Kham language

Kham
	Kham language
Native to	Nepal
Region	Rapti Zone, Rolpa and Rukum Districts; Dhaulagiri Zone, Baglung DistrictKarnali regions
Ethnicity	Western Magar
Native speakers	27,000 (2011 census)[1]
Language family	Sino-Tibetan Greater Magaric Magaric Kham; ; ;
Writing system	Devanagari
Official status
Official language in	No official status
Language codes
ISO 639-3	Variously:; kif – Eastern Parbate Kham; kgj – Gamale kham; kip – Sheshi Kham; kjl – Western Parbate Pang
Glottolog	kham1286[2]

Kham language (Nepali: खाम भाषा)—narrowly defined—is a complex of Sino-Tibetan Magaric languages spoken natively in the highlands of the Rolpa and Rukum districts of Rapti and the westernmost part of Baglung district in Dhawalagiri Zone and Karnali region by western clans of the Kham tribes, called collectively western Khams. Randy LaPolla (2003) proposes that Kham magar and Dhut magar may be part of a larger "Rung" group. However, both may ultimately go for separate ethnic identity as they have distinct linguistic and cultural barriers.

Geographical distribution

Ethnologue lists the following location information for the varieties of Kham.

Eastern Parbate Kham (dialects: Bhujel Kham, Nishel Kham) is spoken in the following villages of Baglung District, Dhawalagiri Zone.

Nishel dialect: Nisi, Bhalkot, and Budhathok villages
Bhujel dialect: Kuku, Diza, Kang, Masbang, Musuri, and Sukurdung villages

Western Parbate Kham (dialects: Takale, Maikoti, Mahatale, Lukumel, Wale, Thabangi)

Taka-Shera considered to be the center of the Western Parbate Kham.

Gamale Kham (dialects: Tamali, Ghusbanggi)

Rolpa District, Rapti Zone
Baglung District, Dhawalagiri Zone

Gamale Kham is spoken in the western hills of Gam Khola, in Gam, Jhyalgung, Chalbang, Tamali, Dangadhara, Sheram, Ghusbang, Huiching, Guwakholagau, Maulabang, and Kuipadhara villages.

Sheshi Kham (dialects: Tapnanggi, Jangkoti)

Western hills of Rolpa District, Rapti Zone: in Jangkot, Kotgaon (Tapnang), Rimsek, Korcabang, Dangdung, Hwama, Dhangsi, Bhabang, and Ghapa villages.

Dialects

Watters (2002:12) classifies the Kham dialects as follows.

Proto-Kham

Sheshi
- Tapnangi
- Jangkoti
Gamale
- Tamali
- Ghusbangi
Parbate
- Eastern Parbate
  - Nishel
  - Bhujel
- Wester Parbate
  - Maikoti
  - Takale (including the Takale, Sheral, Ghumilbangi, Garkhanyel, Koral, and Nakhale village sub-dialects)
  - Lukumel
  - Thabangi
  - Wale

Phonology

Consonants

Kham Pang has 22 consonants.

		Bilabial	Alveolar		Velar		Glottal
		Bilabial	Plain	Palatal	Plain	Labial	Glottal
Nasal		m	n		ŋ
Plosive	voiceless	p	t		k
	voiced	b	d		ɡ
	aspirated	pʰ	tʰ		kʰ
Affricate	voiceless		t͡s
	voiced		d͡z
	aspirated		t͡sʰ
Fricative	voiceless		s				h
Fricative	voiced		z
Rhotic			ɾ
Approximant	central			j		w
Approximant	lateral		l

The rhotic /ɾ/ is realized as a trill [r] at the end of words. Otherwise, it is a flap.

Vowels

Kham Pang has 25 vowels.

	Front					Central			Back
	unrounded			rounded		Central			unrounded			rounded
	short	long	nasal	short	long	short	long	nasal	short	long	nasal	short	long	nasal
Close	i	iː	ĩː	y	yː				ɯ	ɯː	ɯ̃ː	u	uː	ũː
Mid	e	eː	ẽː	ø	øː	ə	əː	ə̃ː				o	oː	õː
Open						a	aː	ãː

Tone

voice register

Reconstruction

Proto-Kham has been reconstructed by Watters (2002). Proto-Kham reconstructions from Watters (2002: 443-456) are given below.

A. Body parts

*r-dzəŋ ~ *b-dzəŋ 'back'
*yep 'back (upper)'
*phuː 'belly'
*dziːh 'blood'
*klaŋ 'body'
*s-rus 'bone'
*nun 'breast'
*sək 'breath'
*r-mehsiŋ 'buttocks'
*r-tso 'cheek'
*r-na 'ear'
*(ba)r-zut 'egg'
*mik 'eye'
*s-ŋa 'face'
*sot 'fat'
*r-sin 'fingernail'
*kəŋ 'foot'
*r-nihl 'gums'
*r-ta 'guts'
*muhl 'hair (body)'
*p-tsem 'hair (head)'
*kut 'hand'
- *r-la 'the under-arm area; side of the body'
*s-r-ŋat 'head'
*s-yiŋ 'heart'
*b-rəhŋ 'horn'
*sya 'animal'
*r-khap 'jawbone'
*kəl 'kidney'
*p-sin 'liver'
*yaːh 'mouth'
*s-məŋ 'mustache'
*r-dehŋ 'neck'
*s-nat 'nose'
*r-dzihs 'piss'
*s-nis 'pus'
*b-rəhm 'rib'
*p-s-til 'saliva'
*kli 'shit'
- *r-kək 'excrement in the intestine of a slaughtered animal'
*s-pum 'shoulder'
*r-sa 'sinew'
*l-kota 'skin'
*r-nahp 'snot'
*r-meh 'tail'
*r-pihl 'tears'
*r-b-yah 'thigh (upper side)'
*p-s-le 'tongue'
*ha-p-sya 'tooth'
*wohs 'vomit'
*hwaŋ 'waist'
*r-mil ~ *s-mil 'wind pipe'
*kər 'wing'

B. Pronouns/kinship terms/nouns referring to humans'

*dahpa 'bachelor'
*za 'child'
*nan 'friend'
*b-re 'husband'
*dahme 'maiden'
*r-min 'name'
*r-mi; *ruː 'person'
- *s-lepa 'man, male human'
- *miːma 'woman, female human' < *mi 'person' + *ma 'female'
*nana 'sister (older)'
*nam 'sister (younger)'
*nəŋ 'thou'
*dzya 'wife'

C. Foodstuff

*bəhres 'bread'
*tsip 'curry'
*r-zəm 'food'
*s-ŋən 'herbs'
*raŋrəi 'millet'
*r-mo 'mushroom'
*hek 'parched grain'
*tuk 'poison'
*(ya)kaŋ 'rice (cooked)'
*plima 'wheat'

D. Animal names or animal products

*səhr 'antelope'
*nim 'bear'
*r-pen 'bedbug'
*b-zin 'bee'
*bwa 'bird'
- *s-puŋ 'chick'
*gəl 'boar (wild)'
*b-s-rut 'bug'
*s-raŋ 'cat'
*har 'cow'
*kaːh 'dog'
*ŋah 'fish'
*tek 'frog'
*ra 'goat'
*r-ta 'horse'
*r-pəti 'leech'
*la 'leopard'
*syar 'louse'
*s-p-yu; *s-p-ya 'monkey'
*srəm 'otter'
*b-rəhŋ 'pheasant'
*wə 'pig'
*bi 'rat'
*luk 'sheep'
*guhl 'snake'
- *daŋ 'python, constricting snake'
*p-s-yap 'squirrel (flying)'
*s-kyar 'woodpecker'
*p-sən 'wool'

E. Natural objects or phenomena; the inanimate landscape; vegetable and mineral kingdoms

*r-plah 'ashes'
*kər 'branch'
*r-pup 'cave'
*la 'day'
- *tshyam 'a certain day'
*b-rih 'dirt'
*r-gəm 'earth'
*rihm 'evening'
*ehŋ 'field'
- *baŋ 'a field, meadow, bowl shaped valley'
*meh 'fire'
*p-set 'fruit'
*tshi 'grass'
*kuŋ 'hole'
*dzəhŋ 'iron'
*s-la 'leaf'
*r-nahm 'low country'
*p-s-ya + *hwot 'moon'
*goŋ 'mountain'
*rik; *mun 'night'
*r-wa 'rain'
*bəih 'river'
*yem 'road'
*s-rin 'root'
*sa + *pik 'salt'
*nup 'set (sun)'
*saŋ 'shadow'
*nəm 'sky'
*mihkut 'smoke' < *meːh 'fire' + *ku 'smoke'
*r-pom 'snow'
*səro 'star'
*r-dzuht 'stick'
*luŋ 'stone'
*nəmi(y) 'sun'
*b-zu 'thorn'
*siŋ 'tree'
*riːh 'water'
- *rihmun 'cooking water' < *riːh 'water' + *mun 'warm'
*rəhm 'weed'

F. Artifacts and social organization

*r-wan 'arrowhead'
*r-wa 'axe'
*r-beh(k) 'basket'
*li 'bow'
*tshəm 'bridge'
*pəsi(-s) 'broom'
*kwa 'cloth'
*yahm 'door'
*b-rihŋ 'drum'
*'gor 'circle'
*muhthap 'hearth' < *muh 'burn' + *thap 'hearth'
*zihm 'house'
- *r-bəŋ 'lower storey of house; cattle byre'
*khor 'knife'
*gur 'load'
*tən 'sleeping mat'
*b-lo 'large bamboo mat'
*tshum 'mortar'
*r-gəp 'a small needle'
*r-khap 'a large needle'
*b-zəhn 'net'
*r-gum 'pillow'
*gohr 'plow'
*b-dza 'pot'
*p-sip 'sheath'
*tsihŋ 'snare'
*gel 'spirit'
*naŋkhar; *nam 'village'
*ehn 'work'
*kum 'yoke'

G. Spatial/directional

*glahŋ 'across'
*chin 'behind'
*khar 'center'
*me 'down'
*s-ŋa 'front'
*thək 'upright'
*a-sniŋ 'year'
- *rta-sniŋ 'last year'
- *pərniŋ 'next year'

H. Numerals and quantifiers

*tə 'one'
*nehs 'two'
*sohm 'three'
*b-zi 'four'
*r-ŋa 'five'

I. Verbs of utterance, body position or function

*sən; *so 'awaken'
*klik 'cry'
*eh 'defecate'
*si 'die'
*b-yi 'fart'
*sas 'laugh'
- *p-s-rat 'to play'
- *b-s-res 'toy, plaything'
*nah 'rest'
*tsuŋ 'sit'
*r-ŋəhl; *em; *ruk ~ *ru-t 'sleep'
- *s-ip 'to put to sleep'
*p-tshis 'sneeze'
*s-paŋ 'speak'
*tsyahŋ 'stand'
*kəlet 'tickle'
*r-dzihs 'urinate'
*woh-t 'vomit' < CAUS. of wohs 'to spurt out'
*gəhr 'weep'

J. Verbs of motion

*kles 'arrive'
*rə-t 'bring'
*plu-s 'climb'
*huŋ 'come'
*plu-s 'emerge'
- *s-plu-t 'cause to emerge, expel'
*te-s 'fall'
*s-bur 'fly'
*z-ba 'go'
*b-la 'graze'
*mohŋ 'hide'
*zok 'run'

K. Verbs of emotion, cognition, perception

*r-məŋ 'dream'
*p-tshet 'fear'
*s-meŋ 'forget'
*that 'hear'
- *thas 'to be heard, audible'
*sən 'know'
*r-ses 'something, to know how'
*r-sək 'proud'
*rəhŋ 'see'
- *p-tsyu 'to look'
*s-ŋər; *s-nəm 'smell'
*b-ris 'tingle'

L. Stative verbs with human patients

*məhŋ 'drunk'
*sot 'fat'
*kre 'hunger'
*na 'ill'
*so 'itchy'
*tshaŋ 'pure'
*tsos 'thirst'

M. Stative verbs with non-human patients

*pək 'bad'
*li 'be'
*p-se 'bear fruit'
*s-ta-s 'become'
*ka 'bitter'
*pak 'broken'
*mom 'bud'
*p-set 'bud'
*r-pu-s 'burst'
*zihm; *gim 'cold'
*s-ta 'collapsed'
*s-kluŋ 'detach'
*thəŋ 'dried'
*yək 'full'
*p-tsa 'good'
*s-len 'greasy'
*piŋ 'green'
*gis < *s-lis 'heavy'
*s-gwaŋ 'hole'
*b-rah 'hot'
*wyi 'leak'
*bom 'light'
*s-lo; *b-re 'long'
*dzöhl 'loose'
*mah 'lost'
*s-dem ~ *them 'low'
*khət 'matched'
*sahr 'new'
*gyahm 'red'
*mihn 'ripe'
*tsik 'rotten'
*lum 'round'
*p-tsha 'sharp'
*tun 'short'
*zim 'small'
*b-sir 'sour'
*tuk 'spicy'
*sli-s 'stale'
*b-rehk 'sweet'
*ruhŋ 'thick'
*plek 'thin'
- *wa 'to be thin (esp. of boards)'
*mun 'warm'
*pal 'white'
- *plaŋ 'bright, illuminated'

N. Action verbs with human agent

*s-po 'beat'
*ŋih 'beg'
*kəi 'bite'
*s-mut 'blow'
- *phut 'to blow with bellows'
*r-lap 'bore'
*s-kle(t) 'break'
*hip 'burn'
*r-duhp 'butt'
*ləhŋ 'buy'
- *b-lot 'to lend to someone'
- *b-los 'to borrow'
*guhr 'carry'
*kloh 'catch'
*kwa-t 'clothe'
*r-sat 'comb'
*phin 'cook'
- *mihn 'to cook until done'
- *tso 'to boil'
*kəp 'cover'
*pəl 'cut'
- *kri 'to cut meat'
*p-syah 'dance'
*goh 'dig'
*gəp 'draw water'
*zya 'eat'
- *kəi 'to eat things which require chewing'
*hat 'extract'
*z-dət 'find'
*z-dup 'gather'
*ya 'give'
*p-set 'grind'
*r-guh 'guard'
*tup 'hammer'
*tsho 'herd'
*phok 'husk'
*lut 'insert'
*tak 'install'
*r-then 'kick'
*saht 'kill'
*kek 'ladle'
*b-rihm 'lay wall'
*lep 'lick'
*dzət 'make'
*pek 'milk'
*z-bra-t 'mix'
*pho-t 'open'
*phok 'pay'
*tik 'pick up'
*s-krəp 'pin closed'
*p-tsil 'pinch'
*p-sut 'plug'
*tek 'press'
*dzəhk 'put'
- *nat 'to set down, place'
*ra-s 'release'
*phit 'remove from fire'
*tsep 'ride'
*s-ŋo 'roast'
*b-zu 'rub'
- *p-sil 'to scrub'
*s-lom 'scald'
*sim 'scoop'
*s-pik 'scrape'
- *pur 'to scratch'
*s-nan 'seize'
*p-yet 'sell'
*s-priŋ 'send'
*ruhp 'sew'
*p-yen 'shave'
*gap 'shoot'
*s-tən 'show'
*kok 'skin, peel'
*phyak 'snap'
*tshim 'soak'
*was 'sow seed'
*khəl 'spin wool'
*p-si 'split firewood'
*tser 'squeeze'
*ku 'steal'
- *rok 'to ransack, rummage'
*r-wal 'stir'
*on 'stop'
*sit 'sweep'
*p-sik ~ *p-sis 'teach'
*p-tsit 'tear'
*khya 'throw'
*s-ki 'tie'
*s-to 'trade'
*kil 'twist'
*s-krup 'unfold'
*bohk 'uproot'
*tse 'wash'
- *r-za 'to wash hair'
*rəhk 'weave'
- *rihn 'to set up a loom'
*hul 'whet'

References

Eastern Parbate Kham at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
Gamale kham at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
Sheshi Kham at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
Western Parbate Pang at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Kham". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.

Kansakar, Tej R. (July 1993), "The Tibeto-Burman Languages of Nepal, A General Survey" (PDF), Contributions to Nepalese Studies, Kirtipur, Nepal: Tribhuvan University, 20 (2): 165–173, retrieved April 10, 2011
Watters, David E. (2002), A grammar of Kham, Cambridge grammatical descriptions, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-81245-3

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[e18-1] Eastern Parbate Kham at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
Gamale kham at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
Sheshi Kham at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
Western Parbate Pang at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)

[Glottolog-2] Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Kham". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.

Greater Magaric languages
Magaric	Magar Kham
Chepangic	Chepang Bhujel
Raji-Raute	Raji Raute Rawat
others	Dura Tandrange