Nuclear disarmament

Nuclear disarmament is the act of reducing or eliminating nuclear weapons. It can also be the end state of a nuclear-weapons-free world, in which nuclear weapons are completely eliminated. The term denuclearization is also used to describe the process leading to complete nuclear disarmament.[2][3]

See also: Anti-nuclear movement
The peace symbol (☮) was the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament symbol, designed by Gerald Holtom in 1958.[1]
Nuclear weapons
Background
Nuclear-armed states
NPT recognized
United States
Russia
United Kingdom
France
China
Others
India
Israel (undeclared)
Pakistan
North Korea
Former
South Africa
Belarus
Kazakhstan
Ukraine

Nuclear disarmament groups include the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament, Peace Action, Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs, Greenpeace, Soka Gakkai International, International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War, Mayors for Peace, Global Zero, the International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons, and the Nuclear Age Peace Foundation. There have been many large anti-nuclear demonstrations and protests. On June 12, 1982, one million people demonstrated in New York City's Central Park against nuclear weapons and for an end to the cold war arms race. It was the largest anti-nuclear protest and the largest political demonstration in American history.[4][5]

In recent years, some U.S. elder statesmen have also advocated nuclear disarmament. Sam Nunn, William Perry, Henry Kissinger, and George Shultz have called upon governments to embrace the vision of a world free of nuclear weapons, and in various op-ed columns have proposed an ambitious program of urgent steps to that end. The four have created the Nuclear Security Project to advance this agenda. Organisations such as Global Zero, an international non-partisan group of 300 world leaders dedicated to achieving nuclear disarmament, have also been established.

Proponents of nuclear disarmament say that it would lessen the probability of nuclear war occurring, especially accidentally. Critics of nuclear disarmament say that it would undermine deterrence.

History
The mushroom cloud over Hiroshima after the dropping of the atomic bomb nicknamed 'Little Boy' (Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945).
Mushroom-shaped cloud and water column from the underwater nuclear explosion of July 25, 1946, which was part of Operation Crossroads.
November 1951 nuclear test at the Nevada Test Site, from Operation Buster, with a yield of 21 kilotons. It was the first U.S. nuclear field exercise conducted on land; troops shown are 6 mi (9.7 km) from the blast.

In 1945 in the New Mexico desert, American scientists conducted "Trinity," the first nuclear weapons test, marking the beginning of the atomic age.[6] Even before the Trinity test, national leaders debated the impact of nuclear weapons on domestic and foreign policy. Also involved in the debate about nuclear weapons policy was the scientific community, through professional associations such as the Federation of Atomic Scientists and the Pugwash Conference on Science and World Affairs.[7]

On August 6, 1945, towards the end of World War II, the "Little Boy" device was detonated over the Japanese city of Hiroshima. Exploding with a yield equivalent to 12,500 tonnes of TNT, the blast and thermal wave of the bomb destroyed nearly 50,000 buildings (including the headquarters of the 2nd General Army and Fifth Division) and killed 70,000–80,000 people outright, with total deaths being around 90,000–146,000.[8] Detonation of the "Fat Man" device exploded over the Japanese city of Nagasaki three days later on 9 August 1945, destroying 60% of the city and killing 35,000–40,000 people outright, though up to 40,000 additional deaths may have occurred over some time after that.[9][10] Subsequently, the world’s nuclear weapons stockpiles grew.[6]

Operation Crossroads was a series of nuclear weapon tests conducted by the United States at Bikini Atoll in the Pacific Ocean in the summer of 1946. Its purpose was to test the effect of nuclear weapons on naval ships. Pressure to cancel Operation Crossroads came from scientists and diplomats. Manhattan Project scientists argued that further nuclear testing was unnecessary and environmentally dangerous. A Los Alamos study warned "the water near a recent surface explosion will be a 'witch's brew' of radioactivity". To prepare the atoll for the nuclear tests, Bikini's native residents were evicted from their homes and resettled on smaller, uninhabited islands where they were unable to sustain themselves.[11]

Radioactive fallout from nuclear weapons testing was first drawn to public attention in 1954 when a hydrogen bomb test in the Pacific contaminated the crew of the Japanese fishing boat Lucky Dragon.[12] One of the fishermen died in Japan seven months later. The incident caused widespread concern around the world and "provided a decisive impetus for the emergence of the anti-nuclear weapons movement in many countries".[12] The anti-nuclear weapons movement grew rapidly because for many people the atomic bomb "encapsulated the very worst direction in which society was moving".[13]

Nuclear disarmament movement
1952 World Peace Council congress in East Berlin showing Picasso's peace dove above the stage
Women Strike for Peace during the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962
English version of the Smiling Sun - Symbol of the anti-nuclear movement
Demonstration in Lyon, France in the 1980s against nuclear weapons tests
On 12 December 1982, 30,000 women held hands around the 6-mile (9.7 km) perimeter of the RAF Greenham Common base to protest the decision to site American cruise missiles there.
See also: History of the anti-nuclear movement and List of peace activists

Peace movements emerged in Japan and in 1954 they converged to form a unified "Japanese Council Against Atomic and Hydrogen Bombs". Japanese opposition to the Pacific nuclear weapons tests was widespread, and "an estimated 35 million signatures were collected on petitions calling for bans on nuclear weapons".[13] In the United Kingdom, the first Aldermaston March organised by the Direct Action Committee and supported by the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament took place on Easter 1958, when several thousand people marched for four days from Trafalgar Square, London, to the Atomic Weapons Research Establishment close to Aldermaston in Berkshire, England, to demonstrate their opposition to nuclear weapons.[14][15] CND organised Aldermaston marches into the late 1960s when tens of thousands of people took part in the four-day events.[13]

On November 1, 1961, at the height of the Cold War, about 50,000 women brought together by Women Strike for Peace marched in 60 cities in the United States to demonstrate against nuclear weapons. It was the largest national women's peace protest of the 20th century.[16][17]

In 1958, Linus Pauling and his wife presented the United Nations with the petition signed by more than 11,000 scientists calling for an end to nuclear-weapon testing. The "Baby Tooth Survey," headed by Dr Louise Reiss, demonstrated conclusively in 1961 that above-ground nuclear testing posed significant public health risks in the form of radioactive fallout spread primarily via milk from cows that had ingested contaminated grass.[18][19][20] Public pressure and the research results subsequently led to a moratorium on above-ground nuclear weapons testing, followed by the Partial Test Ban Treaty, signed in 1963 by John F. Kennedy and Nikita Khrushchev.[21] On the day that the treaty went into force, the Nobel Prize Committee awarded Pauling the Nobel Peace Prize, describing him as "Linus Carl Pauling, who ever since 1946 has campaigned ceaselessly, not only against nuclear weapons tests, not only against the spread of these armaments, not only against their very use, but against all warfare as a means of solving international conflicts."[7][22] Pauling started the International League of Humanists in 1974. He was president of the scientific advisory board of the World Union for Protection of Life and also one of the signatories of the Dubrovnik-Philadelphia Statement.

In the 1980s, a movement for nuclear disarmament again gained strength in the light of the weapons build-up and statements of US President Ronald Reagan. Reagan had "a world free of nuclear weapons" as his personal mission,[23][24][25] and was largely scorned for this in Europe.[25] Reagan was able to start discussions on nuclear disarmament with Soviet Union.[25] He changed the name "SALT" (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks) to "START" (Strategic Arms Reduction Talks).[24]

On June 3, 1981, William Thomas launched the White House Peace Vigil in Washington, D.C..[26] He was later joined on the vigil by anti-nuclear activists Concepcion Picciotto and Ellen Benjamin.[27]

On June 12, 1982, one million people demonstrated in New York City's Central Park against nuclear weapons and for an end to the cold war arms race. It was the largest anti-nuclear protest and the largest political demonstration in American history.[4][5] International Day of Nuclear Disarmament protests were held on June 20, 1983 at 50 sites across the United States.[28][29] In 1986, hundreds of people walked from Los Angeles to Washington, D.C. in the Great Peace March for Global Nuclear Disarmament.[30] There were many Nevada Desert Experience protests and peace camps at the Nevada Test Site during the 1980s and 1990s.[31][32]

On May 1, 2005, 40,000 anti-nuclear/anti-war protesters marched past the United Nations in New York, 60 years after the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.[33][34][35] In 2008, 2009, and 2010, there have been protests about, and campaigns against, several new nuclear reactor proposals in the United States.[36][37][38]

There is an annual protest against U.S. nuclear weapons research at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in California and in the 2007 protest, 64 people were arrested.[39] There have been a series of protests at the Nevada Test Site and in the April 2007 Nevada Desert Experience protest, 39 people were cited by police.[40] There have been anti-nuclear protests at Naval Base Kitsap for many years, and several in 2008.[41][42][43]

In 2017, the International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize "for its work to draw attention to the catastrophic humanitarian consequences of any use of nuclear weapons and for its ground-breaking efforts to achieve a treaty-based prohibition of such weapons".[44]

World Peace Council

One of the earliest peace organisations to emerge after the Second World War was the World Peace Council,[45][46][47] which was directed by the Communist Party of the Soviet Union through the Soviet Peace Committee. Its origins lay in the Communist Information Bureau's (Cominform) doctrine, put forward 1947, that the world was divided between peace-loving progressive forces led by the Soviet Union and warmongering capitalist countries led by the United States. In 1949, Cominform directed that peace "should now become the pivot of the entire activity of the Communist Parties", and most western Communist parties followed this policy.[48] Lawrence Wittner, a historian of the post-war peace movement, argues that the Soviet Union devoted great efforts to the promotion of the WPC in the early post-war years because it feared an American attack and American superiority of arms[49] at a time when the USA possessed the atom bomb but the Soviet Union had not yet developed it.[50]

In 1950, the WPC launched its Stockholm Appeal[51] calling for the absolute prohibition of nuclear weapons. The campaign won support, collecting, it is said, 560 million signatures in Europe, most from socialist countries, including 10 million in France (including that of the young Jacques Chirac), and 155 million signatures in the Soviet Union – the entire adult population.[52] Several non-aligned peace groups who had distanced themselves from the WPC advised their supporters not to sign the Appeal.[50]

The WPC had uneasy relations with the non-aligned peace movement and has been described as being caught in contradictions as "it sought to become a broad world movement while being instrumentalized increasingly to serve foreign policy in the Soviet Union and nominally socialist countries."[53] From the 1950s until the late 1980s it tried to use non-aligned peace organizations to spread the Soviet point of view. At first there was limited co-operation between such groups and the WPC, but western delegates who tried to criticize the Soviet Union or the WPC's silence about Russian armaments were often shouted down at WPC conferences[49] and by the early 1960s they had dissociated themselves from the WPC.

Arms reduction treaties
United States and USSR/Russian nuclear weapons stockpiles, 1945-2014. These numbers include warheads not actively deployed, including those on reserve status or scheduled for dismantlement. Stockpile totals do not necessarily reflect nuclear capabilities since they ignore size, range, type, and delivery mode.

After the 1986 Reykjavik Summit between U.S. President Ronald Reagan and the new Soviet General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev, the United States and the Soviet Union concluded two important nuclear arms reduction treaties: the INF Treaty (1987) and START I (1991). After the end of the Cold War, the United States and the Russian Federation concluded the Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty (2003) and the New START Treaty (2010).

When the extreme danger intrinsic to nuclear war and the possession of nuclear weapons became apparent to all sides during the Cold War, a series of disarmament and nonproliferation treaties were agreed upon between the United States, the Soviet Union, and several other states throughout the world. Many of these treaties involved years of negotiations, and seemed to result in important steps in arms reductions and reducing the risk of nuclear war.

Key treaties
  • Partial Test Ban Treaty (PTBT) 1963: Prohibited all testing of nuclear weapons except underground.
  • Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT)—signed 1968, came into force 1970: An international treaty (currently with 189 member states) to limit the spread of nuclear weapons. The treaty has three main pillars: nonproliferation, disarmament, and the right to peacefully use nuclear technology.
  • Interim Agreement on Offensive Arms (SALT I) 1972: The Soviet Union and the United States agreed to a freeze in the number of intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) and submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs) that they would deploy.
  • Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (ABM) 1972: The United States and Soviet Union could deploy ABM interceptors at two sites, each with up to 100 ground-based launchers for ABM interceptor missiles. In a 1974 Protocol, the US and Soviet Union agreed to only deploy an ABM system to one site.
  • Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT II) 1979: Replacing SALT I, SALT II limited both the Soviet Union and the United States to an equal number of ICBM launchers, SLBM launchers, and heavy bombers. Also placed limits on Multiple Independent Reentry Vehicles (MIRVS).
  • Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF) 1987: Created a global ban on short- and long-range nuclear weapons systems, as well as an intrusive verification regime.
  • Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START I)—signed 1991, ratified 1994: Limited long-range nuclear forces in the United States and the newly independent states of the former Soviet Union to 6,000 attributed warheads on 1,600 ballistic missiles and bombers.
  • Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty II (START II)—signed 1993, never put into force: START II was a bilateral agreement between the US and Russia which attempted to commit each side to deploy no more than 3,000 to 3,500 warheads by December 2007 and also included a prohibition against deploying multiple independent reentry vehicles (MIRVs) on intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs)
  • Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty (SORT or Moscow Treaty)—signed 2002, into force 2003: A very loose treaty that is often criticized by arms control advocates for its ambiguity and lack of depth, Russia and the United States agreed to reduce their "strategic nuclear warheads" (a term that remained undefined in the treaty) to between 1,700 and 2,200 by 2012. Was superseded by New Start Treaty in 2010.
  • Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT)—signed 1996, not yet in force: The CTBT is an international treaty (currently with 181 state signatures and 148 state ratifications) that bans all nuclear explosions in all environments. While the treaty is not in force, Russia has not tested a nuclear weapon since 1990 and the United States has not since 1992.[54]
  • New START Treaty—signed 2010, into force in 2011: replaces SORT treaty, reduces deployed nuclear warheads by about half, will remain into force until at least 2021
  • Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons—signed 2017, not yet in force: prohibits possession, manufacture, development, and testing of nuclear weapons, or assistance in such activities, by its parties.

Only one country (South Africa) has been known to ever dismantle an indigenously-developed nuclear arsenal completely. The apartheid government of South Africa produced half a dozen crude fission weapons during the 1980s, but they were dismantled in the early 1990s.[55]

United Nations
UN Representative for Disarmament Affairs, Angela Kane, at a 2012 ceremony marking the anniversary of the Hiroshima and Nagasaki atomic bombings
Main article: United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs

In its landmark resolution 1653 of 1961, "Declaration on the prohibition of the use of nuclear and thermo-nuclear weapons," the UN General Assembly stated that use of nuclear weaponry “would exceed even the scope of war and cause indiscriminate suffering and destruction to mankind and civilization and, as such, is contrary to the rules of international law and to the laws of humanity”.[56]

The UN Office for Disarmament Affairs (UNODA) is a department of the United Nations Secretariat established in January 1998 as part of the United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan's plan to reform the UN as presented in his report to the General Assembly in July 1997.[57]

Its goal is to promote nuclear disarmament and non-proliferation and the strengthening of the disarmament regimes in respect to other weapons of mass destruction, chemical and biological weapons. It also promotes disarmament efforts in the area of conventional weapons, especially land mines and small arms, which are often the weapons of choice in contemporary conflicts.

Following the retirement of Sergio Duarte in February 2012, Angela Kane was appointed as the new High Representative for Disarmament Affairs.

On 7 July 2017, a UN conference adopted the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons with the backing of 122 states. It opened for signature on 20 September 2017.

U.S. nuclear policy
Protest against the nuclear arms race between the U.S./NATO and the Soviet Union, in Bonn, West Germany, 1981
Protest against the deployment of Pershing II missiles in Europe, Hague, Netherlands, 1983

Despite a general trend toward disarmament in the early 2000s, the George W. Bush administration repeatedly pushed to fund policies that would allegedly make nuclear weapons more usable in the post–Cold War environment.[58][59] To date the U.S. Congress has refused to fund many of these policies. However, some [60] feel that even considering such programs harms the credibility of the United States as a proponent of nonproliferation.

Controversial U.S. nuclear policies
  • Reliable Replacement Warhead Program (RRW): This program seeks to replace existing warheads with a smaller number of warhead types designed to be easier to maintain without testing. Critics charge that this would lead to a new generation of nuclear weapons and would increase pressures to test.[61] Congress has not funded this program.
  • Complex Transformation: Complex transformation, formerly known as Complex 2030, is an effort to shrink the U.S. nuclear weapons complex and restore the ability to produce "pits", the fissile cores of the primaries of U.S. thermonuclear weapons. Critics see it as an upgrade to the entire nuclear weapons complex to support the production and maintenance of the new generation of nuclear weapons. Congress has not funded this program.
  • Nuclear bunker buster: Formally known as the Robust Nuclear Earth Penetrator (RNEP), this program aimed to modify an existing gravity bomb to penetrate into soil and rock in order to destroy underground targets. Critics argue that this would lower the threshold for use of nuclear weapons. Congress did not fund this proposal, which was later withdrawn.
  • Missile Defense: Formerly known as National Missile Defense, this program seeks to build a network of interceptor missiles to protect the United States and its allies from incoming missiles, including nuclear-armed missiles. Critics have argued that this would impede nuclear disarmament and possibly stimulate a nuclear arms race. Elements of missile defense are being deployed in Poland and the Czech Republic, despite Russian opposition.

Former U.S. officials Henry Kissinger, George Shultz, Bill Perry, and Sam Nunn (aka 'The Gang of Four' on nuclear deterrence)[62] proposed in January 2007 that the United States rededicate itself to the goal of eliminating nuclear weapons, concluding: "We endorse setting the goal of a world free of nuclear weapons and working energetically on the actions required to achieve that goal." Arguing a year later that "with nuclear weapons more widely available, deterrence is decreasingly effective and increasingly hazardous," the authors concluded that although "it is tempting and easy to say we can't get there from here, [...] we must chart a course toward that goal."[63] During his presidential campaign, U.S. President-Elect Barack Obama pledged to "set a goal of a world without nuclear weapons, and pursue it."[64]

U.S. programs to reduce risk of nuclear terrorism

The United States has taken the lead in ensuring that nuclear materials globally are properly safeguarded. A popular program that has received bipartisan domestic support for over a decade is the Cooperative Threat Reduction Program (CTR). While this program has been deemed a success, many believe that its funding levels need to be increased so as to ensure that all dangerous nuclear materials are secured in the most expeditious manner possible. The CTR program has led to several other innovative and important nonproliferation programs that need to continue to be a budget priority in order to ensure that nuclear weapons do not spread to actors hostile to the United States.

Key programs:

  • Cooperative Threat Reduction (CTR): The CTR program provides funding to help Russia secure materials that might be used in nuclear or chemical weapons as well as to dismantle weapons of mass destruction and their associated infrastructure in Russia.
  • Global Threat Reduction Initiative (GTRI): Expanding on the success of the CTR, the GTRI will expand nuclear weapons and material securing and dismantlement activities to states outside of the former Soviet Union.

Other states
Main article: List of states with nuclear weapons
World map with nuclear weapons development status represented by color.
  Five "nuclear weapons states" from the NPT
  Other states known to possess nuclear weapons (India and Pakistan)
  Other presumed nuclear powers (Israel)
  States formerly possessing nuclear weapons (Belarus, Kazakhstan, South Africa and Ukraine)
  States suspected of being in the process of developing nuclear weapons and/or nuclear programs
  States which at one point had nuclear weapons and/or nuclear weapons research programs
  States that possess nuclear weapons, but have not widely adopted them (North Korea)

While the vast majority of states have adhered to the stipulations of the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty, a few states have either refused to sign the treaty or have pursued nuclear weapons programs while not being members of the treaty. Many view the pursuit of nuclear weapons by these states as a threat to nonproliferation and world peace.[65]

  • Declared nuclear weapon states not party to the NPT:[66]
  • Indian nuclear weapons: 80–100 active warheads
  • Pakistani nuclear weapons: 90–110 active warheads
  • North Korean nuclear weapons: <10 active warheads
  • Undeclared nuclear weapon states not party to the NPT:
  • Nuclear weapon states not party to the NPT that disarmed and joined the NPT as non-nuclear weapons states:
  • Former Soviet states that disarmed and joined the NPT as non-nuclear weapons states:
  • Non-nuclear weapon states party to the NPT currently accused of seeking nuclear weapons:
  • Non-nuclear weapon states party to the NPT who acknowledged and eliminated past nuclear weapons programs:

Recent developments
UN vote on adoption of the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons on 7 July 2017
     Yes      No     Did not vote

Eliminating nuclear weapons has long been an aim of the pacifist left. But now many mainstream politicians, academic analysts, and retired military leaders also advocate nuclear disarmament. Sam Nunn, William Perry, Henry Kissinger, and George Shultz have called upon governments to embrace the vision of a world free of nuclear weapons, and in three Wall Street Journal opeds proposed an ambitious program of urgent steps to that end. The four have created the Nuclear Security Project to advance this agenda. Nunn reinforced that agenda during a speech at the Harvard Kennedy School on October 21, 2008, saying, "I’m much more concerned about a terrorist without a return address that cannot be deterred than I am about deliberate war between nuclear powers. You can’t deter a group who is willing to commit suicide. We are in a different era. You have to understand the world has changed."[69] In 2010, the four were featured in a documentary film entitled Nuclear Tipping Point. The film is a visual and historical depiction of the ideas laid forth in the Wall Street Journal op-eds and reinforces their commitment to a world without nuclear weapons and the steps that can be taken to reach that goal.[70]

Global Zero is an international non-partisan group of 300 world leaders dedicated to achieving nuclear disarmament.[71] The initiative, launched in December 2008, promotes a phased withdrawal and verification for the destruction of all devices held by official and unofficial members of the nuclear club. The Global Zero campaign works toward building an international consensus and a sustained global movement of leaders and citizens for the elimination of nuclear weapons. Goals include the initiation of United States-Russia bilateral negotiations for reductions to 1,000 total warheads each and commitments from the other key nuclear weapons countries to participate in multilateral negotiations for phased reductions of nuclear arsenals. Global Zero works to expand the diplomatic dialogue with key governments and continue to develop policy proposals on the critical issues related to the elimination of nuclear weapons.

The International Conference on Nuclear Disarmament took place in Oslo in February, 2008, and was organized by The Government of Norway, the Nuclear Threat Initiative and the Hoover Institute. The Conference was entitled Achieving the Vision of a World Free of Nuclear Weapons and had the purpose of building consensus between nuclear weapon states and non-nuclear weapon states in relation to the Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty.[72]

Anti-nuclear weapons protest march in St. Louis, United States, 17 June 2017

The Tehran International Conference on Disarmament and Non-Proliferation took place in Tehran in April 2010. The conference was held shortly after the signing of the New START, and resulted in a call of action toward eliminating all nuclear weapons. Representatives from 60 countries were invited to the conference. Non-governmental organizations were also present.

Among the prominent figures who have called for the abolition of nuclear weapons are "the philosopher Bertrand Russell, the entertainer Steve Allen, CNN’s Ted Turner, former Senator Claiborne Pell, Notre Dame president Theodore Hesburgh, South African Bishop Desmond Tutu and the Dalai Lama".[73]

Others have argued that nuclear weapons have made the world relatively safer, with peace through deterrence and through the stability–instability paradox, including in south Asia.[74][75] Kenneth Waltz has argued that nuclear weapons have created a nuclear peace, and further nuclear weapon proliferation might even help avoid the large scale conventional wars that were so common prior to their invention at the end of World War II.[76] In the July 2012 issue of Foreign Affairs Waltz took issue with the view of most U.S., European, and Israeli, commentators and policymakers that a nuclear-armed Iran would be unacceptable. Instead Waltz argues that it would probably be the best possible outcome, as it would restore stability to the Middle East by balancing Israel's regional monopoly on nuclear weapons.[77] Professor John Mueller of Ohio State University, the author of Atomic Obsession,[78] has also dismissed the need to interfere with Iran's nuclear program and expressed that arms control measures are counterproductive.[79] During a 2010 lecture at the University of Missouri, which was broadcast by C-SPAN, Dr. Mueller has also argued that the threat from nuclear weapons, especially nuclear terrorism, has been exaggerated, both in the popular media and by officials.[80]

Jeremy Corbyn speaking at the#StopTrident rally at Trafalgar Square on 27 February 2016

Former Secretary Kissinger says there is a new danger, which cannot be addressed by deterrence: "The classical notion of deterrence was that there was some consequences before which aggressors and evildoers would recoil. In a world of suicide bombers, that calculation doesn’t operate in any comparable way".[81] George Shultz has said, "If you think of the people who are doing suicide attacks, and people like that get a nuclear weapon, they are almost by definition not deterrable".[82]

Andrew Bacevich wrote that there is no feasible scenario under which the US could sensibly use nuclear weapons. "For the United States, they are becoming unnecessary, even as a deterrent. Certainly, they are unlikely to dissuade the adversaries most likely to employ such weapons against us -- Islamic extremists intent on acquiring their own nuclear capability. If anything, the opposite is true. By retaining a strategic arsenal in readiness (and by insisting without qualification that the dropping of atomic bombs on two Japanese cities in 1945 was justified), the United States continues tacitly to sustain the view that nuclear weapons play a legitimate role in international politics ... ."[83]

In The Limits of Safety, Scott Sagan documented numerous incidents in US military history that could have produced a nuclear war by accident. He concluded, "while the military organizations controlling U.S. nuclear forces during the Cold War performed this task with less success than we know, they performed with more success than we should have reasonably predicted. The problems identified in this book were not the product of incompetent organizations. They reflect the inherent limits of organizational safety. Recognizing that simple truth is the first and most important step toward a safer future."[84]

gollark: Store the hashes of things, expect more computing power later.
gollark: I mean that most of these things (HDDs *and* SSDs) will either fail quickly or probably run for quite a while.
gollark: I know this, yes.
gollark: I "have" ""backups"".
gollark: They have a "bathtub" failure curve, apparently.

See also

References
  1. "BBC NEWS : Magazine : World's best-known protest symbol turns 50". BBC News. London. 20 March 2008. Archived from the original on 15 April 2012. Retrieved 2008-05-25.
  2. Gastelum, ZN (2012). "International Legal Framework for Denuclearization and Nuclear Disarmament" (PDF). Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. p. 7. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2016-12-21. Retrieved 2018-05-18. The term denuclearization is even less agreed upon [than disarmament] in the international community, and appears rarely in the context of arms control and nuclear nonproliferation. For the purpose of this paper, denuclearization will be defined as the elimination of the military infrastructure and materials necessary for nuclear weapons production.
  3. Da Cunha, Derek (2000). Southeast Asian Perspectives on Security. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. p. 114. ISBN 978-981-230-098-0. "Denuclearization" may be defined as political/normative attitudes towards nuclear disarmament, with a complete ban on nuclear weapons as the objective. The ultimate aim of denuclearization is to achieve a nuclear weapons-free world.
  4. Jonathan Schell. The Spirit of June 12 Archived 2019-05-12 at the Wayback Machine The Nation, July 2, 2007.
  5. 1982 - a million people march in New York City Archived 2008-05-16 at the Wayback Machine
  6. Mary Palevsky, Robert Futrell, and Andrew Kirk. Recollections of Nevada's Nuclear Past Archived 2011-10-03 at the Wayback Machine UNLV FUSION, 2005, p. 20.
  7. Jerry Brown and Rinaldo Brutoco (1997). Profiles in Power: The Anti-nuclear Movement and the Dawn of the Solar Age, Twayne Publishers, pp. 191-192.
  8. Emsley, John (2001). "Uranium". Nature's Building Blocks: An A to Z Guide to the Elements. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 478. ISBN 978-0-19-850340-8.
  9. Nuke-Rebuke: Writers & Artists Against Nuclear Energy & Weapons (The Contemporary anthology series). The Spirit That Moves Us Press. May 1, 1984. pp. 22–29.
  10. "Frequently Asked Questions #1". Radiation Effects Research Foundation (Formerly known as the Atomic Bomb Casualty Commission (ABCC)). Archived from the original on September 19, 2007. Retrieved September 18, 2007.
  11. Niedenthal, Jack (2008), A Short History of the People of Bikini Atoll, archived from the original on 2010-12-23, retrieved 2009-12-05
  12. Wolfgang Rudig (1990). Anti-nuclear Movements: A World Survey of Opposition to Nuclear Energy, Longman, p. 54-55.
  13. Jim Falk (1982). Global Fission: The Battle Over Nuclear Power, Oxford University Press, pp. 96-97.
  14. "A brief history of CND". Archived from the original on 2004-06-17. Retrieved 2011-01-10.
  15. "Early defections in march to Aldermaston". Guardian Unlimited. 1958-04-05. Archived from the original on 2006-10-08. Retrieved 2011-01-10.
  16. Woo, Elaine (January 30, 2011). "Dagmar Wilson dies at 94; organizer of women's disarmament protesters". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on February 4, 2011. Retrieved March 2, 2013.
  17. Hevesi, Dennis (January 23, 2011). "Dagmar Wilson, Anti-Nuclear Leader, Dies at 94". The New York Times. Archived from the original on March 8, 2017. Retrieved February 18, 2017.
  18. Louise Zibold Reiss (November 24, 1961). "Strontium-90 Absorption by Deciduous Teeth: Analysis of teeth provides a practicable method of monitoring strontium-90 uptake by human populations". Science. 134 (3491): 1669–1673. doi:10.1126/science.134.3491.1669. PMID 14491339.
  19. Thomas Hager (November 29, 2007). "Strontium-90". Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections. Archived from the original on December 22, 2010. Retrieved December 13, 2007.
  20. Thomas Hager (November 29, 2007). "The Right to Petition". Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections. Archived from the original on December 20, 2010. Retrieved December 13, 2007.
  21. Jim Falk (1982). Global Fission: The Battle Over Nuclear Power, Oxford University Press, p. 98.
  22. Linus Pauling (October 10, 1963). "Notes by Linus Pauling. October 10, 1963". Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections. Archived from the original on March 10, 2010. Retrieved December 13, 2007.
  23. Giuliani's Obama-Nuke Critique Defies And Ignores Reagan Archived 2010-04-12 at the Wayback Machine, Huffington Post 04- 7-10
  24. President Reagan's Legacy and U.S. Nuclear Weapons Policy Archived 2010-04-11 at the Wayback Machine, Heritage.org, July 20, 2006
  25. "Hyvästi, ydinpommi", Helsingin Sanomat 2010-09-05, p. D1-D2
  26. Colman McCarthy (February 8, 2009). "From Lafayette Square Lookout, He Made His War Protest Permanent". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on October 6, 2017. Retrieved September 6, 2017.
  27. "The Oracles of Pennsylvania Avenue". Al Jazeera Documentary Channel. April 17, 2012. Archived from the original on July 10, 2012.
  28. Harvey Klehr. Far Left of Center: The American Radical Left Today Archived 2016-05-01 at the Wayback Machine Transaction Publishers, 1988, p. 150.
  29. 1,400 Anti-nuclear protesters arrested Archived 2019-01-20 at the Wayback Machine Miami Herald, June 21, 1983.
  30. Hundreds of Marchers Hit Washington in Finale of Nationwide Peace March Archived 2016-04-30 at the Wayback Machine Gainesville Sun, November 16, 1986.
  31. Robert Lindsey. 438 Protesters are Arrested at Nevada Nuclear Test Site New York Times, February 6, 1987.
  32. 493 Arrested at Nevada Nuclear Test Site New York Times, April 20, 1992.
  33. Lance Murdoch. Pictures: New York MayDay anti-nuke/war march Archived 2011-07-28 at the Wayback Machine IndyMedia, 2 may 2005.
  34. Anti-Nuke Protests in New York Archived 2010-10-31 at the Wayback Machine Fox News, May 2, 2005.
  35. Lawrence S. Wittner. Nuclear Disarmament Activism in Asia and the Pacific, 1971-1996 Archived 2010-05-05 at the Wayback Machine The Asia-Pacific Journal, Vol. 25-5-09, June 22, 2009.
  36. Protest against nuclear reactor Archived 2010-06-17 at the Wayback Machine Chicago Tribune, October 16, 2008.
  37. Southeast Climate Convergence occupies nuclear facility Archived 2011-09-16 at the Wayback Machine Indymedia UK, August 8, 2008.
  38. "Anti-Nuclear Renaissance: A Powerful but Partial and Tentative Victory Over Atomic Energy". Archived from the original on 2013-12-10. Retrieved 2013-03-02.
  39. Police arrest 64 at California anti-nuclear protest Archived 2009-06-08 at the Wayback Machine Reuters, April 6, 2007.
  40. Anti-nuclear rally held at test site: Martin Sheen among activists cited by police Archived 2012-03-05 at the Wayback Machine Las Vegas Review-Journal, April 2, 2007.
  41. For decades, faith has sustained anti-nuclear movement Seattle Times, April 7, 2006.
  42. Bangor Protest Peaceful; 17 Anti-Nuclear Demonstrators Detained and Released Archived 2008-10-12 at the Wayback Machine Kitsap Sun, January 19, 2008.
  43. Twelve Arrests, But No Violence at Bangor Anti-Nuclear Protest Archived 2008-10-12 at the Wayback Machine Kitsap Sun, June 1, 2008.
  44. "International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons (ICAN) - Facts". www.nobelprize.org. Archived from the original on 2017-10-06. Retrieved 2018-01-18.
  45. Wittner, Lawrence S., One World or None: A History of the World Nuclear Disarmament Movement Through 1953, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1993. Paperback edition, 1995. ISBN 0804721416
  46. Santi, Rainer, 100 years of Peace Making: A History of the International Peace Bureau and other international peace movement organisations and networks, Pax förlag, International Peace Bureau, January 1991
  47. Wernicke, Günther, "The World Peace Council and the Antiwar Movement in East Germany", in Daum, A. W., L. C. Gardner and W. Mausbach (eds), America, The Vietnam War and the World, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003
  48. Deery, P., "The Dove Flies East: Whitehall, Warsaw and the 1950 World Peace Congress", Australian Journal of Politics and History, Vol. 48, 2002
  49. Lawrence Wittner, Resisting the Bomb, Stanford University Press, 1997
  50. "Santi, Rainer, 100 years of peace making: A history of the International Peace Bureau and other international peace movement organisations and networks, Pax förlag, International Peace Bureau, January 1991". Archived from the original on 2012-04-21. Retrieved 2014-09-18.
  51. "[[Committee on Un-American Activities]], Report on the Communist "peace" offensive. A campaign to disarm and defeat the United States, 1951". Archived from the original on 2016-01-20. Retrieved 2015-11-25.
  52. "Mikhailova, Y., Ideas of Peace and Concordance in Soviet Political Propaganda (1950 – 1985". Archived from the original on 2015-04-02. Retrieved 2014-09-18.
  53. Wernicke, Günter, "The Communist-Led World Peace Council and the Western Peace Movements: The Fetters of Bipolarity and Some Attempts to Break Them in the Fifties and Early Sixties" Archived 2014-03-11 at the Wayback Machine, Peace & Change, Volume 23, Number 3, July 1998, pp. 265–311(47)
  54. ""Nuclear Disarmament," US Policy World". Archived from the original on 2008-01-02. Retrieved 2007-09-27.
  56. John Burroughs (2012). "Humanitarian Law or Nuclear Weapons: Choose One" (PDF). Lawyers Committee on Nuclear Policy. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-08-21. Retrieved 2013-06-09.
  57. "Renewing the United Nations: A Program for Reform (A/51/950)" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-07-19. Retrieved 2013-03-02.
  58. "Bush plans new nuclear weapons | World news | The Guardian". Archived from the original on 2016-05-20. Retrieved 2016-12-17.
  59. "Our hidden WMD program". Archived from the original on 2008-05-22. Retrieved 2008-07-02.
  60. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2008-07-20. Retrieved 2008-07-02.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  61. Rhodes, Richard (2007). Arsenals of folly : the making of the nuclear arms race (1st ed.). New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 9780375414138. OCLC 137325021.
  62. The Gang of Four on Nuclear Deterrence
  63. "Renewed call from Kissinger, Nunn, Perry and Shultz for Nuclear-Free World". Archived from the original on 2009-01-13. Retrieved 2008-11-09.
  64. Barack Obama and Joe Biden's Plan to Secure America and Restore our Standing Archived 2008-10-01 at the Wayback Machine
  65. "The Global Nuclear Nonproliferation Regime". Council On Foreign Relations. Archived from the original on April 22, 2017. Retrieved April 26, 2017.
  66. SIPRI Yearbook 2011: World Nuclear Forces Stockholm Peace Research Institute.
  67. Norris, Robert S., William Arkin, Hans M. Kristensen, and Joshua Handler. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 58:5 (September/October 2002): 73-75. Israeli nuclear forces, 2002
  68. "Nuclear Disarmament". US Policy World. Archived from the original on October 19, 2009.
  69. Maclin, Beth (2008-10-20) "A Nuclear weapon-free world is possible, Nunn says", Belfer Center, Harvard University. Retrieved on 2008-10-21.
  70. "The Growing Appeal of Zero". The Economist: 66. June 18, 2011. Archived from the original on June 25, 2019. Retrieved February 26, 2019.
  71. Global Zero Archived 2018-02-08 at the Wayback Machine
  72. "International Conference on Nuclear Disarmament". February 2008. Archived from the original on 2011-01-04.
  73. Ernest Lefever (Autumn 1999). "Nuclear Weapons: Instruments of Peace". Global Dialogue. Archived from the original on 2013-05-09. Retrieved 2012-01-13.
  74. Krepon, Michael. "The Stability-Instability Paradox, Misperception, and Escalation Control in South Asia" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 May 2013.
  75. Krepon, Michael (November 2, 2010). "The Stability-Instability Paradox". Arms Control Wonk. Archived from the original on January 12, 2015. Retrieved 2016-10-03.
  76. https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/waltz1.htm Archived 2012-10-14 at the Wayback Machine Kenneth Waltz, “The Spread of Nuclear Weapons: More May be Better,”
  77. Waltz, Kenneth (July–August 2012). "Why Iran Should Get the Bomb: Nuclear Balancing Would Mean Stability". Foreign Affairs (July/August 2012). Archived from the original on 22 December 2013. Retrieved 25 August 2012.
  78. Atomic Obsession. Archived from the original on 2012-04-16. Retrieved 2012-09-04.
  79. http://bloggingheads.tv/videos/2333 Archived 2014-08-03 at the Wayback Machine From 19:00 to 26:00 minutes
  80. http://www.c-spanvideo.org/program/AtomicO: John Mueller, "Atomic Obsession"
  81. Ben Goddard (2010-01-27). "Cold Warriors say no nukes". The Hill. Archived from the original on 2014-02-13. Retrieved 2013-11-15.
  82. Hugh Gusterson (30 March 2012). "The new abolitionists". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. Archived from the original on 17 February 2014. Retrieved 15 November 2013.
  83. Bacevich, Andrew (2008). The Limits of Power. Metropolitan Books. pp. 178–179. ISBN 9780805088151.
  84. Sagan, Scott D. (1993). The Limits of Safety: Organizations, Accidents, and Nuclear Weapons. Princeton U. Pr. p. 279. ISBN 978-0-691-02101-0.
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.