Astronaut

An astronaut or cosmonaut is a person trained by a human spaceflight program to command, pilot, or serve as a crew member of a spacecraft. Although generally reserved for professional space travelers, the terms are sometimes applied to anyone who travels into space, including scientists, politicians, journalists and tourists.[1][2] The root "naut" derives from "nautes", Greek for "sailor." [3]

"Cosmonaut" redirects here. For other uses, see Astronaut (disambiguation) and Cosmonaut (disambiguation).

NASA Astronaut Bruce McCandless II using a Manned Maneuvering Unit outside Space Shuttle Challenger on shuttle mission STS-41-B in 1984.

Until 2002, astronauts were sponsored and trained exclusively by governments, either by the military or by civilian space agencies. With the suborbital flight of the privately funded SpaceShipOne in 2004, a new category of astronaut was created: the commercial astronaut.

Definition
Alan Shepard aboard Freedom 7 (1961)

The criteria for what constitutes human spaceflight vary, with some focus on the point where the atmosphere becomes so thin that centrifugal force, rather than aerodynamic force, carries a significant portion of the weight of the flight object. The Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI) Sporting Code for astronautics recognizes only flights that exceed the Kármán line, at an altitude of 100 kilometers (62 mi).[4] In the United States, professional, military, and commercial astronauts who travel above an altitude of 50 miles (80 km)[5] are awarded astronaut wings.

As of 17 November 2016, a total of 552 people from 36 countries have reached 100 km (62 mi) or more in altitude, of whom 549 reached low Earth orbit or beyond.[6] Of these, 24 people have traveled beyond low Earth orbit, either to lunar orbit, the lunar surface, or, in one case, a loop around the Moon.[7] Three of the 24—Jim Lovell, John Young and Eugene Cernan—did so twice.[8]

As of 17 November 2016, under the U.S. definition, 558 people qualify as having reached space, above 50 miles (80 km) altitude. Of eight X-15 pilots who exceeded 50 miles (80 km) in altitude, only one exceeded 100 kilometers (about 62 miles).[6] Space travelers have spent over 41,790 man-days (114.5 man-years) in space, including over 100 astronaut-days of spacewalks.[9][10] As of 2016, the man with the longest cumulative time in space is Gennady Padalka, who has spent 879 days in space.[11] Peggy A. Whitson holds the record for the most time in space by a woman, 377 days.[12]

Terminology
See also: Astronaut ranks and positions

In 1959, when both the United States and Soviet Union were planning, but had yet to launch humans into space, NASA Administrator T. Keith Glennan and his Deputy Administrator, Dr. Hugh Dryden, discussed whether spacecraft crew members should be called astronauts or cosmonauts. Dryden preferred "cosmonaut", on the grounds that flights would occur in the cosmos (near space), while the "astro" prefix suggested flight to the stars. Most NASA Space Task Group members preferred "astronaut", which survived by common usage as the preferred American term.[13] When the Soviet Union launched the first man into space, Yuri Gagarin in 1961, they chose a term which anglicizes to "cosmonaut".

English
NASA astronaut Ed White.

In English-speaking nations, a professional space traveler is called an astronaut.[14] The term derives from the Greek words ástron (ἄστρον), meaning "star", and nautes (ναύτης), meaning "sailor". The first known use of the term "astronaut" in the modern sense was by Neil R. Jones in his 1930 short story "The Death's Head Meteor". The word itself had been known earlier; for example, in Percy Greg's 1880 book Across the Zodiac, "astronaut" referred to a spacecraft. In Les Navigateurs de l'Infini (1925) by J.-H. Rosny aîné, the word astronautique (astronautic) was used. The word may have been inspired by "aeronaut", an older term for an air traveler first applied in 1784 to balloonists. An early use of "astronaut" in a non-fiction publication is Eric Frank Russell's poem "The Astronaut", appearing in the November 1934 Bulletin of the British Interplanetary Society.[15]

The first known formal use of the term astronautics in the scientific community was the establishment of the annual International Astronautical Congress in 1950, and the subsequent founding of the International Astronautical Federation the following year.[16]

NASA applies the term astronaut to any crew member aboard NASA spacecraft bound for Earth orbit or beyond. NASA also uses the term as a title for those selected to join its Astronaut Corps.[17] The European Space Agency similarly uses the term astronaut for members of its Astronaut Corps.[18]

Russian
The first eleven Soviet cosmonauts, July 1965. Back row, left to right: Leonov, Titov, Bykovsky, Yegorov, Popovich; front row: Komarov, Gagarin, Tereshkova, Nikolayev, Feoktistov, Belyayev.
Main article: Soviet space program
See also: List of cosmonauts

By convention, an astronaut employed by the Russian Federal Space Agency (or its Soviet predecessor) is called a cosmonaut in English texts.[17] The word is an Anglicization of kosmonavt (Russian: космонавт Russian pronunciation: [kəsmɐˈnaft]), one who works in space outside the Earth's atmosphere, a space traveler,[19] which derives from the Ancient Greek words kósmos (κόσμος), meaning "universe", and naútēs (ναύτης), meaning "sailor". Other countries of the former Eastern Bloc use variations of the Russian word космонавт, such as the Polish: kosmonauta (although Polish also uses astronauta, and the two words are considered synonyms).[20]

Coinage of the term космонавт has been credited to Soviet aeronautics (or "cosmonautics") pioneer Mikhail Tikhonravov (1900–1974).[21][22] The first cosmonaut was Soviet Air Force pilot Yuri Gagarin, also the first person in space. He was part of the first six Russians, with German Titov, Yevgeny Khrunov, Andriyan Nikolayev, Pavel Popovich, and Grigoriy Nelyubov, who were given the title of pilot-cosmonaut in January 1961.[23] Valentina Tereshkova was the first female cosmonaut and the first and youngest woman to have flown in space with a solo mission on the Vostok 6 in 1963.[24] On March 14, 1995,[25] Norman Thagard became the first American to ride to space on board a Russian launch vehicle, and thus became the first "American cosmonaut".[26][27]

Chinese
Main article: Chinese space program
See also: List of Chinese astronauts

Yǔ háng yuán (宇航员, "Space-universe navigating personnel") is used for astronauts and cosmonauts in general,[28][29] while hángtiān yuán (航天员, "navigating outer space personnel") is used for Chinese astronauts. Here, hángtiān (航天) is strictly defined as the navigation of outer space within the local star system, i.e. solar system. The phrase tài kōng rén (太空人, "spaceman") is often used in Hong Kong and Taiwan.[30]

The term taikonaut is used by some English-language news media organizations for professional space travelers from China.[31] The word has featured in the Longman and Oxford English dictionaries, the latter of which describes it as a hybrid of the Chinese term Chinese: 太空 (tàikōng, 'space') and the Ancient Greek: ναύτης (naútēs, 'sailor'); the term became more common in 2003 when China sent its first astronaut Yang Liwei into space aboard the Shenzhou 5 spacecraft.[32] This is the term used by Xinhua News Agency in the English version of the Chinese People's Daily since the advent of the Chinese space program.[33] The origin of the term is unclear; as early as May 1998, Chiew Lee Yih (趙裡昱) from Malaysia, used it in newsgroups.[34][35]

Other terms
NASA astronaut Timothy Kopra.

With the rise of space tourism, NASA and the Russian Federal Space Agency agreed to use the term "spaceflight participant" to distinguish those space travelers from professional astronauts on missions coordinated by those two agencies.

While no nation other than Russia (and previously the Soviet Union), the United States, and China have launched a crewed spacecraft, several other nations have sent people into space in cooperation with one of these countries, i.e. the Soviet-led Interkosmos programme. Inspired partly by these missions, other synonyms for astronaut have entered occasional English usage. For example, the term spationaut (French: spationaute) is sometimes used to describe French space travelers, from the Latin word spatium for "space", the Malay term angkasawan was used to describe participants in the Angkasawan program, and the Indian Space Research Organisation hope to launch a spacecraft in 2022 that would carry vyomanauts, coined from the Sanskrit word व्योमन् (vyoman meaning 'sky' or 'space'). In Finland, the NASA astronaut Timothy Kopra, a Finnish American, has sometimes been referred to as sisunautti, from the Finnish word sisu.[36]

As of 2020 in the United States, astronaut status is conferred on a person depending on the authorizing agency:

  • one who flies in a vehicle above 50 miles (80 km) for NASA or the military is considered an astronaut (with no qualifier)
  • one who flies in a vehicle to the International Space Station in a mission coordinated by NASA and Roscosmos is a spaceflight participant
  • one who flies above 50 miles (80 km) in a non-NASA vehicle as a crewmember is considered a commercial astronaut by the Federal Aviation Administration[37]
  • one who flies to the International Space Station as part of a "privately funded, dedicated commercial spaceflight on a commercial launch vehicle dedicated to the mission ... to conduct approved commercial and marketing activities on the space station (or in a commercial segment attached to the station)" is considered a private astronaut by NASA[38] (as of 2020, nobody has yet qualified for this status)
  • a generally-accepted but unofficial term for a paying non-crew passenger who flies a private non-NASA or military vehicles above 50 miles (80 km) is a space tourist (as of 2020, nobody has yet qualified for this status)

Space travel milestones
Yuri Gagarin, first human in space (1961)
Valentina Tereshkova, first woman in space (1963)
Neil Armstrong, first human to walk on the Moon (1969)
Vladimír Remek, a Czechoslovak who became the first non-American and non-Soviet cosmonaut in space (1978)
Yang Liwei, first person sent into space by China (2003)
See also: Spaceflight records and Timeline of space travel by nationality

The first human in space was Soviet Yuri Gagarin, who was launched on April 12, 1961, aboard Vostok 1 and orbited around the Earth for 108 minutes. The first woman in space was Soviet Valentina Tereshkova, who launched on June 16, 1963, aboard Vostok 6 and orbited Earth for almost three days.

Alan Shepard became the first American and second person in space on May 5, 1961, on a 15-minute sub-orbital flight aboard Freedom 7. The first American to orbit the Earth was John Glenn, aboard Friendship 7 on February 20, 1962. The first American woman in space was Sally Ride, during Space Shuttle Challenger's mission STS-7, on June 18, 1983.[39] In 1992 Mae Jemison became the first African American woman to travel in space aboard STS-47.

Cosmonaut Alexei Leonov was the first person to conduct an extravehicular activity (EVA), (commonly called a "spacewalk"), on March 18, 1965, on the Soviet Union's Voskhod 2 mission. This was followed two and a half months later by astronaut Ed White who made the first American EVA on NASA's Gemini 4 mission.[40]

The first manned mission to orbit the Moon, Apollo 8, included American William Anders who was born in Hong Kong, making him the first Asian-born astronaut in 1968.

The Soviet Union, through its Intercosmos program, allowed people from other "socialist" (i.e. Warsaw Pact and other Soviet-allied) countries to fly on its missions, with the notable exceptions of France and Austria participating in Soyuz TM-7 and Soyuz TM-13, respectively. An example is Czechoslovak Vladimír Remek, the first cosmonaut from a country other than the Soviet Union or the United States, who flew to space in 1978 on a Soyuz-U rocket.[41] Rakesh Sharma became the first Indian citizen to travel to space. He was launched aboard Soyuz T-11, on April 2, 1984.

On July 23, 1980, Pham Tuan of Vietnam became the first Asian in space when he flew aboard Soyuz 37.[42] Also in 1980, Cuban Arnaldo Tamayo Méndez became the first person of Hispanic and black African descent to fly in space, and in 1983, Guion Bluford became the first African American to fly into space. In April 1985, Taylor Wang became the first ethnic Chinese person in space.[43][44] The first person born in Africa to fly in space was Patrick Baudry (France), in 1985.[45][46] In 1985, Saudi Arabian Prince Sultan Bin Salman Bin AbdulAziz Al-Saud became the first Arab Muslim astronaut in space.[47] In 1988, Abdul Ahad Mohmand became the first Afghan to reach space, spending nine days aboard the Mir space station.[48]

With the increase of seats on the Space Shuttle, the U.S. began taking international astronauts. In 1983, Ulf Merbold of West Germany became the first non-US citizen to fly in a US spacecraft. In 1984, Marc Garneau became the first of 8 Canadian astronauts to fly in space (through 2010).[49] In 1985, Rodolfo Neri Vela became the first Mexican-born person in space.[50] In 1991, Helen Sharman became the first Briton to fly in space.[51] In 2002, Mark Shuttleworth became the first citizen of an African country to fly in space, as a paying spaceflight participant.[52] In 2003, Ilan Ramon became the first Israeli to fly in space, although he died during a re-entry accident.

On October 15, 2003, Yang Liwei became China's first astronaut on the Shenzhou 5 spacecraft.

On May 30, 2020, Doug Hurley and Bob Behnken became the first astronauts to launch on a private crewed spacecraft, Crew Dragon.

Age milestones

The youngest person to fly in space is Gherman Titov, who was 25 years old when he flew Vostok 2. (Titov was also the first person to suffer space sickness).[53][54] The oldest person who has flown in space is John Glenn, who was 77 when he flew on STS-95.[55]

Duration and distance milestones

438 days is the longest time spent in space, by Russian Valeri Polyakov.[9] As of 2006, the most spaceflights by an individual astronaut is seven, a record held by both Jerry L. Ross and Franklin Chang-Diaz. The farthest distance from Earth an astronaut has traveled was 401,056 km (249,205 mi), when Jim Lovell, Jack Swigert, and Fred Haise went around the Moon during the Apollo 13 emergency.[9]

Civilian and non-government milestones

The first civilian in space was Valentina Tereshkova[56] aboard Vostok 6 (she also became the first woman in space on that mission). Tereshkova was only honorarily inducted into the USSR's Air Force, which did not accept female pilots at that time. A month later, Joseph Albert Walker became the first American civilian in space when his X-15 Flight 90 crossed the 100 kilometers (54 nautical miles) line, qualifying him by the international definition of spaceflight.[57][58] Walker had joined the US Army Air Force but was not a member during his flight. The first people in space who had never been a member of any country's armed forces were both Konstantin Feoktistov and Boris Yegorov aboard Voskhod 1.

The first non-governmental space traveler was Byron K. Lichtenberg, a researcher from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology who flew on STS-9 in 1983.[59] In December 1990, Toyohiro Akiyama became the first paying space traveler as a reporter for Tokyo Broadcasting System, a visit to Mir as part of an estimated $12 million (USD) deal with a Japanese TV station, although at the time, the term used to refer to Akiyama was "Research Cosmonaut".[60][61][62] Akiyama suffered severe space sickness during his mission, which affected his productivity.[61]

The first self-funded space tourist was Dennis Tito on board the Russian spacecraft Soyuz TM-3 on April 28, 2001.

Self-funded travelers
Further information: Space tourism

The first person to fly on an entirely privately funded mission was Mike Melvill, piloting SpaceShipOne flight 15P on a suborbital journey, although he was a test pilot employed by Scaled Composites and not an actual paying space tourist.[63][64] Seven others have paid the Russian Space Agency to fly into space:

  1. Dennis Tito (American): April 28 – May 6, 2001 (ISS)
  2. Mark Shuttleworth (South African): April 25 – May 5, 2002 (ISS)
  3. Gregory Olsen (American): October 1–11, 2005 (ISS)
  4. Anousheh Ansari (Iranian / American): September 18–29, 2006 (ISS)
  5. Charles Simonyi (Hungarian / American): April 7–21, 2007 (ISS), March 26 – April 8, 2009 (ISS)
  6. Richard Garriott (British / American): October 12–24, 2008 (ISS)
  7. Guy Laliberté (Canadian): September 30, 2009 – October 11, 2009 (ISS)

Training
Elliot See during water egress training with NASA (1965)
Main article: Astronaut training
See also: Astronaut ranks and positions

The first NASA astronauts were selected for training in 1959.[65] Early in the space program, military jet test piloting and engineering training were often cited as prerequisites for selection as an astronaut at NASA, although neither John Glenn nor Scott Carpenter (of the Mercury Seven) had any university degree, in engineering or any other discipline at the time of their selection. Selection was initially limited to military pilots.[66][67] The earliest astronauts for both the US and the USSR tended to be jet fighter pilots, and were often test pilots.

Once selected, NASA astronauts go through twenty months of training in a variety of areas, including training for extravehicular activity in a facility such as NASA's Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory.[1][66] Astronauts-in-training (astronaut candidates) may also experience short periods of weightlessness (microgravity) in an aircraft called the "Vomit Comet," the nickname given to a pair of modified KC-135s (retired in 2000 and 2004, respectively, and replaced in 2005 with a C-9) which perform parabolic flights.[65] Astronauts are also required to accumulate a number of flight hours in high-performance jet aircraft. This is mostly done in T-38 jet aircraft out of Ellington Field, due to its proximity to the Johnson Space Center. Ellington Field is also where the Shuttle Training Aircraft is maintained and developed, although most flights of the aircraft are conducted from Edwards Air Force Base.

Astronauts in training must learn how to control and fly the Space Shuttle and, it is vital that they are familiar with the International Space Station so they know what they must do when they get there.[68]

NASA candidacy requirements
Unless otherwise noted, the following data are incorporated from the Astronaut Requirements article by NASA
  • The candidate must be a citizen of the United States.
  • The candidate must complete a master's degree in a STEM field, including engineering, biological science, physical science, computer science or mathematics.
  • The candidate must have at least two years of related professional experience obtained after degree completion or at least 1,000 hours pilot-in-command time on jet aircraft.
  • The candidate must be able to pass the NASA long-duration flight astronaut physical.
  • The candidate must also has skills in leadership, teamwork and communications.

The master's degree requirement can also be met by:

  • Two years of work toward a doctoral program in a related science, technology, engineering or math field.
  • A completed Doctor of Medicine or Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine degree.
  • Completion of a nationally recognized test pilot school program.

Mission Specialist Educator
Main article: Educator Astronaut Project
  • Applicants must have a bachelor's degree with teaching experience, including work at the kindergarten through twelfth grade level. An advanced degree, such as a master's degree or a doctoral degree, is not required, but is strongly desired.[69]

Mission Specialist Educators, or "Educator Astronauts", were first selected in 2004, and as of 2007, there are three NASA Educator astronauts: Joseph M. Acaba, Richard R. Arnold, and Dorothy Metcalf-Lindenburger.[70][71] Barbara Morgan, selected as back-up teacher to Christa McAuliffe in 1985, is considered to be the first Educator astronaut by the media, but she trained as a mission specialist.[72] The Educator Astronaut program is a successor to the Teacher in Space program from the 1980s.[73][74]

Health risks of space travel
Gennady Padalka performing ultrasound on Michael Fincke during ISS Expedition 9.
See also: Effect of spaceflight on the human body and Space medicine

Astronauts are susceptible to a variety of health risks including decompression sickness, barotrauma, immunodeficiencies, loss of bone and muscle, loss of eyesight, orthostatic intolerance, sleep disturbances, and radiation injury.[75][76][77][78][79][80][81][82][83][84] A variety of large scale medical studies are being conducted in space via the National Space and Biomedical Research Institute (NSBRI) to address these issues. Prominent among these is the Advanced Diagnostic Ultrasound in Microgravity Study in which astronauts (including former ISS commanders Leroy Chiao and Gennady Padalka) perform ultrasound scans under the guidance of remote experts to diagnose and potentially treat hundreds of medical conditions in space. This study's techniques are now being applied to cover professional and Olympic sports injuries as well as ultrasound performed by non-expert operators in medical and high school students. It is anticipated that remote guided ultrasound will have application on Earth in emergency and rural care situations, where access to a trained physician is often rare.[85][86][87]

A 2006 Space Shuttle experiment found that Salmonella typhimurium, a bacterium that can cause food poisoning, became more virulent when cultivated in space.[88] More recently, in 2017, bacteria were found to be more resistant to antibiotics and to thrive in the near-weightlessness of space.[89] Microorganisms have been observed to survive the vacuum of outer space.[90][91]

On December 31, 2012, a NASA-supported study reported that human spaceflight may harm the brain and accelerate the onset of Alzheimer's disease.[92][93][94]

In October 2015, the NASA Office of Inspector General issued a health hazards report related to space exploration, including a human mission to Mars.[95][96]

Over the last decade, flight surgeons and scientists at NASA have seen a pattern of vision problems in astronauts on long-duration space missions. The syndrome, known as visual impairment intracranial pressure (VIIP), has been reported in nearly two-thirds of space explorers after long periods spent aboard the International Space Station (ISS).

On November 2, 2017, scientists reported that significant changes in the position and structure of the brain have been found in astronauts who have taken trips in space, based on MRI studies. Astronauts who took longer space trips were associated with greater brain changes.[97][98]

Being in space can be physiologically deconditioning on the body. It can affect the otolith organs and adaptive capabilities of the central nervous system. Zero gravity and cosmic rays can cause many implications for astronauts.[99]

In October 2018, NASA-funded researchers found that lengthy journeys into outer space, including travel to the planet Mars, may substantially damage the gastrointestinal tissues of astronauts. The studies support earlier work that found such journeys could significantly damage the brains of astronauts, and age them prematurely.[100]

Researchers in 2018 reported, after detecting the presence on the International Space Station (ISS) of five Enterobacter bugandensis bacterial strains, none pathogenic to humans, that microorganisms on ISS should be carefully monitored to continue assuring a medically healthy environment for astronauts.[101][102]

A recent study by Russian scientists published in April 2019 stated that astronauts facing space radiation could face temporary hindrance of their memory centres. While this does not affect their intellectual capabilities, it temporarily hinders formation of new cells in brain's memory centers. The study conducted by Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology (MIPT) concluded this after they observed that mice exposed to neutron and gamma radiation did not impact the rodents' intellectual capabilities.[103]

Food and drink
Main article: Space food
Astronauts making and eating hamburgers on board the ISS, August 2007.

An astronaut on the International Space Station requires about 830 g (29 oz) mass of food inclusive of food packaging per meal each day (The packaging mass for each meal is about 120 g or 4.2 oz). Longer-duration missions require more food.

Space Shuttle astronauts worked with nutritionists to select menus that appeal to their individual tastes. Five months before flight, menus are selected and analyzed for nutritional content by the shuttle dietician. Foods are tested to see how they will react in a reduced gravity environment. Caloric requirements are determined using a basal energy expenditure (BEE) formula. On Earth, the average American uses about 35 US gallons (130 L) of water every day. On board the ISS astronauts limit water use to only about three US gallons (11 L) per day.[104]

Insignia
NASA Astronaut lapel pin

In Russia, cosmonauts are awarded Pilot-Cosmonaut of the Russian Federation upon completion of their missions, often accompanied with the award of Hero of the Russian Federation. This follows the practice established in the USSR where cosmonauts were usually awarded the title Hero of the Soviet Union.

At NASA, those who complete astronaut candidate training receive a silver lapel pin. Once they have flown in space, they receive a gold pin. U.S. astronauts who also have active-duty military status receive a special qualification badge, known as the Astronaut Badge, after participation on a spaceflight. The United States Air Force also presents an Astronaut Badge to its pilots who exceed 50 miles (80 km) in altitude.

Deaths
Main article: List of spaceflight-related accidents and incidents § Astronaut fatalities
Space Mirror Memorial

Eighteen astronauts (fourteen men and four women) have lost their lives during four space flights. By nationality, thirteen were American (including one born in India), four were Russian (Soviet Union), and one was Israeli.

Eleven people (all men) have lost their lives training for spaceflight: eight Americans and three Russians. Six of these were in crashes of training jet aircraft, one drowned during water recovery training, and four were due to fires in pure oxygen environments.

The Space Mirror Memorial, which stands on the grounds of the John F. Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex, commemorates the lives of the men and women who have died during spaceflight and during training in the space programs of the United States. In addition to twenty NASA career astronauts, the memorial includes the names of a U.S. Air Force X-15 test pilot, a U.S. Air Force officer who died while training for a then-classified military space program, and a civilian spaceflight participant.

gollark: Hmm... if I flood my hatchlings with views (they should be uninfluenced) I can check...
gollark: Come on, cave, give me a million CB golds or something...
gollark: (I mean broken right after the release, not *still* broken)
gollark: Oh, also broken:permanent ban times
gollark: There's at least:the aftermath of the releasevolcano or whateverthe marketungendered hatchlings

See also

References
  1. NASA (2006). "Astronaut Fact Book" (PDF). National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Archived (PDF) from the original on September 26, 2007. Retrieved October 4, 2007.
  2. Marie MacKay (2005). "Former astronaut visits USU". The Utah Statesman. Archived from the original on September 26, 2008. Retrieved October 4, 2007.
  3. vocabulary.com/dictionary/astronaut
  4. FAI Sporting Code, Section 8, Paragraph 2.18.1
  5. Whelan, Mary (June 5, 2013). "X-15 Space Pioneers Now Honored as Astronauts".
  6. "Astronaut/Cosmonaut Statistics". www.worldspaceflight.com. Retrieved November 17, 2016.
  7. Apollo 13 had to abort an intended lunar landing, and looped around the Moon to return its three astronauts to Earth.
  8. NASA. "NASA's First 100 Human Space Flights". NASA. Archived from the original on August 27, 2007. Retrieved October 4, 2007.
  9. Encyclopedia Astronautica (2007). "Astronaut Statistics – as of 14 November 2008". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Archived from the original on September 30, 2007. Retrieved October 4, 2007.
  10. NASA (2004). "Walking in the Void". NASA. Retrieved October 4, 2007.
  11. Cheng, Kenneth (March 27, 2015). "Breaking Space Records". New York Times. Archived from the original on April 5, 2015. Retrieved June 28, 2015.
  12. NASA. "Peggy A. Whitson (PhD)". Biographical Data. National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Archived from the original on May 9, 2008. Retrieved May 13, 2008.
  13. Dethloff, Henry C. (1993). "Chapter 2: The Commitment to Space". Suddenly Tomorrow Came... A History of the Johnson Space Center. National Aeronautics and Space Administration. pp. 23–24. ISBN 978-1502753588.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
  14. "TheSpaceRace.com – Glossary of Space Exploration Terminology". Archived from the original on January 5, 2008. Retrieved December 28, 2008.
  15. Ingham, John L.: Into Your Tent, Plantech (2010): page 82.
  16. IAF (August 16, 2010). "IAF History". International Astronautical Federation. Archived from the original on July 19, 2011. Retrieved August 16, 2010.
  17. Dismukes, Kim – NASA Biography Page Curator (December 15, 2005). "Astronaut Biographies". Johnson Space Center, NASA. Archived from the original on March 7, 2007. Retrieved March 6, 2007.
  18. ESA (April 10, 2008). "The European Astronaut Corps". ESA. Archived from the original on December 20, 2008. Retrieved December 28, 2008.
  19. Kotlyakov, Vladimir; Komarova, Anna (2006). Elsevier's Dictionary of Geography: in English, Russian, French, Spanish and German. Elsevier. p. 49. ISBN 978-0-08-048878-3.
  20. Katarzyna Kłosińska, University of Warsaw (December 16, 2016). "Astronauta a kosmonauta". PWN. Retrieved April 6, 2019.
  21. Brzezinski, Matthew (2007). Red Moon Rising: Sputnik and the Hidden Rivalries That Ignited the Space Age. New York: Henry Holt & Co. p. 108. ISBN 978-0-8050-8147-3.
  22. Mike Gruntman (2004). Blazing the Trail: The Early History of Spacecraft and Rocketry. Reston, VA: AIAA. p. 326. ISBN 9781563477058.
  23. Hall, Rex D.; David, Shayler; Vis, Bert (October 5, 2007). Russia's Cosmonauts: Inside the Yuri Gagarin Training Center. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 9780387739755.
  24. Knapton, Sarah (September 17, 2015). "Russia forgot to send toothbrush with first woman in space". ISSN 0307-1235. Retrieved June 16, 2019.
  25. McDonald, Sue (December 1998). Mir Mission Chronicle: November 1994 – August 1996 (PDF). NASA. pp. 52–53. NASA/TP-98-207890.
  26. "Illustrious alumnus: Former astronaut Thagard recounts thrills of spaceflight". www.utsouthwestern.edu. Utsouthwestern.edu. October 4, 2017.
  27. "Astronaut-Physician Counting Down to Blastoff Aboard Russian Craft : Shuttle: Dr. Norman Thagard will become the first American to leave the Earth aboard a Soyuz rocket. Mission will take them to the Mir space station". Los Angeles Times. January 22, 1995.
  28. "Ян Ливэй – первый китайский космонавт, совершивший первый в Китае пилотируемый космический полет" [Yang Liwei, the first Chinese astronaut who has made China's first manned space flight] (in Russian). fmprc.gov.cn. October 13, 2005. Archived from the original on September 29, 2007. Retrieved October 4, 2007.
  29. "Chinese embassy in Russia press-release" (in Russian). ru.china-embassy.org. Archived from the original on September 27, 2007. Retrieved October 4, 2007.
  30. "太空人 : astronaut... : tài kōng rén – Definition – Mandarin Chinese Pinyin English Dictionary – Yabla Chinese".
  31. "Chinese taikonaut dismisses environment worries about new space launch center". China View. January 26, 2008. Archived from the original on October 3, 2008. Retrieved September 25, 2008.
  32. ""Taikonauts" a sign of China's growing global influence". China View. September 25, 2008. Archived from the original on September 28, 2008. Retrieved September 25, 2008.
  33. Xinhua (2008). "Chinese taikonaut debuts spacewalk". People's Daily Online. Archived from the original on September 30, 2008. Retrieved September 28, 2008.
  34. Chiew, Lee Yih (May 19, 1998). "Google search of "taikonaut" sort by date". Usenet posting. Chiew Lee Yih. Retrieved September 27, 2008.
  35. Chiew, Lee Yih (March 10, 1996). "Chiew Lee Yih misspelled "taikonaut" 2 years before it first appear". Usenet posting. Chiew Lee Yih. Retrieved September 27, 2008.
  36. MTV Uutiset (November 1, 2009). ""Sisunautti" haaveilee uudesta Suomen-matkasta". MTV3. Retrieved April 10, 2018.
  37. "Commercial Astronaut Wings Program". United States Department of Transportation. Office of Commercial Space Transportation. Retrieved July 16, 2019.
  38. Elburn, Darcy. "Private Astronaut Missions". nasa.gov. National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Retrieved July 16, 2019.
  39. NASA (2006). "Sally K. Ride, PhD Biography". NASA. Archived from the original on October 16, 2007. Retrieved October 4, 2007.
  40. "Educator Features: Going Out for a Walk". NASA. Retrieved November 27, 2015.
  41. Encyclopedia Astronautica (2007). "Vladimir Remek Czech Pilot Cosmonaut". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Archived from the original on October 13, 2007. Retrieved October 4, 2007.
  42. Encyclopedia Astronautica (2007). "Salyut 6 EP-7". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Archived from the original on September 30, 2007. Retrieved October 4, 2007.
  43. NASA (1985). "Taylor G. Wang Biography". NASA. Archived from the original on September 19, 2007. Retrieved October 4, 2007.
  44. Encyclopedia Astronautica (2007). "Taylor Wang". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Archived from the original on August 27, 2007. Retrieved October 4, 2007.
  45. Encyclopedia Astronautica (2007). "Tamayo-Mendez". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Archived from the original on September 30, 2007. Retrieved October 4, 2007.
  46. Encyclopedia Astronautica (2007). "Baudry". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Archived from the original on October 13, 2007. Retrieved October 4, 2007.
  47. NASA (2006). "Sultan Bin Salman Al-Saud Biography". NASA. Archived from the original on May 25, 2011. Retrieved May 1, 2011.
  48. Joachim Wilhelm Josef Becker and Heinz Hermann Janssen (2007). "Biographies of International Astronauts". Space Facts. Archived from the original on August 12, 2007. Retrieved August 11, 2007.
  49. media, Government of Canada, Canadian Space Agency, Directions of communications, Information services and new. "Space Missions".
  50. NASA (1985). "Rodolfo Neri Vela (PhD) Biography". NASA. Archived from the original on October 27, 2007. Retrieved October 4, 2007.
  51. BBC News (May 18, 1991). "1991: Sharman becomes first Briton in space". BBC News. Archived from the original on September 5, 2007. Retrieved October 4, 2007.
  52. africaninspace.com (2002). "First African in Space". HBD. Archived from the original on October 13, 2007. Retrieved October 4, 2007.
  53. BBC News (August 6, 2007). "1961: Russian cosmonaut spends day in space". BBC News. Retrieved October 4, 2007.
  54. Robyn Dixon (September 22, 2000). "Obituaries—Gherman S. Titov; Cosmonaut Was Second Man to Orbit Earth". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved February 4, 2015.
  55. "John Herschel Glenn, Jr. (Colonel, USMC, Ret.) NASA Astronaut". NASA. 2007. Archived from the original on October 14, 2007. Retrieved October 4, 2007.
  56. "Valentina Vladimirovna TERESHKOVA". Archived from the original on April 23, 2011.
  57. "Civilians in Space".
  58. "Space.com Joseph A Walker".
  59. NASA (2002). "Byron K. Lichtenberg Biography". NASA. Archived from the original on September 19, 2007. Retrieved October 4, 2007.
  60. Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum (2007). "Paying for a Ride". Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum. Archived from the original on October 26, 2007. Retrieved October 4, 2007.
  61. BBC News (1990). "Mir Space Station 1986–2001". BBC News. Retrieved October 4, 2007.
  62. Spacefacts (1990). "Akiyama". Spacefacts. Archived from the original on September 30, 2007. Retrieved October 4, 2007.
  63. Leonard David (2004). "Pilot Announced on Eve of Private Space Mission". Space.com. Archived from the original on February 13, 2006. Retrieved October 4, 2007.
  64. Royce Carlton Inc (2007). "Michael Melvill, First Civilian Astronaut, SpaceShipOne". Royce Carlton Inc. Archived from the original on October 11, 2007. Retrieved October 4, 2007.
  65. NASA (2006). "Astronaut Candidate Training". NASA. Archived from the original on August 19, 2007. Retrieved October 4, 2007.
  66. NASA (1995). "Selection and Training of Astronauts". NASA. Archived from the original on February 15, 1997. Retrieved October 4, 2007.
  67. Nolen, Stephanie (2002). Promised The Moon: The Untold Story of the First Women in the Space Race. Toronto: Penguin Canada. p. 235. ISBN 978-0-14-301347-1.
  68. "NASA – Astronauts in Training". www.nasa.gov. Denise Miller: MSFC. Retrieved April 3, 2018.CS1 maint: others (link)
  69. NASA (2007). "NASA Opens Applications for New Astronaut Class". NASA. Archived from the original on September 27, 2007. Retrieved October 4, 2007.
  70. NASA (2004). "'Next Generation of Explorers' Named". NASA. Retrieved October 4, 2007.
  71. NASA (2004). "NASA's New Astronauts Meet The Press". NASA. Retrieved October 4, 2007.
  72. NASA (2007). "Barbara Radding Morgan – NASA Astronaut biography". NASA. Archived from the original on October 2, 2007. Retrieved October 4, 2007.
  73. Tariq Malik (2007). "NASA Assures That Teachers Will Fly in Space". Space.com. Archived from the original on November 25, 2006. Retrieved October 4, 2007.
  74. NASA (2005). "Educator Astronaut Program". NASA. Archived from the original on May 16, 2008. Retrieved October 4, 2007.
  75. Chang, Kenneth (January 27, 2014). "Beings Not Made for Space". The New York Times. Retrieved January 27, 2014.
  76. Mann, Adam (July 23, 2012). "Blindness, Bone Loss, and Space Farts: Astronaut Medical Oddities". Wired. Retrieved July 23, 2012.
  77. Mader, T. H.; et al. (2011). "Optic Disc Edema, Globe Flattening, Choroidal Folds, and Hyperopic Shifts Observed in Astronauts after Long-duration Space Flight". Ophthalmology. 118 (10): 2058–2069. doi:10.1016/j.ophtha.2011.06.021. PMID 21849212.
  78. Puiu, Tibi (November 9, 2011). "Astronauts' vision severely affected during long space missions". zmescience.com. Retrieved February 9, 2012.
  79. "Male Astronauts Return With Eye Problems (video)". CNN News. February 9, 2012. Retrieved April 25, 2012.
  80. Space Staff (March 13, 2012). "Spaceflight Bad for Astronauts' Vision, Study Suggests". Space.com. Retrieved March 14, 2012.
  81. Kramer, Larry A.; et al. (March 13, 2012). "Orbital and Intracranial Effects of Microgravity: Findings at 3-T MR Imaging". Radiology. 263 (3): 819–827. doi:10.1148/radiol.12111986. PMID 22416248. Retrieved March 14, 2012.
  82. "Soviet cosmonauts burnt their eyes in space for USSR's glory". Pravda.Ru. December 17, 2008. Retrieved April 25, 2012.
  83. Fong, MD, Kevin (February 12, 2014). "The Strange, Deadly Effects Mars Would Have on Your Body". Wired. Retrieved February 12, 2014.
  84. Howell, Elizabeth (November 3, 2017). "Brain Changes in Space Could Be Linked to Vision Problems in Astronauts". Seeker. Retrieved November 3, 2017.
  85. NASA – Advanced Diagnostic Ultrasound in Microgravity Archived October 29, 2009, at the Wayback Machine
  86. Rao, S.; van Holsbeeck, L.; Musial, J. L.; Parker, A.; Bouffard, J. A.; Bridge, P.; Jackson, M.; Dulchavsky, S. A. (2008). "A Pilot Study of Comprehensive Ultrasound Education at the Wayne State University School of Medicine". Journal of Ultrasound in Medicine. 27: 745–749. doi:10.7863/jum.2008.27.5.745. PMID 18424650. Archived from the original on July 13, 2010.
  87. Evaluation of Shoulder Integrity in Space: First Report of Musculoskeletal US on the International Space Station: http://radiology.rsna.org/content/234/2/319.abstract
  88. Caspermeyer, Joe (September 23, 2007). "Space flight shown to alter ability of bacteria to cause disease". Arizona State University. Retrieved September 14, 2017.
  89. Dvorsky, George (September 13, 2017). "Alarming Study Indicates Why Certain Bacteria Are More Resistant to Drugs in Space". Gizmodo. Retrieved September 14, 2017.
  90. Dose, K.; Bieger-Dose, A.; Dillmann, R.; Gill, M.; Kerz, O.; Klein, A.; Meinert, H.; Nawroth, T.; Risi, S.; Stridde, C. (1995). "ERA-experiment "space biochemistry"" (PDF). Advances in Space Research. 16 (8): 119–129. Bibcode:1995AdSpR..16..119D. doi:10.1016/0273-1177(95)00280-R. PMID 11542696.
  91. Horneck G.; Eschweiler, U.; Reitz, G.; Wehner, J.; Willimek, R.; Strauch, K. (1995). "Biological responses to space: results of the experiment "Exobiological Unit" of ERA on EURECA I". Adv. Space Res. 16 (8): 105–18. Bibcode:1995AdSpR..16..105H. doi:10.1016/0273-1177(95)00279-N. PMID 11542695.
  92. Cherry, Jonathan D.; Frost, Jeffrey L.; Lemere, Cynthia A.; Williams, Jacqueline P.; Olschowka, John A.; O'Banion, M. Kerry; Liu, Bin (2012). Feinstein, Douglas L (ed.). "Galactic Cosmic Radiation Leads to Cognitive Impairment and Increased Aβ Plaque Accumulation in a Mouse Model of Alzheimer's Disease". PLoS ONE. 7 (12): e53275. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...753275C. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0053275. PMC 3534034. PMID 23300905.
  93. Staff (January 1, 2013). "Study Shows that Space Travel is Harmful to the Brain and Could Accelerate Onset of Alzheimer's". SpaceRef. Retrieved January 7, 2013.
  94. Cowing, Keith (January 3, 2013). "Important Research Results NASA Is Not Talking About (Update)". NASA Watch. Retrieved January 7, 2013.
  95. Dunn, Marcia (October 29, 2015). "Report: NASA needs better handle on health hazards for Mars". AP News. Retrieved October 30, 2015.
  96. Staff (October 29, 2015). "NASA's Efforts to Manage Health and Human Performance Risks for Space Exploration (IG-16-003)" (PDF). NASA. Retrieved October 29, 2015.
  97. Roberts, Donna R.; et al. (November 2, 2017). "Effects of Spaceflight on Astronaut Brain Structure as Indicated on MRI". New England Journal of Medicine. 377 (18): 1746–1753. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1705129. PMID 29091569.
  98. Foley, Katherine Ellen (November 3, 2017). "Astronauts who take long trips to space return with brains that have floated to the top of their skulls". Quartz. Retrieved November 3, 2017.
  99. YOUNG, LAURENCE R. (May 1, 1999). "Artificial Gravity Considerations for a Mars Exploration Mission". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 871 (1 OTOLITH FUNCT): 367–378. Bibcode:1999NYASA.871..367Y. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1999.tb09198.x. ISSN 1749-6632.
  100. Griffin, Andrew (October 2, 2018). "Travelling to Mars and deep into space could kill astronauts by destroying their guts, finds Nasa-funded study – Previous work has shown that astronauts could age prematurely and have damaged brain tissue after long journeys". The Independent. Retrieved October 2, 2018.
  101. BioMed Central (November 22, 2018). "ISS microbes should be monitored to avoid threat to astronaut health". EurekAlert!. Retrieved November 25, 2018.
  102. Singh, Nitin K.; et al. (November 23, 2018). "Multi-drug resistant Enterobacter bugandensis species isolated from the International Space Station and comparative genomic analyses with human pathogenic strains". BMC Microbiology. 18: 175. doi:10.1186/s12866-018-1325-2. PMC 6251167. PMID 30466389.
  103. "Radiation can impact astronauts' memory temporarily: Here's all you need to know | Health Tips and News". www.timesnownews.com. Retrieved April 10, 2019.
  104. "Human Needs: Sustaining Life During Exploration". www.nasa.gov.
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.