Hepburn romanization

Hepburn romanization (Japanese: ヘボン式ローマ字, Hepburn: Hebon-shiki rōmaji, lit. "Hepburn-style Roman letters") is the most widely-used system of romanization for the Japanese language. Published in 1886 by American missionary James Curtis Hepburn, it uses consonants that approximate those in English and vowels that approximate those in Italian.[1] The "modified Hepburn system" (修正ヘボン式, shūsei Hebon-shiki), also known as the "standard system" (標準式, Hyōjun-shiki), was published with revisions in 1908.[2]

Although Kunrei-shiki romanization is the style favored by the Japanese government, Hepburn remains the most widely-used method of Japanese romanization.[1] It is learned by most foreign students of Japanese,[3] and is used within Japan for romanizing personal names, locations, and other information such as train tables and road signs.[4] People who speak English or Romance languages will generally be more accurate in pronouncing unfamiliar Japanese words romanized in the Hepburn style compared to other systems.[5][6]

History

In 1867, American missionary James Curtis Hepburn published the first modern Japanese–English dictionary.[7] In 1886, he published the dictionary's third edition, which popularized a version of his system with input from an international commission consisting of Japanese and foreign scientists. In 1908, the Society for the Propagation of Romanization (ローマ字ひろめ会, Rōmaji Hirome-kai), led by educator Kanō Jigorō, published a version of the Hepburn system with revisions, which is known today as the "modified Hepburn" (修正ヘボン式, shūsei Hebon-shiki) or "standard system" (標準式, Hyōjun-shiki).[8][2]

Legal status

Hepburn is based on English phonology and has competed with the alternative Nihon-shiki romanization, which was developed in Japan as a replacement of the Japanese script.[5] In 1930 a Special Romanization Study Commission was appointed to compare the two.[5] The Commission eventually decided in favor of a slightly-modified version of Nihon-shiki, which was proclaimed to be Japan's official romanization for all purposes by a September 21, 1937, cabinet ordinance; it is now known as the Kunrei-shiki romanization. The ordinance was temporarily overturned by the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers (SCAP) during the Occupation of Japan, but it was reissued with slight revisions in 1954.

In 1972 a revised version of Hepburn was codified as ANSI standard Z39.11-1972. It was proposed in 1989 as a draft for ISO 3602 but rejected in favor of the Kunrei-shiki romanization. The ANSI Z39.11-1972 standard was deprecated on October 6, 1994.

As of 1978 the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Ministry of International Trade and Industry, and many other official organizations used Hepburn instead of Kunrei-shiki. In addition The Japan Times, the Japan Travel Bureau, and many other private organizations used Hepburn instead of Kunrei-shiki. The National Diet Library used Kunrei-shiki.[9]

Although Hepburn is not a government standard, some government agencies mandate it. For example, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs requires the use of Hepburn on passports, and the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport requires the use of Hepburn on transport signs, including road signs and railway station signs.

In many other areas that it lacks de jure status, Hepburn remains the de facto standard. Signs and notices in city offices and police stations and at shrines, temples and attractions also use it. English-language newspapers and media use the simplified form of Hepburn. Cities and prefectures use it in information for English-speaking residents and visitors, and English-language publications by the Japanese Foreign Ministry use simplified Hepburn as well. Official tourism information put out by the government uses it, as do guidebooks, both local and foreign, on Japan.

Many students of Japanese as a foreign language learn Hepburn.

Variants

Former Japan National Railways-style board of Toyooka Station. Between the two adjacent stations, "GEMBUDŌ" follows the Hepburn romanization system, but "KOKUHU" follows the Nihon-shiki/Kunrei-shiki romanization system.

There are many variants of the Hepburn romanization. The two most common styles are as follows:

• The Traditional Hepburn, as defined in various editions of Hepburn's dictionary, with the third edition (1886)[10] often considered authoritative[11] (although changes in kana usage must be accounted for). It is characterized by the rendering of syllabic n as m before the consonants b, m and p: Shimbashi for 新橋.
• Modified Hepburn (修正ヘボン式, Shūsei Hebon-shiki),[12] also known as Revised Hepburn, in which (among other points) the rendering of syllabic n as m before certain consonants is no longer used: Shinbashi for 新橋. The style was introduced in the third edition of Kenkyūsha's New Japanese-English Dictionary (1954), was adopted by the Library of Congress as one of its ALA-LC romanizations, and is the most common version of the system today.[13]

In Japan itself, there are some variants officially mandated for various uses:

• Railway Standard (鉄道掲示基準規程, Tetsudō Keiji Kijun Kitei),[14] which mostly follows the Hyōjun-shiki Rōmaji, however syllabic n is rendered as m before b, m and p. Japan Railways and other major railways use it for station names.
• Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism Standard,[15] how to spell Roman letters (Hepburn style) of road signs, which follows the modified Hepburn style. It is used for road signs.
• Ministry of Foreign Affairs Passport Standard (外務省旅券規定, Gaimushō Ryoken Kitei),[16] a permissive standard, which explicitly allows the use of "non-Hepburn romaji" (非ヘボン式ローマ字, hi-Hebon-shiki rōmaji) in personal names, notably for passports. In particular, it renders the syllabic n as m before b, m and p, and romanizes long o as oh, oo or ou (Satoh, Satoo or Satou for 佐藤).

Details of the variants can be found below.

Obsolete variants

The romanizations set out in the first and second versions of Hepburn's dictionary are primarily of historical interest. Notable differences from the third and later versions include:

Second version

• エ and ヱ were written as ye: Yedo
• ズ and ヅ were written as dzu: kudzu, tsudzuku
• キャ, キョ, and キュ were written as kiya, kiyo and kiu
• クヮ was written as kuwa[17]

First version

The following differences are in addition to those in the second version:

• ス was written as sz.
• ツ was written as tsz.
• ズ and ヅ were written as du.

Features

The main feature of Hepburn is that its orthography is based on English phonology. More technically, when syllables that are constructed systematically according to the Japanese syllabary and contain an "unstable" consonant in the modern spoken language, the orthography is changed to something that better matches the real sound as an English-speaker would pronounce it. For example, し is written shi not si.

Some linguists such as Harold E. Palmer, Daniel Jones and Otto Jespersen object to Hepburn since the pronunciation-based spellings can obscure the systematic origins of Japanese phonetic structures, inflections, and conjugations.[18] Supporters of Hepburn argue that it is not intended as a linguistic tool.

Long vowels

The long vowels are generally indicated by macrons ( ¯ ).[19][20] Since the macron is usually missing on typewriters and people may not know how to input it on computer keyboards, the circumflex accent ( ˆ ) is often used in its place.[21][22]

The combinations of vowels are written as follows in traditional/modified Hepburn:

A + A

In traditional and modified:

The combination of a + a is written aa if they are part of separate morphemes:

• 邪悪（じゃあく）: {ji + ya} + {a + ku} = jaaku – evil

In traditional Hepburn:

The long vowel a is written aa:

• お婆さん（おばあさん）: {o} + {ba + a} + {sa + n} = obaa-san[19] – grandmother

In modified Hepburn:

The long vowel a is indicated by a macron:

• お婆さん（おばあさん）: {o} + {ba + a} + {sa + n} = obāsan[20] – grandmother

I + I

In traditional and modified:

The combination i + i is always written ii.

• お兄さん（おにいさん）: o + ni + i + sa + n = oniisan – older brother
• お爺さん（おじいさん）: o + ji + i + sa + n = ojiisan – grandfather
• 美味しい（おいしい）: o + i + shi + i = oishii – delicious
• 新潟（にいがた）: ni + i + ga + ta = Niigata
• 灰色（はいいろ）: ha + i + i + ro = haiiro – grey

U + U

In traditional and modified:

The combination u + u is written uu if they are part of separate morphemes or it is the end part of terminal form of a verb:

• 食う（くう）: {ku} + {-u} = kuu – to eat
• 縫う（ぬう）: {nu} + {-u} = nuu – to sew
• 湖（みずうみ）: {mi + zu} + {u + mi} = mizuumi - lake

The long vowel u is indicated by a macron:

• 数学（すうがく）: {su + u} + {ga + ku} = sūgaku – mathematics
• 注意（ちゅうい）: {chu + u} + {i} = chūi – attention
• ぐうたら: {gu + u + ta + ra} = gūtara – loafer
• 憂鬱（ゆううつ）: {yu + u} + {u + tsu} = yūutsu - depression

E + E

In traditional and modified:

The combination e + e is written ee if they are part of separate morphemes:

• 濡れ縁（ぬれえん）: {nu + re} + {e + n} = nureen – open veranda

In traditional Hepburn:

The long vowel e is written ee:

• お姉さん（おねえさん）: {o} + {ne + e} + {sa + n} = oneesan[19] – older sister

In modified Hepburn:

The long vowel e is indicated by a macron:

• お姉さん（おねえさん）: {o} + {ne + e} + {sa + n} = onēsan[20] – older sister

O + O

In traditional and modified:

The combination o + o is written oo if they are part of separate morphemes:

• 小躍り（こおどり）: {ko} + {o + do + ri} = koodori – dance

The long vowel o is indicated by a macron:

• 氷（こおり）: {ko + o + ri} = kōri – ice
• 遠回り（とおまわり）: {to + o} + {ma + wa + ri} = tōmawari – roundabout route
• 大阪（おおさか）: {o + o} + {sa + ka} = Ōsaka – Osaka

O + U

In traditional and modified:

The combination o + u is written ou if they are part of separate morphemes, or it is the end part of terminal form of a verb:

• 追う（おう）: {o} + {-u} = ou – to chase
• 迷う（まよう）: {ma + yo} + {-u} = mayou – to get lost
• 子馬（こうま）: {ko} + {u + ma} = kouma – foal
• 仔牛（こうし）: {ko} + {u + shi} = koushi – calf

The long vowel o is indicated by a macron:

• 学校（がっこう）: {ga + (sokuon)} + {ko + u} = gakkō – school
• 東京（とうきょう）: {to + u} + {kyo + u} = Tōkyō – Tokyo
• 勉強（べんきょう）: {be + n} + {kyo + u} = benkyō – study
• 電報（でんぽう）: {de + n} + {po + u} = dempō[19] or denpō[20] – telegraphy
• 金曜日（きんようび）: {ki + n} + {yo + u} + {bi} = kinyōbi[19] or kin'yōbi[20] – Friday
• 格子（こうし）: {ko + u} + {shi} = kōshi – lattice

E + I

In traditional and modified:

The combination e + i is written ei.

• 学生（がくせい）: ga + ku + se + i = gakusei – student
• 経験（けいけん）: ke + i + ke + n = keiken – experience
• 制服（せいふく）: se + i + fu + ku = seifuku – uniform
• 姪（めい）: me + i = mei – niece
• 招いて（まねいて）: ma + ne + i + te = maneite – call/invite and then

Other combination of vowels

All other combinations of two different vowels are written separately:

• 軽い（かるい）: ka + ru + i = karui – light (for weight)
• 鴬（うぐいす）: u + gu + i + su = uguisu – bush warbler
• 甥（おい）: o + i = oi – nephew

Loanwords

The long vowels indicated by chōonpu (ー) within loanwords are written with macrons (ā, ī, ū, ē, ō) as follows:

• セーラー: se + (chōonpu) + ra + (chōonpu) = sērā – sailor
• パーティー: pa + (chōonpu) + ti + (chōonpu) = pātī – party
• ヒーター: hi + (chōonpu) + ta + (chōonpu) = hītā – heater
• タクシー: ta + ku + shi + (chōonpu) = takushī – taxi
• スーパーマン: su + (chōonpu) + pa + (chōonpu) + ma + n = Sūpāman – Superman
• バレーボール: ba + re + (chōonpu) + bo + (chōonpu) + ru = barēbōru – volleyball
• ソール: so + (chōonpu) + ru = sōru – sole

The combinations of two vowels within loanwords are written separately:

• バレエ: ba + re + e = baree – ballet
• ソウル: so + u + ru = souru – soul, Seoul
• ミイラ: mi + i + ra = miira – mummy

Variations

There are many variations on the Hepburn system for indicating the long vowels. For example, 東京（とうきょう） can be written as:

• Tōkyō – indicated with macrons. That follows the rules of the traditional and modified Hepburn systems and is considered to be standard.
• Tokyo – not indicated at all. That is common for Japanese words that have been adopted into English and is also the convention used in the de facto Hepburn used in signs and other English-language information around Japan, mentioned in the paragraph on legal status.
• Tôkyô – indicated with circumflex accents, like the alternative Nihon-shiki and Kunrei-shiki romanizations. They are often used when macrons are unavailable or difficult to input, due to their visual similarity.
• Tohkyoh – indicated with an h (only applies after o). It is sometimes known as "passport Hepburn" as the Japanese Foreign Ministry has authorized (but not required) it in passports.[23][24][25]
• Toukyou – written using kana spelling: ō as ou or oo (depending on the kana) and ū as uu. That is sometimes called wāpuro style, as it is how text is entered into a Japanese word processor by using a keyboard with Roman characters. The method most accurately represents the way that vowels are written in kana by differentiating between おう (as in とうきょう（東京）, written Toukyou in this system) and おお (as in とおい（遠い）, written tooi in this system).
  • However, using this method makes the pronunciation of ou become ambiguous, either a long o or two different vowels: o and u. See Wāpuro rōmaji#Phonetic accuracy for details.
• Tookyoo – written by doubling the long vowels. Some dictionaries such as Pocket Kenkyusha Japanese dictionary[26] and Basic English writers' Japanese-English wordbook follow this style, and it is also used in the JSL form of romanization. It is also used to write words without reference to any particular system.[27]

Particles

In traditional and modified:

• When は is used as a particle, it is written wa.

In traditional Hepburn:

• When へ is used as a particle, Hepburn originally recommended ye.[19] This spelling is obsolete, and it is commonly written as e (Romaji-Hirome-Kai, 1974[28]).
• When を is used as a particle, it is written wo.[19]

In modified Hepburn:[20]

• When へ is used as a particle, it is written e.
• When を is used as a particle, it is written o.

Syllabic n

In traditional Hepburn:[19]

Syllabic n (ん) is written as n before consonants, but as m before labial consonants: b, m, and p. It is sometimes written as n- (with a hyphen) before vowels and y (to avoid confusion between, for example, んあ n + a and な na, and んや n + ya and にゃ nya), but its hyphen usage is not clear.

• 案内（あんない）: annai – guide
• 群馬（ぐんま）: Gumma – Gunma
• 簡易（かんい）: kan-i – simple
• 信用（しんよう）: shin-yō – trust

In modified Hepburn:[20]

The rendering m before labial consonants is not used and is replaced with n. It is written n' (with an apostrophe) before vowels and y.

• 案内（あんない）: annai – guide
• 群馬（ぐんま）: Gunma – Gunma
• 簡易（かんい）: kan'i – simple
• 信用（しんよう）: shin'yō – trust

Long consonants

Elongated (or "geminate") consonant sounds are marked by doubling the consonant following a sokuon, っ; for consonants that are digraphs in Hepburn (sh, ch, ts), only the first consonant of the set is doubled, except for ch, which is replaced by tch.[19][20]

• 結果（けっか）: kekka – result
• さっさと: sassato – quickly
• ずっと: zutto – all the time
• 切符（きっぷ）: kippu – ticket
• 雑誌（ざっし）: zasshi – magazine
• 一緒（いっしょ）: issho – together
• こっち: kotchi (not kocchi) – this way
• 抹茶（まっちゃ）: matcha (not maccha) – matcha
• 三つ（みっつ）: mittsu – three

Romanization charts

Gojūon					Yōon
あ ア a	い イ i	う ウ u	え エ e	お オ o
か カ ka	き キ ki	く ク ku	け ケ ke	こ コ ko	きゃ キャ kya	きゅ キュ kyu	きょ キョ kyo
さ サ sa	し シ shi	す ス su	せ セ se	そ ソ so	しゃ シャ sha	しゅ シュ shu	しょ ショ sho
た タ ta	ち チ chi	つ ツ tsu	て テ te	と ト to	ちゃ チャ cha	ちゅ チュ chu	ちょ チョ cho
な ナ na	に ニ ni	ぬ ヌ nu	ね ネ ne	の ノ no	にゃ ニャ nya	にゅ ニュ nyu	にょ ニョ nyo
は ハ ha	ひ ヒ hi	ふ フ fu	へ ヘ he	ほ ホ ho	ひゃ ヒャ hya	ひゅ ヒュ hyu	ひょ ヒョ hyo
ま マ ma	み ミ mi	む ム mu	め メ me	も モ mo	みゃ ミャ mya	みゅ ミュ myu	みょ ミョ myo
や ヤ ya		ゆ ユ yu		よ ヨ yo
ら ラ ra	り リ ri	る ル ru	れ レ re	ろ ロ ro	りゃ リャ rya	りゅ リュ ryu	りょ リョ ryo
わ ワ wa	ゐ ヰ i †		ゑ ヱ e †	を ヲ o ‡
				ん ン n /n'
が ガ ga	ぎ ギ gi	ぐ グ gu	げ ゲ ge	ご ゴ go	ぎゃ ギャ gya	ぎゅ ギュ gyu	ぎょ ギョ gyo
ざ ザ za	じ ジ ji	ず ズ zu	ぜ ゼ ze	ぞ ゾ zo	じゃ ジャ ja	じゅ ジュ ju	じょ ジョ jo
だ ダ da	ぢ ヂ ji	づ ヅ zu	で デ de	ど ド do	ぢゃ ヂャ ja	ぢゅ ヂュ ju	ぢょ ヂョ jo
ば バ ba	び ビ bi	ぶ ブ bu	べ ベ be	ぼ ボ bo	びゃ ビャ bya	びゅ ビュ byu	びょ ビョ byo
ぱ パ pa	ぴ ピ pi	ぷ プ pu	ぺ ペ pe	ぽ ポ po	ぴゃ ピャ pya	ぴゅ ピュ pyu	ぴょ ピョ pyo

• Each entry contains hiragana, katakana, and Hepburn romanization, in that order.
• † — The characters in red are rare historical characters and are obsolete in modern Japanese.[29][30] In modern Hepburn romanization, they are often undefined.[20]
• ‡ — The characters in blue are rarely used outside of their status as a particle in modern Japanese,[21] and romanization follows the rules above.

Extended katakana

These combinations are used mainly to represent the sounds in words in other languages.

Digraphs with orange backgrounds are the general ones used for loanwords or foreign places or names, and those with blue backgrounds are used for more accurate transliterations of foreign sounds, both suggested by the Cabinet of Japan's Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology.[31] Katakana combinations with beige backgrounds are suggested by the American National Standards Institute[32] and the British Standards Institution as possible uses.[33] Ones with purple backgrounds appear on the 1974 version of the Hyōjun-shiki formatting.[28]

	イィ yi		イェ ye
ウァ wa*	ウィ wi	ウゥ wu*	ウェ we	ウォ wo
		ウュ wyu
ヴァ va	ヴィ vi	ヴ vu⁑	ヴェ ve	ヴォ vo
ヴャ vya		ヴュ vyu	ヴィェ vye	ヴョ vyo
			キェ kye
			ギェ gye
クァ kwa	クィ kwi		クェ kwe	クォ kwo
クヮ kwa
グァ gwa	グィ gwi		グェ gwe	グォ gwo
グヮ gwa
			シェ she
			ジェ je
	スィ si
	ズィ zi
			チェ che
ツァ tsa	ツィ tsi		ツェ tse	ツォ tso
		ツュ tsyu
	ティ ti	トゥ tu
		テュ tyu
	ディ di	ドゥ du
		デュ dyu
			ニェ nye
			ヒェ hye
			ビェ bye
			ピェ pye
ファ fa	フィ fi		フェ fe	フォ fo
フャ fya		フュ fyu	フィェ fye	フョ fyo
		ホゥ hu
			ミェ mye
			リェ rye
ラ゜ la	リ゜ li	ル゜ lu	レ゜ le	ロ゜ lo
リ゜ャ lya		リ゜ュ lyu	リ゜ェ lye	リ゜ョ lyo
ヷ va⁂	ヸ vi⁂		ヹ ve⁂	ヺ vo⁂

• * — The use of ウ in these two cases to represent w is rare in modern Japanese except for Internet slang and transcription of the Latin sound [w] into katakana. E.g.: ミネルウァ (Mineruwa "Minerva", from Latin MINERVA [mɪˈnɛrwa]); ウゥルカーヌス (Wurukānusu "Vulcan", from Latin VVLCANVS, Vulcānus [wʊlˈkaːnʊs]). The wa-type of foreign sounds (as in watt or white) is usually transcribed to ワ (wa), while the wu-type (as in wood or woman) is usually to ウ (u) or ウー (ū).
• ⁑ — ヴ has a rarely-used hiragana form in ゔ that is also vu in Hepburn romanization systems.
• ⁂ — The characters in green are obsolete in modern Japanese and very rarely used.[29][30]

See also

• List of ISO romanizations

Notes

1. Hadamitzky, Wolfgang; Spahn, Mark (October 2005). "Romanization systems". Wolfgang Hadamitzky: Japan-related Textbooks, Dictionaries, and Reference Works. Retrieved 10 August 2017.
2. Unger, J. Marshall (1996). Literacy and Script Reform in Occupation Japan: Reading between the Lines. Oxford University Press. p. 53. ISBN 9780195356380.
3. Backhaus, Peter (29 December 2014). "To shine or to die: the messy world of romanized Japanese". The Japan Times Online. Retrieved 10 August 2017.
4. "'Ti' or 'chi'? Educators call to unify romanization styles in Japan". Mainichi Daily News. 2 April 2017. Retrieved 10 August 2017.
5. Carr, Denzel. The New Official Romanization of Japanese. Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 59, No. 1 (Mar., 1939), pp. 99-102.
6. Haruhiko Kindaichi, Takeshi Shibata, Naoki Hayashi (1988). 日本語百科大事典 [Japanese encyclopedia]. Taishukan Shoten.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
7. Li, Yu (2019). The Chinese Writing System in Asia: An Interdisciplinary Perspective. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-000-69906-7. Retrieved 26 June 2020.
8. Seeley, Christopher (2000). A History of Writing in Japan (Illustrated, reprint ed.). University of Hawaii Press. p. 140. ISBN 9780824822170.
9. Kent, et al. "Oriental Literature and Bibliography." p. 155.
10. 和英語林集成第三版 [Digital 'Japanese English Forest Collection']. Meiji Gakuin University Library (in Japanese). Meiji Gakuin University. March 2010 [2006]. Retrieved 10 August 2017.
11. "明治学院大学図書館 - 『和英語林集成』デジタルアーカイブス". Meijigakuin.ac.jp. Retrieved 2012-06-29.
12. "Japanese" (PDF). Library of Congress. Retrieved July 13, 2012.
13. "UHM Library : Japan Collection Online Resources". Hawaii.edu. 2005-10-06. Retrieved 2012-06-29.
14. "鉄道掲示基準規程". Homepage1.nifty.com. Archived from the original on 2012-03-01. Retrieved 2012-07-13.
15. 道路標識のローマ字（ヘボン式） の綴り方 [How to spell Roman letters (Hepburn style) of road signs]. Kictec (in Japanese). Retrieved 10 August 2017.
16. "パスポートセンター ヘボン式ローマ字表 : 神奈川県". Pref.kanagawa.jp. Archived from the original on 2012-07-30. Retrieved 2012-07-13.
17. James Curtis Hepburn (1872). A Japanese-English And English-Japanese Dictionary (2nd ed.). American Presbyterian mission press. pp. 286–290. Retrieved 2013-12-16.
18. 松浦四郎 (October 1992). "104年かかった標準化". 標準化と品質菅理 -Standardization and Quality Control-. Japanese Standards Association. 45: 92–93.
19. James Curtis Hepburn (1886). A Japanese-English And English-Japanese Dictionary. (Third Edition). Z. P Maruyama & Co. Retrieved April 12, 2011.
20. Kenkyusha's New Japanese-English Dictionary (Fourth Edition). Kenkyūsha. 1974.
21. Fujino Katsuji (1909). ローマ字手引き [RÔMAJI TEBIKI] (in Japanese). Rômaji-Hirome-kai.
22. Cabinet of Japan (December 9, 1954). 昭和29年内閣告示第1号 ローマ字のつづり方 [Japanese Cabinet Order No.1 in 1954 - How to write Romanization] (in Japanese). Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology. Archived from the original on May 29, 2013. Retrieved 2011-05-19.
23. Bureau of Citizens and Culture Affairs of Tokyo. "PASSPORT_ヘボン式ローマ字綴方表" [Table of Spelling in Hepburn Romanization] (in Japanese). Archived from the original on December 5, 2011. Retrieved December 13, 2011.
24. Consulate-General of Japan in San Francisco. ヘボン式ローマ字綴方表 [Table of Spelling in Hepburn Romanization] (PDF) (in Japanese). Archived from the original (PDF) on May 13, 2012. Retrieved December 13, 2011.
25. Consulate-General of Japan in Detroit. "Example of Application Form for Passport" (PDF) (in Japanese). Retrieved December 13, 2011.
26. Pocket Kenkyusha Japanese Dictionary. "Pocket Kenkyusha Japanese Dictionary (9780198607489): Shigeru Takebayashi, Kazuhiko Nagai: Books". Amazon.com. Retrieved 2012-06-29.
27. "ローマ字の長音のつづり方". Xembho.s59.xrea.com. Retrieved 2012-07-13.
28. "標準式ローマ字つづり―引用". Retrieved 2016-02-27.
29. Cabinet of Japan (November 16, 1946). 昭和21年内閣告示第33号 「現代かなづかい」 [Japanese Cabinet Order No.33 in 1946 - Modern kana usage] (in Japanese). Archived from the original on October 6, 2001. Retrieved May 25, 2011.
30. Cabinet of Japan (July 1, 1986). 昭和61年内閣告示第1号 「現代仮名遣い」 [Japanese Cabinet Order No.1 in 1986 - Modern kana usage] (in Japanese). Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology. Archived from the original on May 24, 2011. Retrieved May 25, 2011.
31. Cabinet of Japan. "平成3年6月28日内閣告示第2号:外来語の表記" [Japanese cabinet order No.2 (June 28, 1991):The notation of loanword]. Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology. Archived from the original on January 6, 2019. Retrieved May 25, 2011.
32. "米国規格(ANSI Z39.11-1972)―要約". Retrieved 2016-02-27.
33. "英国規格(BS 4812 : 1972)―要約". Retrieved 2016-02-27.

References

• Kent, Allen, Harold Lancour, and Jay Elwood Daily (Executive Editors). Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science Volume 21. CRC Press, April 1, 1978. ISBN 0824720210, 9780824720216.

External links

• Preface of first edition of Hepburn's original dictionary, explaining romanization
• Preface of third edition of Hepburn's original dictionary, explaining romanization