆる肝（ちむ）とぅ胴（どぅー）守（まむ）らんでぃる肝（ちも）ー、誰（たー）やてぃんゆぬ如（ぐとぅ）授（さじゃ）かとーるむんやん。人間（にんじの）ー元（むーとぅ）からいー矩（かに）ぬ備（すな）わとーくとぅ、互（たげ）ーに兄弟（ちょーでー）やんでぃる考（かんげ）ーさーに事（くとぅ）に当（あ）たらんだれーならん。(with ruby)

Transliteration

Ninjinō tā n 'nmariyagīnā jiyu yai, mata, dū tēshichi ni umuyuru chimu tu dū mamurandiru chimō, tā yatin yunugutu sajakatōru mun yan. Ninjinō mūtu kara īka ni nu sunawatōkutu, tagē ni chōdēyandiru kangēsā ni kutu ni atarandarē naran. (UDHR Article 1)

See also

• Okinawan Japanese, the language most commonly spoken in Okinawa today

Notes

1. Okinawan at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
2. Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Central Okinawan". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
3. Mimizun.com 2005, Comment #658 – 45-CAC-ai comprises most of Central Okinawa, including Shuri (Naha), Ginowan and Nishihara; 45-CAC-aj comprises the southern tip of Okinawa Island, including Itoman, Mabuni and Takamine; 45-CAC-ak encompasses the region west of Okinawa Island, including the Kerama Islands, Kumejima and Aguni.
4. Lewis 2009. sfn error: no target: CITEREFLewis2009 (help)
5. Moseley 2010.
6. Kerr 2000, p. xvii.
7. Brown & Ogilvie 2008, p. 908.
8. Kaplan 2008, p. 130.
9. "The Language of Okinawa: A common misconception". The OkiNinjaKitty Blog. 26 May 2013. Retrieved 30 September 2019.
10. Noguchi 2001, p. 87.
11. Noguchi 2001, p. 76.
12. Hung, Eva and Judy Wakabayashi. Asian Translation Traditions. 2014. Routledge. Pg 18.
13. Heinrich, P., Miyara, S., & Shimoji, M. (Eds.). (2015). Handbook of the Ryukyuan Languages. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. Pp 598.
14. Heinrich, P. (2004). "Language Planning and Language Ideology in the Ryūkyū Islands". Language Policy, 3(2)
15. Mie, Ayako (2012-05-19). "Okinawans push to preserve unique language". The Japan Times Online.
16. "A little corner of Brazil that is forever Okinawa". BBC News. 2018-02-04.
17. Heinrich, Patrick. The Making of Monolingual Japan. 2012. Pp 85–87.
18. Nakasone, Seizen. Festschrift. 1962. Pp. 619.
19. UNESCO (2009). "Interactive atlas of the world's languages in danger".
20. Heinrich, Patrick (2005). "Language loss and revitalization in the Ryukyu Islands". The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus.
21. Noguchi & Fotos 2001, p. 81.
22. Miyara 2009, p. 179.
23. Curry 2004, §2.2.2.1.9.
24. Miyara 2009, p. 186.
25. Noguchi 2001, p. 83.
26. Kodansha 1983, p. 355.
27. OPG 2003.
28. Kerr 2000, p. 35.
29. Takara & 1994-1995, p. 2. sfn error: no target: CITEREFTakara1994-1995 (help)
30. WPL 1977, p. 30.
31. Ishikawa 2002, p. 10.
32. Okinawa Style 2005, p. 138.
33. Tanji 2006, p. 26.

References

• (in Japanese) "民族、言語、人種、文化、区別スレ". Mimizun.com. 2005-08-31. Retrieved 2010-12-26.
• Moseley, Christopher (2010). "Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger" (3rd ed.). UNESCO Publishing. Retrieved 2010-12-25.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
• Kerr, George H. (2000). Okinawa, the history of an island people. Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8048-2087-5.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
• Brown, Keith; Ogilvie, Sarah (2008). Concise encyclopedia of languages of the world. Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-08-087774-7.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
• Kaplan, Robert B. (2008). Language Planning and Policy in Asia: Japan, Nepal, Taiwan and Chinese characters. Multilingual Matters. ISBN 978-1-84769-095-1.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
• Noguchi, Mary Goebel; Fotos, Sandra (2001). Proto-Japanese: issues and prospects. Multilingual Matters. ISBN 978-1-85359-490-8.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
• Miyara, Shinsho (2009). "Two Types of Nasal in Okinawa" (PDF). 言語研究（Gengo Kenkyu）. Retrieved 2010-12-25.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
• Curry, Stewart A. (2004). Small Linguistics: Phonological history and lexical loans in Nakijin dialect Okinawan. Ph.D. - East Asian Languages and Literatures (Japanese), University of Hawaii at Manoa.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
• Takara, Kurayoshi (1994–1995). "King and Priestess: Spiritual and Political Power in Ancient Ryukyu" (PDF). The Ryukyuanist (27). Retrieved 2011-01-23.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
• Ishikawa, Takeo (April 2002). 新しいまちづくり豊見城市 (PDF). しまてぃ (in Japanese) (21). Retrieved 2011-03-14.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
• (in Japanese) Worldwide Heritages in Okinawa: Tamaudun. 沖縄スタイル. 枻出版社. 2005-07-10. ISBN 978-4-7779-0333-7. Retrieved 2011-03-14.
• Kodansha – encyclopedia of Japan. 6. Kodansha. 1983. ISBN 978-0-87011-626-1.
• Working papers in linguistics. 9. Dept. of Linguistics, University of Hawaii. 1977.
• "King Shunten 1187-1237". Okinawa Prefectural Government. 2003. Retrieved 2011-03-14.
• Tanji, Miyume (2006). Myth, protest and struggle in Okinawa. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-415-36500-0.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
• Noguchi, M.G. (2001). Studies in Japanese Bilungualism. Multilingual Matters Ltd. ISBN 978-1853594892.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
• Davis, Christopher (2013). "The Role of Focus Particles in Wh-Interrogatives: Evidence from a Southern Ryukyuan Language" (PDF). University of the Ryukyus. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-04-20. Retrieved 2014-04-19.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)

External links

• 首里・那覇方言概説（首里・那覇方言音声データベース）
• うちなあぐち by Kiyoshi Fiza, an Okinawan language writer.