Pine nut

Pine nuts, also called piñón (Spanish: [piˈɲon]), pinoli (Italian: [piˈnɔːli]), or pignoli, are the edible seeds of pines (family Pinaceae, genus Pinus). About 20 species of pine produce seeds large enough to be worth harvesting; in other pines, the seeds are also edible, but are too small to be of notable value as a human food.[1][2][3]

Shelled European pine nuts (Pinus pinea)
Shelled Korean pine nuts (Pinus koraiensis)
Stone pine cone with pine nuts – note two nuts under each cone scale
Pine kernel with both halves of its shell

Pine nuts are prominently consumed in several cuisines worldwide, especially as part of Brazilian cuisine, Middle Eastern Cuisine, Chinese cuisine, Italian cuisine, Japanese cuisine, Korean cuisine, Mongolian cuisine, New Mexican cuisine, Russian cuisine, and various Native American cuisines. This widespread geographical consumption makes it recognizable within the context of global cuisine.

Species and geographic spread

In Asia, two species in particular are widely harvested; Korean pine (Pinus koraiensis) in northeast Asia (the most important species in international trade) and chilgoza pine (Pinus gerardiana) in the western Himalaya. Four other species, Siberian pine (Pinus sibirica), Siberian dwarf pine (Pinus pumila), Chinese white pine (Pinus armandii) and lacebark pine (Pinus bungeana), are also used to a lesser extent. Russia is the largest producer of Pinus sibirica nuts in the world, followed by Mongolia, which produces over 10,000 tonnes of forest-grown nuts annually. The majority of harvest is exported to China. Afghanistan is an important source of pine nuts, behind China and Korea.[4]

Pine nuts produced in Europe mostly come from the stone pine (Pinus pinea), which has been cultivated for its nuts for over 5,000 years. Pine nuts have been harvested from wild trees for far longer. The Swiss pine (Pinus cembra) is also used, to a very small extent.

In North America, the main species are three of the pinyon pines: Colorado pinyon (Pinus edulis), single-leaf pinyon (Pinus monophylla), and Mexican pinyon (Pinus cembroides). The other eight pinyon species are used to a small extent, as are gray pine (Pinus sabineana), Coulter pine (Pinus coulteri), Torrey pine (Pinus torreyana), sugar pine (Pinus lambertiana) and Parry pinyon (Pinus quadrifolia). Here, the nuts themselves are known by the Spanish name for the pinyon pine: piñón (plural: piñones).

In the United States, pine nuts are mainly harvested by Native American and Hispano communities, particularly in the Western United States and Southwestern United States, by the Uto-Aztecan Shoshone, Paiute, Navajo, Pueblo, Hopi, Washoe, and Hispanos of New Mexico.[5] Certain treaties negotiated by tribes and laws in Nevada guarantee Native Americans' right to harvest pine nuts,[6] and the state of New Mexico protects the use of the word piñon for use with pine nuts from certain species of indigenous New Mexican pines.[7]

Species list

For those seeking to grow edible landscapes, these are the more commonly used species.

  • Old World
    • Pinus armandii – Chinese white pine
    • Pinus bungeana – lacebark pine
    • Pinus cembra – Swiss pine
    • Pinus gerardiana – Chilgoza pine
    • Pinus koraiensis – Korean pine
    • Pinus pinea – Mediterranean stone pine
    • Pinus pumila – Siberian dwarf pine
    • Pinus sibirica – Siberian pine
  • New World
    • Pinus albicaulis – Whitebark pine
    • Pinus cembroides – Mexican pinyon
    • Pinus coulteri – Coulter pine
    • Pinus culminicola – Potosi pinyon
    • Pinus edulis – Two-needle piñon or Colorado pinyon (when grown in Colorado)
    • Pinus johannis – Johann's pinyon (includes P. discolor – Border pinyon)
    • Pinus monophylla – Single-leaf pinyon
    • Pinus orizabensis – Orizaba pinyon
    • Pinus quadrifolia – Four-leaved Pinyon or Parry pinyon
    • Pinus remota – Papershell pinyon or Texas pinyon
    • Pinus sabiniana – California foothill pine

Pollination and seed development

The pine nut (seed) species will take a time that depends on the exact species (e.g. 36 months for a stone pine seed) to complete its maturity; to reach full maturity, the environmental conditions must be favorable for the tree and its cone.

For some American species, development begins in early spring with pollination. A tiny cone, about the size of a small marble, will form from mid-spring to the end of summer; the premature cone will then become and remain dormant (with a cessation of growth) until the following spring. The cone will then commence growth until it reaches maturity near the end of summer. The mature piñon pine cone is ready to harvest ten days before the green cone begins to open. A cone is harvested by placing it in a burlap bag and exposing it to a heat source such as the sun to begin the drying process. It takes about 20 days until the cone fully opens. Once it is fully open and dry, the seed can be easily extracted in various ways. The most common and practical extraction method used is the repeated striking of the burlap bag containing the cone(s) against a rough surface to cause the cone(s) to shatter, leaving just the job of separating by hand the seed from the residue within the bag.

Another option for harvesting is to wait until the cone opens on the tree (as it naturally will) and harvest the cone from the piñon pine, followed by the extracting process mentioned above. Fallen seed can also be gathered beneath the trees.

Ecology and status

Because pine nuts are an important food source for many animals, overharvesting of pine nuts threatens local ecosystems, an effect occurring during the early 21st century with increased culinary uses for pine nuts.[8] In the United States, millions of hectares of productive pinyon pine woods have been destroyed due to conversion of lands, and in China and Russia, destructive harvesting techniques (such as breaking off whole branches to harvest the cones) and removal of trees for timber have led to losses in production capacity.[2][8]

Elevation and pinecone production
European stone pine nuts (Pinus pinea) to be compared with the picture below
Korean Pine (Pinus koraiensis) pine nuts - unshelled, and shell, above; shelled, below

The elevation of the pinyon pine is an important determinant of the quantity of pine cone production, and therefore, will largely determine the number of pine nuts the tree will yield.[9]

American Pinyon pine cone production is most commonly found at an elevation between 1,800 and 2,600 m (6,000 and 8,500 ft), and ideally at 2,100 m (7,000 ft). This is due to higher temperatures at elevations lower than 1,800 m (6,000 ft) during the spring, which dry up humidity and moisture content (particularly snow packs) that provide for the tree throughout the spring and summer, causing little nourishment for pine cone maturity.

Although there are several other environmental factors that determine the conditions of the ecosystem (such as clouds and rain), without sufficient water, the trees tend to abort cones. High humidity encourages cone development. There are certain topographical areas found in lower elevations, such as shaded canyons, where the humidity remains constant throughout the spring and summer, allowing pine cones to fully mature and produce seed.

At elevations above 2,600 m (8,500 ft), the temperature substantially drops, drastically affecting the state of the dormant cone. During the winter, frequent dramatic changes in temperature, along with drying, gusty winds, make the cones susceptible to freeze-drying that damages them permanently; in this case, growth is stunted and the seeds deteriorate.[10]

Physical characteristics
Pinon nuts (Pinus edulis) packed for shipment, Santa Fe, New Mexico, 1921

When first extracted from the pine cone, they are covered with a hard shell (seed coat), thin in some species, thick in others. The nutrition is stored in the embryo (sporophyte) in the centre. Although a nut in the culinary sense, in the botanical sense pine nuts are seeds; being a gymnosperm, they lack a carpel (fruit) outside.

The shell must be removed before the pine nut can be eaten. Unshelled pine nuts have a long shelf life if kept dry and refrigerated (−5 to 2 °C or 23 to 36 °F); shelled nuts (and unshelled nuts in warm conditions) deteriorate rapidly, becoming rancid within a few weeks or even days in warm humid conditions. Pine nuts are commercially available in shelled form, but due to poor storage, can have poor flavor and may be already rancid at the time of purchase. Consequently, pine nuts are often frozen to preserve their flavor.[11]

European pine nuts may be distinguished from Asian ones by their greater length in comparison to girth; Asian pine nuts are stubbier, shaped somewhat like long kernels of corn. The American piñon nuts are known for their large size and ease of shelling. In the United States, P. edulis, the hard shell of New Mexico and Colorado, became a sought-after species due to the trading post system, and the Navajo people who used the nuts as a means of commerce. The Italian pine nut (P. pinea) was brought to the United States by immigrants, and became a favored treat along the East Coast in the early 1930s, when bumper crops of American pine nuts were readily available at low prices.

Nutrition
Nuts, pine nuts, shelled, dried
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy2,815 kJ (673 kcal)
13.1 g
Starch1.4 g
Sugars3.6 g
Dietary fiber3.7 g
68.4 g
Saturated4.9 g
Monounsaturated18.7 g
Polyunsaturated34.1 g
13.7 g
VitaminsQuantity %DV†
Vitamin A equiv.
0%
1 μg
0%
17 μg
Thiamine (B1)
35%
0.4 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
17%
0.2 mg
Niacin (B3)
29%
4.4 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
6%
0.3 mg
Vitamin B6
8%
0.1 mg
Folate (B9)
9%
34 μg
Choline
11%
55.8 mg
Vitamin C
1%
0.8 mg
Vitamin E
62%
9.3 mg
Vitamin K
51%
53.9 μg
MineralsQuantity %DV†
Calcium
2%
16 mg
Copper
65%
1.3 mg
Iron
42%
5.5 mg
Magnesium
71%
251 mg
Manganese
419%
8.8 mg
Phosphorus
82%
575 mg
Potassium
13%
597 mg
Selenium
1%
0.7 μg
Zinc
67%
6.4 mg
Other constituentsQuantity
Water2.3 g
Link to USDA Database entry
†Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient Database

When dried for eating, pine nuts are 2% water, 13% carbohydrates, 14% protein, and 68% fat (table). In a 100 gram reference amount, dried pine nuts supply 673 calories and are a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of numerous micronutrients, particularly manganese (419% DV), phosphorus (82% DV), magnesium (71% DV), zinc (67% DV), copper (65% DV), vitamin E (62% DV), vitamin K (51% DV), and the B vitamins, thiamin and niacin (29-35% DV), among others (table).

Culinary uses
Drying of pine nuts

Pine nuts have been eaten in Europe and Asia since the Paleolithic period. They are frequently added to meat, fish, salads and vegetable dishes or baked into bread.

In Italian they are called pinoli (in the US they are often called pignoli, but in Italy pignolo is actually a word far more commonly used to describe a fussy, overly fastidious or extremely meticulous person)[12] and are an essential component of Italian pesto sauce; the upsurge in the popularity of this sauce since the 1990s has increased the visibility of the nut in America, primarily on the West Coast. Torta della nonna (literally "granny's cake") is a generic Italian dish name that in most families indicates an old family recipe for any kind of cake but often is used for a tart or a pie filled with custard, topped with pine nuts and optionally dusted with icing sugar. Pignoli cookies, an Italian American specialty confection (in Italy these would be called biscotti ai pinoli), are made of almond flour formed into a dough similar to that of a macaroon and then topped with pine nuts.

In Catalonia, a sweet is made of small marzipan balls covered with pine nuts, painted with egg and lightly cooked, and those are called "Panellets". Pine nuts are also featured in the salade landaise of southwestern France. The Nevada, or Great Basin, pine nut has a sweet fruity flavor and is promoted for its large size, sweet flavor and ease of peeling. Pine nuts are also widely used in Middle Eastern cuisine, reflected in a diverse range of dishes such as kibbeh, sambusak, and fatayer, desserts such as baklava, and many others.

Throughout Europe and Middle East the pine nuts used are traditionally from Pinus pinea (stone pine). They are easily distinguished from the Asian pine nuts by their more slender shape and more homogeneous flesh. Because of the lower price, Asian pine nuts are also often used, especially in cheaper preparations. Pine nuts contain thiamine (vitamin B1) and protein.

Pine nut coffee, known as piñón (Spanish for pine nut), is a specialty found in the southwest United States, especially New Mexico, and is typically a dark roast coffee having a deep, nutty flavor; roasted and lightly salted pine nuts can often be found sold on the side of the road in cities across New Mexico to be used for this purpose, as well as a snack.

Pine nut oil is added to foods for flavor.[13]

Taste disturbances

Some raw pine nuts can cause taste disturbances, lasting from a few days to a few weeks after consumption. A bitter, metallic, unpleasant taste is reported. There are no known lasting effects, with the Food and Drug Administration reporting that there are "no apparent adverse clinical side effects".[14] Raw nuts from Pinus armandii, mainly in China, may be the cause of the problem.[15] Metallic taste disturbance is typically reported 1–3 days after ingestion, being worse on day two and typically lasting up to two weeks.[14] Cases are self-limited and resolve without treatment.[16][17]

Other uses

Pine nuts have long been a dietary staple in some Native American tribes. Today, though some tribes still use pine nuts in traditional cooking, others use the hard outer shell of the pine nut as a bead for decorative purposes in traditional regalia and jewelry. In the Great Basin area of the US, collecting pine nuts is a protected right through state law and treaty.[18]

In the northern California regions, pine nuts are collected from the Grey Pine or Bull Pine. Tribes burn designs into the hard shell, reflecting the same design they use in baskets; however, they are often left blank, or burned to blacken. These are more often used in women's regalia and jewelry.[19]

gollark: up
gollark: split
gollark: not
gollark: do
gollark: Please

See also

References
  1. Farjon, A (2005). Pines. Drawings and descriptions of the genus Pinus. Koninklijke Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-13916-9.
  2. Lanner, RM (1981). The Piñon Pine. A Natural and Cultural History. University of Nevada Press. ISBN 978-0-87417-066-5.
  3. Lanner, RM (1981). Made for Each Other. A Symbiosys of Birds and Pines. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-508903-5.
  4. Geisler, Malinda; Romero, Christina (August 2015). "Pine Nuts". agmrc.org. Retrieved 30 October 2016.
  5. "History of Pine Nuts & The People of the Great Basin". Goods from the Woods. 2004. Archived from the original on 17 July 2011. Retrieved 8 Dec 2009.
  6. Frazier, Penny (October 30, 2006). "Pine Nuts, Politics and Public Lands". Raw Foods News Magazine. Retrieved 8 December 2009.
  7. "Piñon Nut Act". New Mexico Statutes No. 25, Article 10, Sections 1 through 5 of 1978 (PDF). Retrieved 25 Jun 2018.
  8. Jonathan C. Slaght (2015-10-19). "Making Pesto? Hold the Pine Nuts". The New York Times. Retrieved 2019-05-08.
  9. Pine Nuts, WholeSale. "Elevation and Pinecone Production." Ws Pine Nut News (retrieved 20 Apr 2010)
  10. "Pinecone production in regards to elevation". Pinecone Characteristics and Ecology. Wholesale Pine Nuts. Retrieved 20 April 2010.
  11. "Pine Nut Shelf Life: How Long Do Pine Nuts Last?". freshpantry.com.
  12. Locally also pinoccoli or pinocchi; Pinocchio is the Tuscan (Florentine) word for "pine nut", from Latin *pīnuculus. (Devoto, Battisti-Alessio)
  13. FAO (1995). "Chapter 8: Seeds, Fruits and Cones". Non-wood forest products from conifers.
  14. "'Pine Mouth' and Consumption of Pine Nuts". FDA.gov. March 14, 2011. Retrieved January 2, 2016.
  15. Destaillats, Frédéric; Cruz-Hernandez, Cristina; Giuffrida, Francesca; Dionisi, Fabiola; Mostin, Martine; Verstegen, Geert (2011). "Identification of the Botanical Origin of Commercial Pine Nuts Responsible for Dysgeusia by Gas-Liquid Chromatography Analysis of Fatty Acid Profile". Journal of Toxicology. 2011: 1–7. doi:10.1155/2011/316789. PMC 3090612. PMID 21559093.
  16. Munk, Marc-David (2010). "'Pine Mouth' Syndrome: Cacogeusia Following Ingestion of Pine Nuts (Genus: Pinus). An Emerging Problem?". Journal of Medical Toxicology. 6 (2): 158–159. doi:10.1007/s13181-009-0001-1. PMC 3550279. PMID 20049580.
  17. Ballin, Nicolai Z. (Feb 17, 2014). "A Trial Investigating the Symptoms Related to Pine Nut Syndrome". Journal of Medical Toxicology. 8 (3): 278–280. doi:10.1007/s13181-012-0216-4. PMC 3550163. PMID 22351301.
  18. "Indians 101: Pine Nuts". NativeAmericanRoots.net.
  19. "Our People, Traditional Materials and Designs - Karuk, Yurok, Hupa". fromtheerivercollective.com.

Further reading
  • Farris, Glenn J. (1982). "Pine Nuts as an Aboriginal Food Source in California and Nevada: Some Contrasts". Journal of Ethnobiology. 2 (2): 114–122.
  • Farris, Glenn J. & Blackburn, T.C. (Comp. and Ed.) & Anderson K. "Quality Food: The Quest for Pine Nuts in Northern California". Before the Wilderness: Environmental Management by Native Californians (Ballena Press, 1993 ed.) (40): 229–240.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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