List of Roman emperors

The Roman emperors were the rulers of the Roman Empire dating from the granting of the title of Augustus to Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus by the Roman Senate in 27 BC, after major roles played by the populist dictator and military leader Julius Caesar. Augustus maintained a facade of Republican rule, rejecting monarchical titles but calling himself princeps senatus (first man of the council)[1] and princeps civitatis (first citizen of the state). The title of Augustus was conferred on his successors to the imperial position. The style of government instituted by Augustus is called the Principate and continued until reforms by Diocletian. The modern word 'emperor' derives from the title imperator, which was granted by an army to a successful general; during the initial phase of the empire, the title was generally used only by the princeps. For example, Augustus' official name was Imperator Caesar Divi Filius Augustus.

Augustus, the first Roman emperor

The territory under command of the emperor had developed under the period of the Roman Republic as it invaded and occupied most of Europe and portions of northern Africa and western Asia. Under the republic, regions of the empire were ruled by provincial governors answerable to and authorised by the Senate and People of Rome. During the republic, the chief magistrates of Rome were two consuls elected each year; consuls continued to be elected in the imperial period, but their authority was subservient to that of the emperor, and the election was controlled by the emperor.

In the late 3rd century, after the Crisis of the Third Century, Diocletian formalised and embellished the recent manner of imperial rule, establishing the so-called Dominate period of the Roman Empire. This was characterised by the explicit increase of authority in the person of the Emperor, and the use of the style Dominus Noster ("Our Lord"). The rise of powerful Barbarian tribes along the borders of the empire and the challenge they posed to defense of far-flung borders and unstable imperial succession led Diocletian to divide the administration geographically of the Empire in 286 with a co-Augustus.

In 313, Constantine the Great, the first Christian emperor, issued the Edict of Milan along with Licinius that granted freedom in the worship of Christianity. In 330, he established a second capital in Byzantium, which he renamed Constantinople. For most of the period from 286 to 480, there was more than one recognised senior emperor, with the division usually based in geographic terms. This division was consistently in place after the death of Theodosius I in 395, which historians have dated as the division between the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire.[2] However, formally the Empire remained a single polity, with separate co-emperors in the separate courts. The fall of the Western Roman Empire, and so the end of a separate list of emperors below, is dated either from the de facto date of 476 when Romulus Augustulus was deposed by the Germanic Herulians led by Odoacer or the de jure date of 480, on the death of Julius Nepos, when Eastern Emperor Zeno ended recognition of a separate Western court. In the period that followed, the Empire is usually treated by historians as the Byzantine Empire governed by the Byzantine Emperors, although this designation is not used universally, and continues to be a subject of specialist debate today.[3]

In the 7th century reign of Heraclius, the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 saw much of Rome's eastern territory lost to the Sasanian Empire, recovered by Heraclius, and then lost permanently to Arab Muslim conquests after the death of Muhammad and establishment of Islam. The Sasanian Empire was conquered by the Rashidun Caliphate, ending the Byzantine-Sasanian Wars.

The line of emperors continued until the death of Constantine XI Palaiologos during the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, when the remaining territories were captured by the Ottoman Empire under Mehmed II.[4] The Ottoman dynasty carried on using the title of Caesar of Rome.

Counting all individuals to have possessed the full imperial title, including those who did not technically rule in their own right (e.g. co-emperors or minors during regencies), this list contains 194 emperors and 3 ruling empresses, for a total of 197 monarchs.

Legitimacy

This article is about legitimate Roman emperors. For other individuals claiming the title of Emperor, see List of Roman usurpers.

The emperors listed in this article are those generally agreed to have been 'legitimate' emperors, and who appear in published regnal lists.[5][6][7] The word 'legitimate' is used by most authors, but usually without clear definition, perhaps not surprisingly, since the emperorship was itself rather vaguely defined legally. In Augustus' original formulation, the princeps was selected by either the Senate or "the people" of Rome, but quite quickly the legions became an acknowledged stand-in for "the people." A person could be proclaimed as emperor by their troops or by "the mob" in the street, but in theory needed to be confirmed by the Senate. The coercion that frequently resulted was implied in this formulation. Furthermore, a sitting emperor was empowered to name a successor and take him on as apprentice in government and in that case the Senate had no role to play, although it sometimes did when a successor lacked the power to inhibit bids by rival claimants. By the medieval (or Byzantine) period, the very definition of the Senate became vague as well, adding to the complication.[8]

Lists of legitimate emperors are therefore partly influenced by the subjective views of those compiling them, and also partly by historical convention. Many of the 'legitimate' emperors listed here acceded to the position by usurpation, and many 'illegitimate' claimants had a legitimate claim to the position. Historically, the following criteria have been used to derive emperor lists:

• Any individual who undisputedly ruled the whole Empire, at some point, is a 'legitimate emperor'(1).
• Any individual who was nominated as heir or co-emperor by a legitimate emperor (1), and who succeeded to rule in his own right, is a legitimate emperor (2).
• Where there were multiple claimants, and none were legitimate heirs, the claimant accepted by the Roman Senate as emperor is the legitimate emperor (3), at least during the Principate.

So for instance, Aurelian, though acceding to the throne by usurpation, was the sole and undisputed monarch between 270 and 275, and thus was a legitimate emperor. Gallienus, though not in control of the whole Empire, and plagued by other claimants, was the legitimate heir of (the legitimate emperor) Valerian. Claudius Gothicus, though acceding illegally, and not in control of the whole Empire, was the only claimant accepted by the Senate, and thus, for his reign, was the legitimate emperor. Equally, during the Year of the Four Emperors, all claimants, though not undisputed, were at some point accepted by the Senate and are thus included; conversely, during the Year of the Five Emperors neither Pescennius Niger nor Clodius Albinus were accepted by the Senate, and are thus not included. There are a few examples where individuals were made co-emperor, but never wielded power in their own right (typically the child of an emperor); these emperors are legitimate, but are not included in regnal lists, and in this article are listed together with the senior emperor.

Emperors after 395

After 395, the list of emperors in the East is based on the same general criteria, with the exception that the emperor only had to be in undisputed control of the Eastern part of the empire, or be the legitimate heir of the Eastern emperor.

The situation in the West is more complex. Throughout the final years of the Western Empire (395–480) the Eastern emperor was considered the senior emperor, and a Western emperor was only legitimate if recognized as such by the Eastern emperor. Furthermore, after 455 the Western emperor ceased to be a relevant figure and there was sometimes no claimant at all. For the sake of historical completeness, all Western Emperors after 455 are included in this list, even if they were not recognized by the Eastern Empire;[9] some of these technically illegitimate emperors are included in regnal lists, while others are not. For instance, Romulus Augustulus was technically a usurper who ruled only the Italian peninsula and was never legally recognized. However, he was traditionally considered the "last Roman Emperor" by 18th and 19th century western scholars and his overthrow by Odoacer used as the marking point between historical epochs, and as such he is usually included in regnal lists. However, modern scholarship has confirmed that Romulus Augustulus' predecessor, Julius Nepos continued to rule as emperor in the other Western holdings and as a figurehead for Odoacer's rule in Italy until Nepos' death in 480. Since the question of what constitutes an emperor can be ambiguous, and dating the "fall of the Western Empire" arbitrary, this list includes details of both figures.

The Principate

Main article: Principate

27 BC–68 AD: Julio-Claudian dynasty

Main article: Julio-Claudian dynasty

Portrait	Name	Reign	Succession	Life details
	Augustus Imperator Caesar Augustus	16 January 27 BC – 19 August AD 14 (40 years, 7 months and 3 days)	Grandnephew and adopted son of Julius Caesar, became emperor as a result of settlement with the Roman Senate	23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14 (aged 75)[10] Died of natural causes
	Tiberius Tiberius Caesar Augustus	18 September AD 14 – 16 March 37 (22 years, 5 months and 26 days)	Stepson, former son-in-law and adopted son of Augustus	16 November 42 BC – 16 March AD 37 (aged 77)[11] Died probably of natural causes, possibly murdered at the instigation of Caligula
	Caligula (formally Gaius) Gaius Caesar Augustus Germanicus	18 March AD 37 – 24 January 41 (3 years, 10 months and 6 days)	Grandnephew and adoptive grandson of Tiberius, great-grandson of Augustus	31 August AD 12 – 24 January 41 (aged 28)[12] Murdered in a conspiracy involving the Praetorian Guard, senators and freedmen
	Claudius Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus	24 January AD 41 – 13 October 54 (13 years, 8 months and 19 days)	Uncle of Caligula, grandnephew of Augustus, proclaimed emperor by the Praetorian Guard and accepted as such by the Senate	1 August 10 BC – 13 October AD 54 (aged 63)[13] Probably poisoned by his wife Agrippina, in favour of her son Nero
	Nero Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus	13 October AD 54 – 9 June 68 (13 years, 7 months and 27 days)	Grandnephew, stepson, son-in-law and adopted son of Claudius, great-great-grandson of Augustus	15 December AD 37 – 9 June 68 (aged 30)[14] Committed suicide after being declared a public enemy by the Senate

68–96: Year of the Four Emperors and Flavian dynasty

Main articles: Year of the Four Emperors and Flavian dynasty

Portrait	Name	Reign	Succession	Life details
	Galba Servius Galba Imperator Caesar Augustus	8 June AD 68 – 15 January 69 (7 months and 7 days)	Revolted against Nero and seized power after his suicide	24 December 3 BC – 15 January AD 69 (aged 72)[15] Murdered by the Praetorian Guard in coup led by Otho
	Otho Imperator Marcus Otho Caesar Augustus	15 January – 16 April AD 69 (3 months and 1 day)	Seized the purple in a coup against Galba	28 April AD 32 – 16 April 69 (aged 36) Committed suicide after losing the Battle of Bedriacum to Vitellius[16]
	Vitellius Aulus Vitellius Germanicus Imperator Augustus	18 April – 20 December AD 69 (8 months and 2 days)	Seized power with support of Rhine legions, in opposition to Galba and Otho	24 September AD 15 – 20 December 69 (aged 54)[17] Tortured and murdered by Vespasian's troops
	Vespasian Imperator Caesar Vespasianus Augustus	21 December AD 69 – 24 June 79 (9 years, 6 months and 3 days)	Seized power with the support of the eastern legions	17 November AD 9 – 23/24 June 79 (aged 69) Died of natural causes[18]
	Titus Imperator Titus Caesar Vespasianus Augustus	24 June AD 79 – 13 September 81 (2 years, 2 months and 20 days)	Son of Vespasian	30 December AD 39 – 13 September 81 (aged 41) Died of natural causes[19]
	Domitian Imperator Caesar Domitianus Augustus	14 September AD 81 – 18 September 96 (15 years and 4 days)	Brother of Titus and son of Vespasian, was accepted as emperor by the Praetorian Guard and the Senate	24 October AD 51 – 18 September 96 (aged 44) Assassinated in a palace conspiracy[20]

96–192: Nerva–Antonine dynasty

Note: all dates AD hereafter.

Main article: Nerva–Antonine dynasty

Portrait	Name	Reign	Succession	Life details
	Nerva Imperator Nerva Caesar Augustus	18 September 96 – 27 January 98 (1 year, 4 months and 9 days)	Proclaimed emperor after the murder of Domitian. First of the "Five Good Emperors".	8 November 30 – 27 January 98 (aged 67) Died after suffering a stroke[21]
	Trajan Imperator Caesar Nerva Traianus Augustus	28 January 98 – 8 August 117 (19 years, 6 months and 11 days)	Adopted son and heir of Nerva. His reign marked the geographical peak of the empire.	18 September 53 – 8 August 117 (aged 63) Died of natural causes[22]
	Hadrian Imperator Caesar Traianus Hadrianus Augustus	11 August 117 – 10 July 138 (20 years, 10 months and 29 days)	Supposedly adopted by Trajan	24 January 76 – 10 July 138 (aged 62) Died of natural causes[23]
	Antoninus Pius Imperator Caesar Titus Aelius Hadrianus Antoninus Augustus Pius	10 July 138 – 7 March 161 (22 years, 7 months and 25 days)	Adopted son and heir of Hadrian	19 September 86 – 7 March 161 (aged 74) Died of natural causes[24]
	Marcus Aurelius Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus	7 March 161 – 17 March 180 (19 years and 10 days)	Adopted son and son-in-law of Antoninus Pius. Adoptive brother and co-emperor of Lucius Verus. Last of the "Five Good Emperors".	26 April 121 – 17 March 180 (aged 58) Died of natural causes[25]
	Lucius Verus Imperator Caesar Lucius Aurelius Verus Augustus	7 March 161 – 23 January 169 (7 years, 10 months and 15 days)	Adopted son and heir of Antoninus Pius and son-in-law of Marcus Aurelius; Co-emperor with Marcus Aurelius until his death	15 December 130 – 23 January 169 (aged 38) Died of natural causes (Antonine Plague)[26]
	Commodus Imperator Caesar Lucius Aelius Aurelius Commodus Augustus	17 March 180 – 31 December 192 (12 years, 9 months and 14 days)	Son of Marcus Aurelius	31 August 161 – 31 December 192 (aged 31) Strangled to death in his bath[27]

193–235: Year of the Five Emperors and Severan dynasty

Main articles: Year of the Five Emperors and Severan dynasty

Portrait	Name	Reign	Succession	Life details
	Pertinax Imperator Caesar Publius Helvius Pertinax Augustus	31 December 192 – 28 March 193 (2 months and 28 days)	Proclaimed emperor after the murder of Commodus	1 August 126 – 28 March 193 (aged 66) Murdered by the Praetorian Guard[28]
	Didius Julianus Imperator Caesar Marcus Didius Severus Julianus Augustus	28 March – 1 June 193 (2 months and 4 days)	Won auction held by the Praetorian Guard for the position of emperor	29 January 137 – 1 June 193 (aged 56) Executed on orders of the Senate[29]
	Septimius Severus Imperator Caesar Lucius Septimius Severus Pertinax Augustus	9 April 193 – 4 February 211 (17 years, 9 months and 26 days)	Proclaimed emperor by the Pannonian legions	11 April 145 – 4 February 211 (aged 65) Died of natural causes[30]
	Caracalla (formally Antoninus) Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus	4 February 211 – 8 April 217 (6 years, 2 months and 4 days)	Son and heir of Septimius Severus, ruled jointly with his brother, Geta	4 April 188 – 8 April 217 (aged 29) Murdered by a soldier in a conspiracy possibly involving Macrinus[31]
	Geta Imperator Caesar Publius Septimius Geta Augustus	4 February 211 – 2 February 212 (11 months and 29 days)	Son and heir of Septimius Severus, ruled jointly with his brother, Caracalla	7 March 189 – 2 February 212 (aged 22) Murdered on the orders of Caracalla
	Macrinus Imperator Caesar Marcus Opellius Severus Macrinus Augustus	11 April 217 – 8 June 218 (1 year, 1 month and 28 days)	Praetorian prefect to Caracalla, whom he possibly conspired to have murdered, and afterwards became himself emperor with consent of the army	164 or 166 – mid-218 (aged c. 53) Executed in favor of Elagabalus[32]
	Diadumenian (Imperator Caesar) Marcus Opellius Antoninus Diadumenianus (Augustus)	Late May – June 218	Son of Macrinus, named emperor by his father after the eruption of a rebellion in favor of Elagabalus	14 September 208 – June 218 (aged 9) Caught in flight and executed in favor of Elagabalus[33]
	Elagabalus (formally Antoninus) Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus	16 May 218 – 11 March 222 (3 years, 9 months and 23 days)	Cousin and alleged illegitimate son of Caracalla, grandnephew of Septimius Severus, proclaimed emperor by the army, in opposition to Macrinus	203 or 204 – 11 March 222 (aged around 18) Murdered, thrown into the Tiber[34]
	Severus Alexander Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Severus Alexander Augustus	13 March 222 – 19 March 235 (13 years and 6 days)	Cousin and adopted heir of Elagabalus, grandnephew of Septimius Severus, proclaimed emperor by the troops	1 October 208 – 19 March 235 (aged 26) Lynched by mutinous troops alongside his mother[35]

235–285: Gordian dynasty and Crisis of the Third Century

Main articles: Crisis of the Third Century and Year of the Six Emperors

Portrait	Name	Reign	Succession	Life details
	Maximinus Thrax Imperator Caesar Gaius Julius Verus Maximinus Augustus	20 March 235 – 24 June 238 (3 years, 3 months and 4 days)	Proclaimed emperor by Germanic legions after the murder of Severus Alexander	c. 173 – 24 June 238 (aged c. 65) Murdered by his men during the siege of Aquileia[36]
	Gordian I Imperator Caesar Marcus Antonius Gordianus Sempronianus Romanus Africanus Augustus	22 March – 12 April 238 (21 days)	Proclaimed emperor while serving as governor Africa, in a revolt against Maximinus, and recognized by the Senate	Died on 12 April 238 Committed suicide upon hearing of the death of his son, Gordian II[36]
	Gordian II Imperator Caesar Marcus Antonius Gordianus Sempronianus Romanus Africanus Augustus	22 March – 12 April 238 (21 days)	Proclaimed emperor alongside father Gordian I, by act of the Senate, in opposition to Maximinus	c. 192 – April 238 (aged 46) Killed at the Battle of Carthage, fighting a pro-Maximinus army[36]
	Pupienus Imperator Caesar Marcus Clodius Pupienus Maximus Augustus	22 April – 29 July 238 (3 months and 7 days)	Proclaimed emperor jointly with Balbinus by the Senate after death of Gordian I and II, in opposition to Maximinus	Died on 29 July 238 Murdered by the Praetorian Guard[37]
	Balbinus Imperator Caesar Decimus Caelius Calvinus Balbinus Augustus	22 April – 29 July 238 (3 months and 7 days)	Proclaimed emperor jointly with Pupienus by the Senate after death of Gordian I and II, in opposition to Maximinus	Died on 29 July 238 Murdered by the Praetorian Guard[38]
	Gordian III Imperator Caesar Marcus Antonius Gordianus Augustus	29 July 238 – c. February 244	Grandson of Gordian I, appointed as heir by Pupienus and Balbinus, upon whose deaths he succeeded as emperor	20 January 225 – c. February 244 (aged 19) Died during campaign against Sasanian Persia, possibly in a murder plot instigated by Philip the Arab[39]
	Philip the Arab Imperator Caesar Marcus Julius Philippus Augustus	c. February 244 – c. September 249 (5 years and 7 months)	Praetorian prefect to Gordian III, took power after his death	Killed at the Battle of Verona against Decius
	Philip II Imperator Caesar Marcus Julius Severus Philippus Augustus	Summer 247 – c. September 249 (2 years)	Son of Philip the Arab, named co-emperor in 247	Murdered by the Praetorian Guard[40]
	Decius Imperator Caesar Gaius Messius Quintus Traianus Decius Augustus	c. September 249 – June 251	Proclaimed emperor by Danubian legions then defeating and killing Philip in the Battle of Verona; made his son Herennius Etruscus (born ) co-emperor in early 251	c. 201 – June 251 (aged 50) Killed at the Battle of Abrittus against the Goths[41]
	Herennius Etruscus Imperator Caesar Quintus Herennius Etruscus Messius Decius Augustus	May–June 251 (1 month)	Son of Decius, named co-emperor	Killed in 251 alongside his father, Decius, at the Battle of Abrittus against the Goths
	Hostilian Imperator Caesar Gaius Valens Hostilianus Messius Quintus Augustus	June 251 – late 251 (4–5 months)	Son of Decius, accepted as emperor by the Senate and by co-emperor Trebonianus Gallus	September/October 251 (aged 21) Natural causes (plague)
	Trebonianus Gallus Imperator Caesar Gaius Vibius Trebonianus Gallus Augustus	June 251 – August 253 (2 years and 2 months)	Proclaimed emperor by the army after Decius's death	c. 206 – August 253 Murdered by his own troops, in favour of Aemilian[42]
	Volusianus Imperator Caesar Gaius Vibius Afinius Gallus Veldumnianus Volusianus Augustus	November 251 – August 253 (1 year and 9 months)	Appointed joint Augustus by his father, Trebonianus Gallus	c. 230 – June 253 Murdered alongside his father
	Aemilian Imperator Caesar Marcus Aemilius Aemilianus Augustus	August 253 – October 253 (2 months)	Governor of Moesia Superior, proclaimed emperor by Danubian legions after defeating the Goths; accepted as emperor after death of Gallus	Murdered by his own troops, in favor of Valerian
	Valerian Imperator Caesar Publius Licinius Valerianus Augustus	c. August 253 – c. June 260	Proclaimed emperor by Rhine legions after death of Gallus, in opposition to Aemilian	Captured at the Battle of Edessa against Persia, died in captivity[43]
	Gallienus Imperator Caesar Publius Licinius Egnatius Gallienus Augustus	22 October 253 – September 268 (14 years and 11 months)	Appointed emperor by his father, Valerian	c. 218 – September 268 (aged 50) Murdered at Aquileia by his own commanders
	Saloninus Imperator (Caesar Publius Licinius Cornelius) Saloninus Valerianus Augustus	January 260 – fall 260	Son of Gallienus, briefly co-emperor	Murdered in 260 by the soldiers of Postumus[44]
	Claudius Gothicus Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Claudius Augustus	September 268 – 270	Victorious general at Battle of Naissus, seized power after Gallienus's death	10 May 214 – 270 (aged 55) Died of disease, possibly the plague of Cyprian
	Quintillus Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Claudius Quintillus Augustus	270 (17 or 77 days)[45]	Brother of Claudius Gothicus, proclaimed emperor after his death	Died in 270 under unclear circumstances, possibly by suicide or murder
	Aurelian Imperator Caesar Lucius Domitius Aurelianus Augustus	September 270 – c. October 275 (5 years)	Proclaimed emperor by Danubian legions after Claudius Gothicus's death, in opposition to Quintillus	9 September 214/215 – c. October 275 (aged 60/61)[46] Murdered by the Praetorian Guard
	Tacitus Imperator Caesar Marcus Claudius Tacitus Augustus	c. December 275 – June 276 (about 7 months)	Elected by the Senate to replace Aurelian	Died of natural causes or killed by the troops in June 276[47][46][48]
	Florianus Imperator Caesar Marcus Annius Florianus Augustus	June–September 276 (82 or 88 days)	Half-brother of Tacitus, proclaimed emperor by the troops after Tacitus's death	Murdered by his own troops, in favour of Probus[49]
	Probus Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Probus Augustus	c. June 276 – September 282 (6 years)	Proclaimed emperor by eastern legions, in opposition to Florianus	19 August 232 – September 282 (aged 50) Murdered by the troops, in favour of Carus
	Carus Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Carus Augustus	September 282 – July 283 (10 months)	Praetorian prefect to Probus, seized power either before or after Probus was murdered	Died in July 283 during a campaign against Persia, probably of natural causes, possibly killed by lightning[50]
	Carinus Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Carinus Augustus	283 – July 285	Son of Carus, appointed co-emperor	Probably died in battle against Diocletian[51]
	Numerian Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Numerianus Augustus	July 283 – November 284 (1 year and 4 months)	Son of Carus, succeeded him jointly with his older brother Carinus	Died in 284 under unclear circumstances, possibly assassinated

The Dominate

Main article: Dominate

284–364: Tetrarchy and Constantinian dynasty

Main articles: Tetrarchy and Constantinian dynasty

Note: To maintain control and improve administration, various schemes to divide the work of the Roman Emperor by sharing it between individuals were tried after 285. The "Tetrarchy" proclaimed by Diocletian in 293 split the empire into two halves each to be ruled separately by two emperors, a senior "Augustus", and a junior "Caesar".

Portrait	Name	Reign	Succession	Life details
	Diocletian Imperator Caesar Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus Augustus	20 November 284 – 1 May 305 (20 years, 5 months and 11 days)	Proclaimed emperor by army after death of Numerian, and in opposition to Carinus[52]	22 December 244 – 3 December 311 (aged 66) Abdicated, died of natural causes in Aspalatos
	Maximian Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maximianus Augustus	1 April 286 – 1 May 305 (19 years and 1 month)	Appointed Caesar in 285 by Diocletian, and raised to rank of Augustus in 286	c. 250 – c. July 310 (aged around 60) Abdicated with Diocletian, later tried to regain the purple with, and then from, Maxentius, before being finally killed (possibly by suicide) on orders of Constantine I[53]
	Galerius Gaius Galerius Valerius Maximianus Augustus[54]	1 May 305 – May 311 (6 years)	Appointed Caesar in 293 by Diocletian, upon whose abdication he succeeded as Augustus	Died in May 311, of natural causes[55]
	Constantius I Marcus Flavius Valerius Constantius Augustus	1 May 305 – 25 July 306 (1 year, 2 months and 24 days)	Appointed Caesar to Maximian in 293, upon whose abdication he succeeded as Augustus	31 March c. 250 – 25 July 306 Died of natural causes[56]
	Constantine I Flavius Valerius Constantinus Augustus	25 July 306 – 22 May 337 (30 years, 9 months and 27 days)	Son of Constantius I, proclaimed emperor by his father's troops. Accepted as Caesar by Galerius in 306, promoted to Augustus in 307 by Maximian, refused demotion to Caesar in 309.	27 February 272 – 22 May 337 (aged 65) Died of natural causes
	Valerius Severus Flavius Valerius Severus Augustus	August 306 – c. April 307	Appointed Caesar in 305, raised to rank of Augustus by Galerius upon Constantius I's death	Murdered or forced to commit suicide on 16 September 307 after surrendering to Maximian and Maxentius[57]
	Maxentius Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maxentius Augustus	28 October 306 – 28 October 312 (6 years)	Son of Maximian, seized power after being initially passed over in the succession	Died on 28 October 312 at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge, against Constantine I[58]
	Licinius Valerius Licinianus Licinius Augustus	11 November 308 – 19 September 324 (15 years, 10 months and 8 days)	Appointed emperor by Galerius as replacement to Severus, in opposition to Maxentius. Defeated Maximinus Daia in a civil war to become sole emperor of the East in 313.	c. 265 – 325 (aged around 60) Defeated, deposed and put to death by Constantine I[59]
	Maximinus Daia Galerius Valerius Maximinus Augustus	1 May 310 – July/August 313 (3 years)	Nephew of Galerius, adopted as Caesar and his heir in 305; succeeded as Augustus (shared with Licinius I) in 311	20 November c. 270 – July/August 313 Defeated in civil war against Licinius; probably committed suicide thereafter
	Valerius Valens Aurelius Valerius Valens Augustus	Late 316 – 1 March 317	Appointed western Augustus, in opposition to Constantine, being executed within weeks	Died 1 March 317
	Martinian Sextus Marcius Martinianus Augustus	July – 19 September 324 (2 months)	Appointed Augustus by Licinius in 324, in opposition to Constantine	Executed by Constantine in 325
	Constantine II Flavius Claudius Constantinus Augustus	9 September 337 – April 340 (2 years and 7 months)	Son of Constantine I, became Augustus jointly with his brothers Constantius II and Constans	7 August 316 – April 340 (aged 23) Died in battle against his brother, Constans[60]
	Constantius II Flavius Julius Constantius Augustus	9 September 337 – 3 November 361 (24 years, 1 month and 25 days)	Son of Constantine I, became Augustus jointly with his brothers Constantine II and Constans	7 August 317 – 3 November 361 (aged 44) Died of natural causes[60]
	Constans Flavius Julius Constans Augustus	9 September 337 – 18 January 350 (12 years, 4 months and 9 days)	Son of Constantine I, became Augustus jointly with his brothers Constantine II and Constantius II	Killed in 350 by the usurper Magnentius[60]
	Vetranio Augustus	1 March – 25 December 350 (9 months and 24 days)	General of Constans, proclaimed emperor against Magnentius and temporarily recognized by Constantius II	Retired after abdication and died 6 years later
	Julian ("the Apostate") Flavius Claudius Julianus Augustus	3 November 361 – 26 June 363 (1 year, 7 months and 23 days)	Appointed Caesar in 355 by his cousin Constantius II. Proclaimed Augustus by his troops in early 360. Sole emperor after the death of Constantius.	331 – 26 June 363 (aged 31) Mortally wounded in battle against Persia[61]
	Jovian Flavius Jovianus Augustus	27 June 363 – 17 February 364 (7 months and 21 days)	General in Julian's army, proclaimed emperor by the troops upon Julian's death	331 – 17 February 364 Died of natural causes[62]

364–395: Valentinian dynasty and Theodosius

Main article: Valentinian dynasty

Portrait	Name	Reign	Succession	Life details
	Valentinian I Flavius Valentinianus Augustus	26 February 364 – 17 November 375 (11 years, 8 months and 22 days)	Elected by the army to replace Jovian	321 – 17 November 375 (aged 54) Died of natural causes
	Valens Flavius Valens Augustus	28 March 364 – 9 August 378 (14 years, 4 months and 12 days)	Brother of Valentinian I, appointed emperor over the eastern provinces	c. 328 – 9 August 378 Killed at the Battle of Adrianople against the Goths
	Gratian Flavius Gratianus Augustus	24 August 367 – 25 August 383 (16 years and 1 day)	Son of Valentinian I, appointed junior Augustus by him in 367, became senior Augustus (for the west) after Valentinian's death.	18 April or 23 May 359 – 25 August 383 (aged 24) Murdered by rebellious army faction
	Valentinian II Flavius Valentinianus Junior Augustus	22 November 375 – 15 May 392 (16 years, 5 months and 23 days)	Son of Valentinian I, proclaimed emperor by Pannonian army, accepted as co-emperor for the west by Gratian	371 – 15 May 392 Found hanged, probably committed suicide at the instigation of Arbogast
	Theodosius I Flavius Theodosius Augustus	19 January 379 – 17 January 395 (15 years, 11 months and 29 days)	Son-in-law of Valentinian I, appointed as Augustus for the east by Gratian to replace Valens	11 January 347 – 17 January 395 (aged 48) Died of natural causes
	Magnus Maximus Augustus	383/384 – 28 August 388	Usurper in the West; legitimized by Theodosius I as emperor of Britannia and Gaul	Died on 28 August 388 (aged 53) Executed by Theodosius I in Aquileia after the Battle of the Save
	Victor Flavius Victor Augustus	384 or 387 – August 388	Son of Magnus Maximus, recognized as emperor by Theodosius I	Executed by Arbogast at the behest of Theodosius I
	Eugenius Flavius Eugenius Augustus	22 August 392 – 6 September 394 (2 years and 15 days)	Usurper in the West; elevated to emperor by Arbogast.	Executed (6 September 394) as a criminal by Theodosius I near the Frigidus river

Western Emperors

Main article: Western Roman Empire

395–455: Theodosian dynasty

Main article: Theodosian dynasty

Note: Theodosius I was the last person to rule both halves of the Roman Empire, dividing the administration between his sons Arcadius and Honorius on his death.

Portrait	Name	Reign	Succession	Life details
	Honorius Flavius Honorius Augustus	17 January 395 – 15 August 423 (28 years, 6 months and 29 days)	Son of Theodosius I; appointed as junior Augustus for the west by Theodosius on January 23, 393 (after the death of Valentinian II); became senior Augustus for the west after his father's death	9 September 384 – 15 August 423 (aged 38) Died of edema
	Constantine III Flavius Claudius Constantinus Augustus	407/409 - August or September 411 2 years	Usurper who declared himself emperor in the west in 407, recognized as co-emperor by Honorius in 409. Not recognized by the Eastern Empire.	Died August or September 411 Executed by Constantius III
	Constans II (Flavius?) Constans Augustus	409–411	Elevated by his father, Constantine III, to rank of co-emperor in 409. Not recognized by Honorius nor the Eastern Empire.	Killed in 411
	Constantius III Flavius Constantius Augustus	8 February – 2 September 421 (6 months and 25 days)	Married to Theodosius I's daughter Galla Placidia, elevated to co-Augustus for the west by Honorius; not recognized by the Eastern Empire	Died on 2 September 421, of natural causes
	Joannes Augustus	27 August 423 – May 425 (1 year and 9 months)	A senior civil servant under Honorius, proclaimed emperor by Castinus; not recognized by the Eastern Empire	Died in June or July 425 Defeated in battle by Theodosius II and Valentinian III, captured and executed
	Valentinian III Flavius Placidus Valentinianus Augustus	23 October 425 – 16 March 455 (29 years, 4 months and 21 days)	Son of Constantius III, appointed Caesar for the west by Theodosius II after the death of Honorius, in opposition to the regime of Joannes; became Augustus for the west after the defeat of Joannes	2 July 419 – 16 March 455 (aged 35) Assassinated, possibly at the behest of Petronius Maximus

455–476: Last western emperors

Portrait	Name	Reign	Succession	Life details
	Petronius Maximus Augustus	17 March – 31 May 455 (2 months and 14 days)	Son-in-law of Theodosius II, proclaimed himself emperor with the support of the army, after the death of Valentinian III. Not recognized by the Eastern Empire. He appointed his son Palladius as caesar.	c. 397 – 31 May 455 Murdered, probably stoned to death by the Roman mob
	Avitus Eparchius Avitus Augustus	9 July 455 – 17 October 456 (1 year, 3 months and 8 days)	Magister militum under Petronius Maximus, proclaimed emperor by the Visigoth king Theoderic II after Petronius's death. Not recognized by the Eastern Empire.	Died after 17 October 456 Deposed by his Magister militum, Ricimer; became bishop of Placentia; murdered at some point afterwards
	Majorian Julius Valerius Maiorianus Augustus	1 April 457 – 2 August 461 (4 years, 4 months and 1 day)	Proclaimed emperor by his troops. Recognized by the Eastern Empire at the behest of Ricimer.	November 420 – 7 August 461 (aged 40) Deposed and beheaded on the orders of Ricimer.
	Libius Severus Augustus	November 461 – August 465 4 years	Appointed emperor by Ricimer. Not recognized by the Eastern Empire.	Died in August 465 (aged 45) Probably poisoned by Ricimer
	Anthemius Procopius Anthemius Augustus	12 April 467 – 11 July 472 (5 years, 2 months and 29 days)	Son-in-law of Marcian, appointed emperor by Leo I, with the consent of Ricimer.	c. 420 – 11 July 472 (aged 52) Executed by Ricimer or Gundobad (Ricimer's nephew).
	Olybrius Anicius Olybrius Augustus	July 11, 472 – November 2, 472 3 months and 22 days	Son-in-law of Valentinian III; appointed emperor by Ricimer. Not recognized by the Eastern Empire.	c. 420 – November 2, 472 (aged 41) Died of natural causes
	Glycerius Augustus	3/5 March 473 – 24 June 474 (1 year and 3 months)	Appointed emperor by Gundobad (Ricimer's successor). Not recognized by the Eastern Empire.	Deposed by Julius Nepos, who appointed him Bishop of Salona
	Julius Nepos	June 474 – 28 August 475 (in Italy); – spring 480 (in Gaul and Dalmatia)	Nephew-in-law of the eastern emperor Leo I (and nephew of Marcellinus) appointed emperor in opposition to Glycerius	c. 430 – 480 (aged 50) Deposed in Italy by Orestes, ruled in balance of Western Empire until assassination in 480. Maintained as figurehead in Italy by Odoacer to his death in 480.
	Romulus Augustus ("Augustulus")	31 October 475 – 4 September 476 (10 months and 4 days)	Appointed by his father, Orestes. Listed as an emperor by historical convention. His rule never extended beyond portions of the Italian peninsula. Not recognized by Eastern Emperor Zeno.	Deposed by Odoacer, who then ruled in the name of Julius Nepos until the latter's death in 480, which formally ended the separate Western Empire; most likely lived out his life in obscurity on a private villa.

Note: The classical Roman Empire is usually said to have ended with the deposition of Romulus Augustulus, with its continuation in the East referred to by modern scholars as the Byzantine Empire.

Eastern Emperors

Main article: List of Byzantine emperors

379–457: Theodosian dynasty

Note: Theodosius I was the last person to rule both halves of the Roman Empire, dividing the administration between his sons Arcadius and Honorius on his death.

Portrait	Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
	Theodosius I IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS THEODOSIVS AVGVSTVS	January 11, 347, Cauca or Italica, Hispania	Son-in-law of Valentinian I, appointed as Augustus for the east by Gratian after the death of Valens; became sole senior Augustus after death of Valentinian II	January 19, 379 – January 17, 395	16 years and 16 days	January 17, 395 (aged 48) Natural causes
	Arcadius IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS ARCADIVS AVGVSTVS	c. 377, Hispania	Son of Theodosius I; appointed as junior Augustus for the east by Theodosius in January 383; became senior Augustus for the east after his father's death	January 17, 395 – May 1, 408	13 years	May 1, 408 (aged 31) Natural causes
	Theodosius II IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS THEODOSIVS IVNIOR AVGVSTVS	April 10, 401, Constantinople	Son of Arcadius; appointed as junior Augustus for the east by Arcadius in 402; became senior Augustus for the east after his father's death	January 402 – July 28, 450	48 years	July 28, 450 (aged 49) Injuries suffered during a hunting accident
	Marcian IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS MARCIANVS AVGVSTVS	396, Thrace or Illyria	Nominated as successor (and husband) by Pulcheria, ruled alongside her 450-453 and later alone	November 25, 450 – January 25, 457	7 years	January 457 (aged 65) Gout

457–518: Leonid dynasty

See also: House of Leo

Portrait	Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
	Leo I the Thracian IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS VALERIVS LEO AVGVSTVS	c. 400, Dacia	Chosen by the army	7 February 457 – 18 January 474	17 years	18 January 474 (aged 73) Dysentery
	Leo II IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS LEO AVGVSTVS	c. 467, Constantinople	Grandson of Leo I	18 January – 17 November 474	9 months	17 November 474 (aged 7) Cause unknown, possibly poisoned
	Zeno IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS ZENO AVGVSTVS	c. 425, Isauria	Named co-emperor by his son Leo II on 9 February 474.	17 November 474 – 9 April 491	17 years	9 April 491 (aged 66) Dysentery or epilepsy
	Basiliscus IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS BASILISCVS AVGVSTVS with Marcus IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS MARCVS AVGVSTVS	?	Seized throne from Zeno, Basiliscus appointed his son Marcus co-emperor at some point in 475.	9 January 475 – August 476	1 year, 7 months	476/477 Starved to death in Limnae (in Cappadocia) by Zeno
	Anastasius I Dicorus IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS ANASTASIVS AVGVSTVS	c. 430, Dyrrhachium	Son-in-law of Leo I	11 April 491 – 9 July 518	27 years	9 July 518 (aged 87) Natural causes

518–602: Justinian dynasty

See also: Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty

Portrait	Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
	Justin I IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS IVSTINVS AVGVSTVS	c. 450 at Bederiana (Justiniana Prima), Dardania	Elected by army	July 518 – 1 August 527	9 years	1 August 527 (aged 77) Natural causes
	Justinian I IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS PETRVS SABBATIVS IVSTINIANVS AVGVSTVS	c. 482 at Tauresium (Taor), Dardania	Nephew of Justin I	1 August 527 – 13/14 November 565	38 years	13/14 November 565 (aged 83) Natural causes
	Justin II IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS IVSTINVS IVNIOR AVGVSTVS	c. 520	Nephew of Justinian I	14 November 565 – 5 October 578	13 years	5 October 578 (aged 58) Natural causes, after insanity
	Tiberius II Constantine IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS TIBERIVS CONSTANTINVS AVGVSTVS	c. 535	Adopted son of Justin II, regent from 574	5 October 578 – 14 August 582	3 years, 10 months	14 August 582 (aged 62) Natural causes
	Maurice IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS MAURICIVS TIBERIVS AVGVSTVS with Theodosius IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS THEODOSIVS AVGVSTVS	539 at Arabissus, Cappadocia	Son-in-law of Tiberius II, appointed his son Theodosius (born in August 4 583/585) co-emperor in 590	14 August 582 – 22 November 602	20 years	27 November 602 (aged 63) Executed, Theodosius executed a few days later by supporters of Phocas

Portrait	Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
	Phocas IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS FOCAS AVGVSTVS	?	Seized throne	23 November 602 – 4 October 610	8 years	5 October 610 Executed

610–695: Heraclian dynasty

See also: Byzantine Empire under the Heraclian dynasty

Portrait	Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
	Heraclius (Φλάβιος Ἡράκλειος Αὔγουστος) IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS HERACLIVS AVGVSTVS	c. 575, Cappadocia	Revolt	5 October 610 – 11 February 641	30 years	11 February, 641 (aged 65 or 66) Natural causes
	Constantine III (Ἡράκλειος νέος Κωνσταντῖνος Αὔγουστος) IMPERATOR CAESAR HERACLIVS NOVVS CONSTANTINVS AVGVSTVS	3 May 612, Constantinople	Son of Heraclius	11 February – 24/26 May 641	3 months	24/26 May 641 (aged 28) Tuberculosis
	Heraklonas (Φλάβιος Κωνσταντῖνος Ἡράκλειος Αὔγουστος) IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS CONSTANTINVS HERACLIVS AVGVSTVS with Tiberius (Φλάβιος Τιβέριος Αὔγουστος) FLAVIVS TIBERIVS AVGVSTVS and Martinus (Φλάβιος Μαρτίνος Αὔγουστος) FLAVIVS MARTINVS AVGVSTVS	3 May 626, Constantinople	Son of Heraclius; his brothers Tiberius and Martinus briefly served as co-emperors.	11 February 641 – September 641	7 months	unknown, but probably before 642
	Constans II (Φλάβιος Κωνσταντῖνος Αὔγουστος) IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS CONSTANTINVS AVGVSTVS	7 November 630	Son of Constantine III. succeeded his uncle Heraklonas after he was deposed as emperor.	September 641 – 15 September 668	27 years	15 September 668 (aged 37) Assassinated
	Constantine IV (Φλάβιος Κωνσταντῖνος Αὔγουστος) IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS CONSTANTINVS AVGVSTVS with Heraclius (Φλάβιος Ἡράκλειος Αὔγουστος) FLAVIVS HERACLIVS AVGVSTVS and Tiberius (Φλάβιος Τιβέριος Αὔγουστος) FLAVIVS TIBERIVS AVGVSTVS	652, Constantinople	Oldest son of Constans II, co-emperor since 654. His brothers Heraclius and Tiberius, co-emperors since 659, served as co-emperors until they were mutilated and deposed by Constantine in 681.	15 September 668 – 14 September 685 659 – 681 (Heraclius & Tiberius)	17 years 22 years (Heraclius & Tiberius)	14 September 685 (aged 33) Dysentery
	Justinian II (Φλάβιος Ἰουστινιανὸς Αὔγουστος) FLAVIVS IVSTINIANVS AVGVSTVS	668 or 669, Constantinople	Son of Constantine IV, co-emperor since 681	14 September 685–695	10 years (1st reign)	11 December 711 (aged 42) Killed by the army

695–717: Twenty Years' Anarchy

Main article: Twenty Years' Anarchy

Portrait	Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
	Leontios (Λεόντιος Αὔγουστος) LEONTIVS AVGVSTVS[63]	Isauria	Revolt	695–698	3 years	Executed in February 706
	Tiberios III Apsimaros (Τιβέριος Αὔγουστος) TIBERIVS AVGVSTVS	Pamphylia	Revolt	698–705	7 years	Executed in February 706
	Justinian II (Φλάβιος Ἰουστινιανὸς Αὔγουστος) FLAVIVS IVSTINIANVS AVGVSTVS (second reign) with Tiberius (Τιβέριος Αὔγουστος) TIBERIVS AVGVSTVS[64]	668 or 669, Constantinople	Returned on the throne with Bulgar support. Named son Tiberius as co-emperor in 706.	August 705 – December 711	6 years (2nd reign)	11 December 711 (aged 42) Both killed by the army
	Philippikos Bardanes (Φιλιππικὸς Αὔγουστος) FILEPICVS AVGVSTVS[65]	Pergamon	Revolt	December 711 – 3 June 713	1 year, 6 months	713
	Anastasios II (Αρτέμιος Ἀναστάσιος Αὔγουστος) ARTEMIVS ANASTASIVS AVGVSTVS[66]	?	Bureaucrat and secretary under Philippikos, he was raised to the purple by the soldiers	June 713 – November 715	2 years, 5 months	718, during attempt to regain the throne
	Theodosius III (Θεοδόσιος Αὔγουστος) THEODOSIVS AVGVSTVS[67]	?	Chosen by troops	May 715 – 25 March 717	2 years	Unknown. Became a monk

717–802: Isaurian dynasty

See also: Byzantine Empire under the Isaurian dynasty

Portrait	Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
	Leo III the Isaurian (Λέων)	c. 685, Germanikeia, Commagene	Rebellion	25 March 717 – 18 June 741	24 years	June 741 (age 56) Edema
	Constantine V (Κωνσταντῖνος)	July 718, Constantinople	Son of Leo III	18 June 741 – 14 September 775	34 years	14 September 775 (aged 57) Carbuncle
	Artabasdos (Ἀρτάβασδος) with Nikephoros (Νικηφόρος)	?	Son-in-law of Leo III. Usurped throne. Proclaimed his son Nikephoros as co-emperor in 741/742	June 741/742 – 2 November 743	1 year, 4 months	Unknown
	Leo IV the Khazar (Λέων)	750, Constantinople	Son of Constantine V	14 September 775 – 8 September 780	5 years	780 (age 30) Tuberculosis
	Constantine VI (Κωνσταντῖνος)	771, Constantinople	Son of Leo IV	8 September 780 – August 797	17 years	797 (age 26) After blinding by Irene
	Irene of Athens (Εἰρήνη)	c. 752, Athens	Regent during minority of Constantine VI. Seized throne from son in 797. First Byzantine empress regnant.	August 797 – 31 October 802	5 years	9 August 803 (aged 51)

802–813: Nikephorian dynasty

Main article: Byzantine Empire under the Nikephorian dynasty

Portrait	Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
	Nikephoros I (Νικηφόρος)	?	Rebellion	31 October 802 – 26 July 811	9 years	26 July 811 After the Battle of Pliska
	Staurakios (Σταυράκιος)	After 778	Son of Nikephoros I	26 July 811 – 2 October 811	4 months	January 11 812 (age ~30) Gangrene
	Michael I Rangabe (Μιχαὴλ Ῥαγγαβέ) with Theophylact (Θεοφύλακτος)	c. 770	Son-in-law of Nikephoros I, appointed his son Theophylact (born c. 793) as co-emperor on 25 December 811	2 October 811 – 22 June 813	1 year, 8 months	January 11 844 (age ~74) In a monastery on Prote Island, Theophylact died in a monastery on Plate Island on January 15 849

Portrait	Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
	Leo V the Armenian (Λέων) with Constantine (Κωνσταντῖνος)	c. 775	Rebellion, appointed his son Symbatios as co-emperor under the name Constantine on Christmas 813	11 July 813 – 25 December 820	7 years	25 December 820 (age ~45) Murdered by successor's conspirators, Constantine died in exile in monastery on Prote Island at a later date

820–867: Amorian dynasty

Portrait	Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
	Michael II (Μιχαὴλ)	c. 775	Chosen after murder of predecessor	25 December 820 – 2 October 829	9 years	2 October 829 (age ~54)
	Theophilos (Θεόφιλος)	805	Only son of Michael II and co-emperor since 821	2 October 829 – 20 January 842	13 years	20 January 842 (age 37) Unknown disease
	Michael III (Μιχαὴλ)	19 January 840, Constantinople	Son of Theophilos	20 January 842 – 23 September 867	25 years	23 September 867 Assassinated by successor

867–1056: Macedonian dynasty

See also: Macedonian dynasty and Byzantine Empire under the Macedonian dynasty

Portrait	Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
	Basil I the Macedonian (Βασίλειος)	811, Macedonia	Previous co-emperor, full emperor upon death of predecessor.	867 – 29 August 886	19 years	29 August 886 (age 75)
	Leo VI the Wise (Λέων	19 September 866, Constantinople	Son of Basil I (potentially in reality the son of Michael III), co-emperor since 870.	886 – 11 May 912	26 years	11 May 912 (age 45)
	Alexander (Ἀλέξανδρος)	23 November 870	Son of Basil I, co-emperor since 879.	11 May 912 – 6 June 913	1 year, 1 month	6 June 913 (age 42) Exhaustion after a game of tzykanion
	Constantine VII (Κωνσταντῖνος)	17/18 May 905	Son of Leo VI, co-emperor since 908.	6 June 913 – 9 November 959	46 years	9 November 959 (age 54), Constantinople Possibly poisoned by his son Romanos II
	Romanos I Lekapenos (Ῥωμανὸς Λεκαπηνός) with Christopher Lekapenos (Χριστόφορος Λακαπηνός) and Stephen Lekapenos (Στέφανος Λακαπηνός) and Constantine Lekapenos (Κωνσταντίνος Λακαπηνός)	c. 870, Lakape	Regent for the young Constantine VII, crowned himself senior emperor during Constantine VII's minority. Proclaimed his three sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as co-emperors. Was overthrown by Stephen in 944, who briefly ruled as senior emperor (for a few weeks) until he himself was overthrown by Constantine VII.	17 December 920 – 16 December 944 20 May 921 – August 931 (Christopher) 924–945 (Stephen & Constantine)	24 years 10 years (Christopher) 21 years (Stephen & Constantine)	15 June 948 (age 77-78) In a monastery as a monk after having been overthrown. Christopher died in August of 931. Both Stephen and Constantine died in exile as monks; Stephen on Easter 963 on Lesbos and Constantine in 946-948 on Samothrace trying to escape exile and reclaim imperial power
	Romanos II (Ῥωμανὸς ὁ Πορφυρογέννητος)	c. 938	Son of Constantine VII	9 November 959 – 15 March 963	4 years	15 March 963 (age 24-25) Possibly poisoned
	Nikephoros II Phokas (Νικηφόρος Φωκᾶς)	c. 912	Chosen by the army, acted as senior emperor during the regency of young emperors Basil II and Constantine VIII	16 August 963 – 11 December 969	6 years	11 December 969 (age 56-57), Constantinople Assassinated by successor John I Tzimiskes
	John I Tzimiskes (Ἰωάννης Τζιμισκής)	c. 925	Nephew of Nikephoros II Phokas, succeeded as senior emperor and regent for the young emperors Basil II and Constantine VIII	11 December 969 – 10 January 976	7 years	10 January 976 (age 50-51), Constantinople Poisoned by Imperial chamberlain Basil Lekapenos
	Basil II (Βασίλειος)	958, Constantinople	Eldest son of Romanos II	10 January 976 – 15 December 1025	49 years	15 December 1025 (age 67-68), Constantinople
	Constantine VIII (Κωνσταντῖνος ὁ Πορφυρογέννητος)	960, Constantinople	Second son of Romanos II, co-emperor since 962.	15 December 1025 – 15 November 1028	3 years	15 November 1028 (age 68), Constantinople
	Zoe Porphyrogenita (Ζωὴ ἡ Πορφυρογέννητη)	c. 978, Constantinople	Daughter of Constantine VIII, succeeded on her father's death along with her sister Theodora. Her three husbands, Romanos III (1028–1034), Michael IV (1034–1041) and Constantine IX (1042–1050) ruled alongside her.	15 November 1028 – June 1050	22 years	June 1050 (age 72), Constantinople
	Romanos III Argyros (Ῥωμανὸς Ἀργυρός)	968	Chosen by Constantine VIII to marry his daughter Zoe and succeed him as emperor.	15 November 1028 – 11 April 1034	6 years	11 April 1034 (age 65-66), Constantinople Allegedly murdered
	Michael IV the Paphlagonian (Μιχαὴλ ὁ Παφλαγών)	1010	Succeeded Romanos III as Zoe's husband and emperor.	11 April 1034 – 10 December 1041	7 years	10 December 1041 (age 31), Constantinople Died after a long illness.
	Michael V Kalaphates (Μιχαὴλ ὁ Καλαφάτης)	1015	Nephew and adopted son of Michael IV.	10 December 1041 – 20 April 1042	5 months	24 August, 1042 (age 27), Constantinople Deposed, blinded, castrated and tonsured after attempting to sideline Zoe and her sister Theodora.
	Theodora Porphyrogenita (Θεοδώρα ἡ Πορφυρογέννητος)	c. 980	Younger sister of Zoe, raised to co-empress in 1042.	19 April 1042 – 31 August 1056	14 years	31 August 1056 (age 75-76), Constantinople Died after sudden illness.
	Constantine IX Monomachos (Κωνσταντῖνος Μονομάχος)	c. 1000	Zoe's third husband	11 June 1042 – 11 January 1055	13 years	11 January 1055 (age ~55), Constantinople Died after illness.

Portrait	Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
	Michael VI Bringas (Μιχαὴλ Βρίγγας)	?	Chosen as successor by Empress Theodora	September 1056 – 31 August 1057	1 year	1059, confined to a monastery after having been deposed by successor.

Portrait	Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
	Isaac I Komnenos (Ἰσαάκιος Κομνηνός)	c. 1005	Rebellion	5 June 1057 – 22 November 1059	2 years	c. 1061 after having voluntarily abdicated.

1059–1081: Doukid dynasty

See also: Doukas

Portrait	Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
	Constantine X Doukas (Κωνσταντῖνος Δούκας)	1006	Chosen successor of Isaac I Komnenos	24 November 1059 – 22 May 1067	8 years	22 May 1067 (aged 61)
	Michael VII Doukas (Μιχαὴλ Δούκας) with Andronikos Doukas (Ἀνδρόνικος Δούκας) and Konstantios Doukas (Κωνστάντιος Δούκας) and Constantine Doukas (Κωνσταντίνος Δούκας)	1050	Son of Constantine X Doukas and co-emperor since 1059, resigned the throne in 1078. Reigned alongside his brothers Andronikos and Konstantios as co-emperors. Andronikos died in the 1070s while Konstantios briefly succeeded Michael as senior emperor before being handed over to the usurper Nikephoros III and exiled. Michael's son Constantine was also raised to co-emperor in 1074.	22 May 1067 – 31 March 1078 1068 – 1070s (Andronikos) 1060–1078 (Konstantios) 1074–1078 (Constantine)	11 years 18 years (Konstantios) 4 years (Constantine)	1090 (aged ~40), Constantinople, Konstantios died in the Battle of Dyrrhachium on 18 October 1081, having been recalled as a general by Alexios I. Constantine was later raised to co-emperor again under Alexios I and died in 1095
	Romanos IV Diogenes (Ῥωμανὸς Διογένης)	1032	Married to Constantine X's widow and senior emperor as guardian of her sons by Constantine X	1 January 1068 – 24 October 1071	3 years	1072 (age 42), after having been deposed, blinded and exiled
	Nikephoros III Botaneiates (Νικηφόρος Βοτανειάτης)	1001	Rebellion	31 March 1078 – 4 April 1081	3 years	10 December 1081 (age 80), after having been deposed and exiled to a monastery

1081–1185: Komnenid dynasty

See also: Komnenos and Byzantine Empire under the Komnenos dynasty

Portrait	Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
	Alexios I Komnenos (Ἀλέξιος Κομνηνός) with Constantine Doukas (Κωνσταντίνος Δούκας) (second co-emperorship)	1056	Rebellion, nephew of Isaac I Komnenos, appointed Constantine Doukas (a previous co-emperor under Michael VII) as co-emperor in 1081. Replaced Constantine with his own son John II in 1087.	4 April 1081 – 15 August 1118 1081 – 1087 (Constantine)	37 years 6 years (Constantine, 2nd co-emperorship)	15 August 1118 (age 70)
	John II Komnenos (Ἰωάννης Κομνηνός) with Alexios Komnenos (Ἀλέξιος Κομνηνός)	13 September 1087, Constantinople	Son of Alexios I, co-emperor since 1087, appointed his son Alexios co-emperor in 1122	15 August 1118 – 8 April 1143 1122 – 1142 (Alexios)	25 years 20 years (Alexios)	8 April 1143 (age 55), Cilicia Accidentally cut himself on a poisoned arrow. Alexios died in Attaleia on 2 August 1142 of a fever
	Manuel I Komnenos (Μανουὴλ Κομνηνός)	28 November, 1118, Constantinople	Son of John II	1143 – 24 September 1180	37 years	24 September 1180 (age 61)
	Alexios II Komnenos (Ἀλέξιος Κομνηνός)	14 September 1169, Constantinople	Son of Manuel I	24 September 1180 – October 1183	3 years	October 1183 (age 14), Constantinople Deposed and killed by successor
	Andronikos I Komnenos (Ἀνδρόνικος Κομνηνός) with John Komnenos (Ἰωάννης Κομνηνός)	c. 1118	Nephew of John II (son of his brother Isaac), uncle of Alexios II, appointed his son John as co-emperor in November 1183	October 1183 – 12 September 1185	2 years	12 September 1185 (age 66-67), Constantinople Overthrown and lynched in a popular uprising, John also seized and probably killed

1185–1204: Angelid dynasty

See also: Angelos and Byzantine Empire under the Angelos dynasty

Portrait	Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
	Isaac II Angelos (Ἰσαάκιος Ἄγγελος)	September 1156	Rebellion	1185–1195	10 years	25 January 1204 (age 47), Constantinople Possibly shock or poison
	Alexios III Angelos (Ἀλέξιος Ἄγγελος)	c. 1153	Rebellion, elder brother of Isaac II	1195 – 17/18 July 1203	8 years	1211 (age 58), in captivity in the Empire of Nicaea
	Isaac II Angelos (Ἰσαάκιος Ἄγγελος) (second reign)	September 1156	Restored to the throne by the Fourth Crusade alongside his son Alexios IV	18 July 1203 – 27/28 January 1204	6 months	25 January 1204 (age 47), Constantinople Possibly shock or poison
	Alexios IV Angelos (Ἀλέξιος Ἄγγελος)	c. 1182	Raised to the throne by the Fourth Crusade alongside his father Isaac II	1 August 1203 – 27/28 January 1204	6 months	8 February 1204 (age 21-22), Constantinople Strangled by successor
	Alexios V Doukas (Ἀλέξιος Δούκας ὁ Μούρτζουφλος)	c. 1140	Coup in the Imperial Palace, son-in-law of Alexios III	5 February 1204 – 13 April 1204	5 months	December 1204 (age 64), Constantinople Captured by crusaders of the newly founded Latin Empire and publicly executed

1204–1261: Laskarid dynasty

See also: Laskaris and Empire of Nicaea

Note: Between 1204 and 1261 there was an interregnum when Constantinople was occupied by the crusaders of the Fourth Crusade and the Empire was divided into the Empire of Nicaea, the Empire of Trebizond and the Despotate of Epirus, which were all contenders for rule of the Empire. The Laskarid dynasty of the Empire of Nicaea is considered the legitimate continuation of the Roman Empire because they had the support of the (Orthodox) Patriarch of Constantinople and managed to re-take Constantinople.

Portrait	Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
	Theodore I Laskaris (Θεόδωρος Λάσκαρις)	c. 1174, Constantinople	His brother Constantine Laskaris was elected emperor by the citizens of Constantinople on the day the city fell to the Crusaders; he later fled to Nicaea, where Theodore organized the Greek resistance to the Latins. Proclaimed emperor after Constantine's death in 1205, Theodore was crowned only in 1208.	1205– November 1221	21 years	November 1221 (age 48)
	John III Doukas Vatatzes (Ἰωάννης Δούκας Βατάτζης)	c. 1192, Didymoteicho	Son-in-law of Theodore I	15 December 1221 – 3 November 1254	33 years	3 November 1254 (age 62), Nymphaion
	Theodore II Laskaris (Θεόδωρος Λάσκαρις)	c. 1222, Nicaea	Son of John III	3 November 1254– 18 August 1258	4 years	18 August 1258 (age 36), Magnesia Epilepsy
	John IV Laskaris (Ἰωάννης Λάσκαρις)	25 December 1250	Son of Theodore II	18 August 1258– 25 December 1261	3 years	c. 1305 (age 55), Constantinople Blinded and imprisoned by successor in 1261, died in captivity

1261–1453: Palaiologan dynasty

See also: Palaiologos and Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty

Portrait	Name	Birth	Succession	Reign	Time in office	Death
	Michael VIII Palaiologos (Μιχαὴλ Παλαιολόγος)	1223	Senior emperor and regent of John IV Laskaris, grandnephew of John III by marriage and great-grandson of Alexios III	1 January 1259– 11 December 1282	23 years, 11 months	11 December 1282 (age 58), Pachomion, near Lysimachia
	Andronikos II Palaiologos (Ἀνδρόνικος Παλαιολόγος)	25 March 1259, Nicaea	Son of Michael VIII	11 December 1282– 24 May 1328	45 years, 5 months	13 February 1332 (age 72), Constantinople
	Michael IX Palaiologos (Μιχαήλ Παλαιολόγος)	17 April 1277, Constantinople	Son of Andronikos II, reigned alongside him as co-emperor with full imperial style	1295– 12 October 1320	25 years	12 October 1320 (age 43), Thessaloniki
	Andronikos III Palaiologos (Ἀνδρόνικος Παλαιολόγος)	25 March 1297, Constantinople	Son of Michael IX, named co-emperor in 1316 and rival emperor since 1321. Deposed his grandfather Andronikos II in 1328 and reigned as sole emperor	24 May 1328– 15 June 1341	13 years	15 June 1341 (age 44), Constantinople Possibly chronic malaria
	John V Palaiologos (Ἰωάννης Παλαιολόγος)	18 June 1332, Didymoteicho	Son of Andronikos III	15 June 1341– 12 August 1376	38 years (1st reign)	16 February 1391 (aged 58), Constantinople
	John VI Kantakouzenos (Ἰωάννης Καντακουζηνός) with Matthew Kantakouzenos (Ματθαίος Ασάνης Καντακουζηνός)	1292, Constantinople	Maternal relative of the Palaiologi, declared co-emperor by John V in 1341 and recognized as senior emperor in 1347 following a civil war. Appointed his son Matthew as co-emperor in 1353	8 February 1347– 4 December 1354 1353 – 1357 (Matthew)	7 years 4 years (Matthew)	15 June 1383 (aged 90 or 91), deposed and in exile as a monk in the Peloponnese, Matthew was defeated in 1357 and later served as the governor of the Morea until his death on the same day as his father
	Andronikos IV Palaiologos (Ἀνδρόνικος Παλαιολόγος)	11 April 1348, Constantinople	Son of John V, co-emperor since 1352, deposed his father John V in 1376	12 August 1376– 1 July 1379	3 years	28 June 1385 (age 37), Selymbria
	John V Palaiologos (Ἰωάννης Παλαιολόγος) (second reign)	18 June 1332, Didymoteicho	Restored to the throne after overthrowing his son Andronikos IV	1 July 1379– 14 April 1390	11 years (2nd reign)	16 February 1391 (aged 58), Constantinople
	John VII Palaiologos (Ἰωάννης Παλαιολόγος)	1370	Rebellion, son and co-emperor of Andronikos IV, deposed his grandfather John V	14 April 1390– 17 September 1390	5 months	22 September 1408 (aged 38), Thessaloniki
	John V Palaiologos (Ἰωάννης Παλαιολόγος) (third reign)	18 June 1332, Didymoteicho	Restored to the throne after overthrowing his grandson John VII	17 September 1390– 16 February 1391	5 months (3rd reign)	16 February 1391 (aged 58), Constantinople
	Manuel II Palaiologos (Μανουὴλ Παλαιολόγος) with John VII Palaiologos (Ἰωάννης Παλαιολόγος) and Andronikos V Palaiologos (Ἀνδρόνικος Παλαιολόγος)	27 June 1350, Constantinople	Son of John V, co-emperor since 1373. John VII Palaiologos, who previously usurped the throne in 1390, was proclaimed co-emperor in 1403, keeping the title until his death in 1408. John VII also proclaimed his son, Andronikos V, co-emperor but Andronikos died before his father, in 1407. The imperial status of John and Andronikos was purely honorary.	16 February 1391– 21 July 1425 1403 – 1408 (John VII) 1403 – 1407 (Andronikos V)	34 years 5 years (John VII) 4 years (Andronikos V)	21 July 1425 (age 75), Constantinople John died 22 September 1408 at Thessaloniki, Andronikos died aged 7 on September 24th, 1407.
	John VIII Palaiologos (Ἰωάννης Παλαιολόγος)	18 December 1392	Son of Manuel II, co-emperor since 1416	21 July 1425– 31 October 1448	23 years	31 October 1448 (age 55), Constantinople
	Constantine XI Palaiologos (Κωνσταντῖνος Δραγάσης Παλαιολόγος)	8 February 1405, Constantinople	Son of Manuel II	6 January 1449– 29 May 1453	4 years, 4 months, 23 days	29 May 1453 (age 48), Constantinople Refused to surrender Constantinople to the Ottoman sultan Mehmed II and died fighting during the final Ottoman attack

See also

• List of Byzantine emperors
• List of condemned Roman emperors
• List of Roman consuls
• List of Roman dictators
• List of Roman usurpers
• Roman Emperors family tree
• Pretenders to the Byzantine throne
• On Weights and Measures –- contains chronology of Roman emperors

Notes

1. Rubicon. Holland, T. Abacus, 978-0349115634
2. Chester G. Starr, A History of the Ancient World, Second Edition. Oxford University Press, 1974. pp. 670–678.
3. Herrin, Judith (2011-03-12). "The Glories of Byzantium". Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. Retrieved 2017-12-10.
4. Asimov, [title?], p. 198.
5. Lee, pp. 163–164.
6. Goldsworthy, pp. 425–440
7. Breeze & Dobson, pp. 251–255
8. Moss, Henry, The Birth of the Middle Ages Clarendon Press (London) 1935; Folio Society reprint (London) 1998; pp. 24-28, 281-284.
9. "Roman Emperors After Theodosius I". Retrieved 30 September 2014.
10. DIR, "Augustus"; Kienast, pp. 61, 63.
11. Kienast, p. 76; DIR, "Tiberius".
12. Kienast, p. 85; DIR, "Gaius (Caligula)".
13. Kienast, p. 90; DIR, "Claudius".
14. Kienast, pp. 96–97.
15. Hammond, p. 24; Kienast, p. 102; DIR, "Galba".
16. Hammond, pp. 24–25; Kienast, p. 105; DIR, "Otho".
17. Kienast, p. 106; DIR, "Vitellius".
18. Cooley, p. 490; Kienast, p. 108; DIR, "Vespasian", "Titus".
19. Hammond, p. 27; Kienast, p. 111; DIR, "Titus".
20. Hammond, p. 27; Kienast, p. 115; DIR, "Domitian".
21. Hammond, p. 27; Kienast, p. 120; DIR, "Nerva".
22. Kienast, p. 122; Hammond, pp. 28, 39; DIR, "Hadrian".
23. DIR, "Hadrian"; Kienast, p. 28; Hammond, p. 29.
24. Kienast, p. 134; Hammond, pp. 30–31.
25. Kienast, pp. 137–138; Hammond, p. 32.
26. Hammond, p. 32.
27. Hammond, pp. 32–33; Kienast, pp. 147–148; DIR, "Commodus".
28. Hammond, p. 33; DIR, "Pertinax".
29. Hammond, p. 33; DIR, "Didius Julianus".
30. Hammond, p. 34; DIR, "Septimius Severus".
31. Hammond, pp. 35, 36; DIR, "Caracalla"; Cooley, p. 475.
32. Kienast, p. 169; DIR, "Macrinus"; Cooley, p. 476.
33. Hammond, pp. 36–37; Kienast, pp. 170–171; DIR, "Macrinus".
34. DIR, "Elagabalus"; Kienast, p. 172; Cooley, p. 476.
35. Cooley, p. 476; DIR, "Alexander Severus".
36. DIR, "Pupienus and Balbinus".
37. Kienast, p. 191; DIR, "Pupienus and Balbinus".
38. DIR, "Pupienus and Balbinus"; Kienast, p. 193.
39. DIR, "Gordian III"; Kienast, p. 195.
40. DIR, "Philip the Arab".
41. DIR, "Decius"; Kienast, p. 204.
42. DIR, "Trebonianus Gallus and Gaius Vibius Volusianus".
43. Kienast, p. 114; Cooley, p. 499.
44. Kienast, p. 221.
45. The chronology for Quintillus's reign is confusing. Most sources say it lasted 17 days, but this may be a corruption of 77 days, which is given explicitly by the Chronograph of 354. His reign must have been long enough to account for the large amount of coins minted (DIR, "Quintillus"). The DIR entries on Claudius and Aurelian also disagree on the date of Claudius's death. The latter and Aurelian's proclamation as emperor are variously dated at May (PLRE I, p. 130) or c. September 270 (Kienast, p. 234).
46. Watson, pp. 110, 225.
47. DIR, "Tacitus".
48. PLRE I, p. 873.
49. DIR, "Florian"; PLRE I, p. 367.
50. PLRE I, p. 183.
51. PLRE I, p. 181.
52. Cooley, p. 501; DIR, "Diocletian".
53. Cooley, p. 501; DIR, "Maximianus Herculius".
54. After Diocletian, the praenomen imperatoris and the name Caesar gradually disappear in inscriptions and coins, and are replaced with the honorific dominus noster. McFayden, p. 67 n. 111; Cooley, p. 502; Keppie, p. 137; Dessau, p. 305. The lists of consuls in Cooley, p. 479, and Degrassi, p. 77 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFDegrassi (help), remove the "Imp. Caesar" in the year 306, with Galerius and Constantius I.
55. PLRE I, pp. 574–575; Cooley, p. 502.
56. Barnes, p. 4; Kienast, p. 280.
57. Kienast, p. 290; DIR, "Severus II".
58. Kienast, p. 291; DIR, "Maxentius".
59. PLRE I, p. 509; DIR, "Licinius".
60. Kienast, pp. 310, 312, 314; Barnes, p. 8.
61. DIR, "Julian the Apostate"; Keppie, p. 137.
62. DIR, Jovian; PLRE I, p. 461.
63. "(138) Leontius". www2.lawrence.edu. Retrieved 2019-04-17.
64. "Justinian II - Byzantine Coinage - WildWinds.com". www.wildwinds.com. Retrieved 2019-04-17.
65. "Philippicus - Byzantine Coinage - WildWinds.com". www.wildwinds.com. Retrieved 2019-04-17.
66. "Anastasius II - Byzantine Coinage - WildWinds.com". www.wildwinds.com. Retrieved 2019-04-17.
67. "Theodosius III - Byzantine Coinage - WildWinds.com". www.wildwinds.com. Retrieved 2019-04-17.

References

• Barnes, Timothy D. (1982). The New Empire of Diocletian and Constantine. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-28066-0.
• David J. Breeze, Brian Dobson Hadrian's Wall 4th Edition, Penguin, 2000, ISBN 0-14-027182-1
• Clive Carpenter, The Guinness Book of Kings Rulers and Statesmen, Guinness Superlatives Ltd, 1978, ISBN 0-900424-46-X
• Cooley, Alison E. (2012). The Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-84026-2.
• Degrassi, Attilio (1952). I fasti consolari dell'impero romano dal 30 avanti Cristo al 613 dopo Cristo (in Italian). Roma.
• Dessau, Hermann, ed. (1916). "Imperatores et Domus Eorum". Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae [ILS]. 3. Berolini apud Weidmannos. pp. 257–315.
• DIR – De Imperatoribus Romanis
• Adrian Goldsworthy, The Fall of the West, Phoenix, 2010, ISBN 978-0-7538-2692-8
• Hammond, Mason (1957). "Imperial Elements in the Formula of the Roman Emperors during the First Two and a Half Centuries of the Empire". Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome. 25: 19–64. JSTOR 4238646.
• Min Lee (editor), Larousse Pockect Guide Kings and Queens, Larousse, 1995 ISBN 0-7523-0032-6
• Keppie, Lawrence (1991). Understanding Roman Inscriptions (PDF). Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 136–137. ISBN 0-8018-4322-7.
• Kienast, Dietmar (1996). Römische Kaisertabelle: Grundzüge einer römischen Kaiserchronologie (in German). Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft. ISBN 3-534-13289-0.
• Mastino, Attilio (1981). Le Titolature di Caracalla e Geta attraverso le iscrizioni (indici) (PDF). Studi di storia antica (in Italian). 5. Bologna: Editrice CLUEB. ISBN 978-88-491-0255-0.
• McFayden, Donald (1920). The History of the Title Imperator under the Roman Empire. University of Chicago Press.
• PLRE I – The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire Volume 1: A.D. 260–395. A.H.M. Jones & J.R. Martindale & J. Morris eds. Cambridge University Press (1971). ISBN 0-521-07233-6.
• Martha Ross, Rulers and Governments of the World, Vol.1 Earliest Times to 1491, Bowker, 1978, ISBN 0-85935-021-5
• Chris Scarre, Brandon Shaw, Chronicle of the Roman Emperors, Thames & Hudson, 1995, Reprinted 2001, ISBN 0-500-05077-5
• R. F. Tapsell, Monarchs Rulers Dynasties and Kingdoms of The World, Thames & Hudson, 1981, Reprinted 1987, ISBN 0-500-27337-5
• Walter E. Kaegi, Heraclius, Emperor of Byzantium, illustrated edition, Cambridge University Press, 2003, ISBN 978-0-521-81459-1
• Watson, Alaric (1999). Aurelian and the Third Century (PDF). London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-07248-4.

External links

• The Imperial Index: The Rulers of the Roman Empire From Augustus to Constantine XI Palaeologus.
• List of the Roman Emperors 27 BC – 395 AD
• List of Roman Emperors
• The Roman Law Library by Yves Lassard and Alexandr Koptev.
• Timeline of Roman Emperors and Empresses