Cerrado languages
The Cerrado languages (also referred to as Amazonian Jê[1]:549) are a branch of the Jê languages constituted by the Goyaz Jê languages and Akuwẽ (Central Jê).[2]:14–5
| Cerrado | |
|---|---|
| Geographic distribution | Tocantins, Pará, Maranhão, formerly Piauí, Bahia, Minas Gerais, Goiás, Mato Grosso do Sul, São Paulo |
| Linguistic classification | Macro-Jê
|
| Subdivisions | |
Sound changes from Proto-Jê to Proto-Cerrado
The occurrence of the consonant */g/ in Proto-Cerrado (as in */g/õt ‘to sleep’, */g/õ ‘to give’, */g/aj’ ‘you’) is believed to be an innovation; it has been claimed to have been inserted in onsetless stressed syllables.[2]:85
The Proto-Cerrado diphthongs *wa and *ja are believed to continue Proto-Jê monophthongs, which have been reconstructed as *ô and *ê₂. Other vowels which have been claimed to have innovated in Proto-Cerrado are:[2]:88
- *ô (goes back to an unrounded vowel, reconstructed as Proto-Jê *ə̂₁);
- *u (a merger of earlier *u₁ and *u₂, distinguished in the Southern Jê languages as o and u, respectively);
- *ũ (a merger of earlier *ũ₁ and *ũ₂, distinguished as ũ and ỹ in Kaingang and as ũ and õ in Laklãnõ);
- *ə̃ (a merger of earlier *ə̃ and *ỹ, distinguished as ỹ and ĩ in Kaingang and as õ and ẽ in Laklãnõ);
- all vowels in the Proto-Jê unstressed syllables of the shape *pV- were neutralized in the Cerrado languages: Proto-Cerrado *pᵊ- (> Proto-Goyaz Jê *py-/*pu-, Proto-Akuwẽ *pi-).
Sound changes from Proto-Cerrado to the daughter languages
Onsets
The simple onset inventory of Proto-Cerrado is */p m w t n ɾ c ɲ j k ŋ g/, and the only complex onsets are */pɾ mɾ kɾ ŋɾ/.[3]:158–63
Their reflexes in the daughter branches are shown below.[2]
| Proto-Cerrado | Proto-Goyaz Jê | Proto-Akuwẽ | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| oral nucleus | nasal nucleus | oral nucleus | nasal nucleus | oral nucleus (Proto-Cerrado non-high vowel) |
oral nucleus (Proto-Cerrado high vowel) |
before a diphthong | nasal nucleus |
| *p */p/ | *p */p/ | *p */p/ | *b */b/ | N/A | *m */b/ | ||
| *mb */m/ | *m */m/ | *mb */m/ | *m */m/ | ||||
| *pr */pɾ/ | *pr */pɾ/ | *pr */pɾ/ | N/A | *mr */bɾ/ | |||
| *mbr */mɾ/ | *mr */mɾ/ | *mbr */mɾ/ | *mr */mɾ/ | N/A | |||
| *w */w/ | *b */b/ | *w */w/ | |||||
| *t */t/ | *t */t/ | *t */t/ | *d */d/ | *∅ | *n */d/ | ||
| *nd */n/ | *n */n/ | *nd */n/ | *n */n/ | N/A | |||
| *r */ɾ/ | *r */ɾ/ | *r */ɾ/ | *∅ | *r */ɾ/ | |||
| *c */c/ | *c */c/ | *c */c/ | *ĵ */ɟ/, *h */h/ (before *i) | *∅ | *c */c/ | ||
| *nĵ */ɲ/ | N/A | *nĵ */ɲ/ | N/A | N/A | |||
| *j */j/ | *ñ */j/ | *ĵ (stressed)/*j (unstressed) */ĵ/ | *ñ */ĵ/ | *ĵ */ĵ/, *c */c/ (before *i) | *k */k/ | *ñ */ĵ/ | |
| *k */k/ | *k */k/ | *k */k/ (unstressed *ka- > *wa-) |
*h */h/ | *∅ | *k */k/ | ||
| *ŋg */ŋ/ | *ŋ */ŋ/ | *ŋg */ŋ/ | *ŋ */ŋ/ | N/A | |||
| *kr */kɾ/ | *kr */kɾ/ | *kr */kɾ/ | *kr */kɾ/ | ||||
| *ŋgr */ŋɾ/ | *ŋr */ŋɾ/ | *ŋgr */ŋɾ/ | *ŋr */ŋɾ/ | N/A | |||
| *g */g/ | *g */g/ | *ŋ */g/ | *g */g/ | N/A | |||
Nuclei
The inventory of the Proto-Cerrado monophthongs is reconstructed as follows.
| oral | nasal | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *i */i/ | *y */ɨ/ | *u */u/ | *ĩ */ĩ/ | *ỹ */ɨ̃/ | ||
| *ê */e/ | *ə̂ */ɘ/ | *ô */o/ | ||||
| *e */ɛ/ | *ə */ɜ/ | *o */ɔ/ | *ẽ */ɛ̃/ | *ə̃ */ɜ̃/ | *õ */ɔ̃/ | |
| *a */a/ | ||||||
In addition, two diphthongs can be reconstructed, */wa/ and */ja/.
The following table shows the usual reflexes of the Proto-Cerrado nuclei in Proto-Goyaz Jê and in Proto-Akuwẽ. The latter group shows a chain vowel shift known as the Akuwẽ/Central Jê vowel shift.[4]:61[5]:164
| Proto-Cerrado | Proto-Goyaz Jê | Proto-Akuwẽ |
|---|---|---|
| *a */a/ | *a */a/, *ã */ã/ (before *-m’) | *a */a/ |
| *ə */ɜ/ | *ə */ɜ/ | *e */ɛ/, *ê */e/ (before a dental coda) |
| *ə̂ */ɘ/ | *ə̂ */ɘ/ | |
| *y */ɨ/ | *y */ɨ/, *ə */ɜ/ (after a velar onset), *ỹ */ɨ̃/ (before *-m’) | *ə */ə/ |
| *o */ɔ/ | *o */ɔ/ | *o */ɔ/ |
| *ô */o/ | *ô */o/ | *u */u/ |
| *u */u/ | *u */u/, *ũ */ũ/ (before *-m’) | |
| *wa */wa/ | *wa */wa/, *û */ua/, *wə̂ */wɘ/ (in closed syllables) | *wa */wa/ |
| *e */ɛ/ | *e */ɛ/ | *ê */e/ |
| *ê */e/ | *ê */e/ | *i */i/ |
| *i */i/ | *i */i/ | |
| *ja */ja/ | *jê */je/, *î */ia/ | *ĵa */ɟa/ |
| *ə̃ */ɜ̃/ | *ə̃ */ɜ̃/ | *ə̃ */ə̃/ |
| *ỹ */ɨ̃/ | *ỹ */ɨ̃/ | |
| *õ */ɔ̃/ | *õ */ɔ̃/ | *õ */ɔ̃/ |
| *ẽ */ɛ̃/ | *ẽ */ɛ̃/ | *ẽ */ɛ̃/ |
| *ĩ */ĩ/ | *ĩ */ĩ/ | *ĩ */ĩ/ |
Codas
References
- Ribeiro, Eduardo Rivail; Voort, Hein van der (2010). "Nimuendajú was right: the inclusion of the Jabutí language family in the Macro-Jê stock" (PDF). International Journal of American Linguistics. 76 (4): 517–70.
- Nikulin, Andrey (2020). Proto-Macro-Jê: um estudo reconstrutivo (PDF) (Ph.D. dissertation). Brasília: Universidade de Brasília.
- Nikulin, Andrey (2017). "A phonological reconstruction of Proto-Cerrado (Jê family)". Journal of Language Relationship. 15 (3): 147–80. doi:10.31826/jlr-2018-153-404.
- Oliveira, Christiane Cunha de (February 2014). The Language of the Apinajé People of Central Brazil (PDF) (Ph.D. dissertation). Eugene, OR: University of Oregon.
- Nikulin, Andrey (2017). "A phonological reconstruction of Proto-Cerrado (Jê family)". Journal of Language Relationship. 15 (3): 147–180. doi:10.31826/jlr-2018-153-404.