Fiji Hindi

Fiji Hindi or Fijian Hindi (Fiji Hindi: फ़िजी हिंदी), also known locally as simply Hindustani, is an Indo-Aryan language spoken by most Fijian citizens of Indian descent, though a few speak other languages at home.[1] It is an Eastern Hindi language, generally considered to be an older dialect of the Awadhi language spoken in central and east Uttar Pradesh that has been subject to considerable influence by Bhojpuri, Magahi and other Bihari languages. It has also borrowed some words from the English and Fijian languages. Many words unique to Fiji Hindi have been created to cater for the new environment that Indo-Fijians now live in.[3] First-generation Indians in Fiji, who used the language as a lingua franca in Fiji, referred to it as Fiji Baat, "Fiji talk". It is closely related to Caribbean Hindustani and the Hindustani language spoken in Mauritius and South Africa.

Fiji Hindi
फ़िजी बात
Fiji Baat
Native toFiji
EthnicityIndo-Fijians and the Indo-Fijian diaspora
Native speakers
(460,000 cited 1991)[1]
Indo-European
Signed Hindi
Official status
Official language in
 Fiji
Language codes
ISO 639-3hif
Glottologfiji1242[2]

History

These are the percentages of each language and dialect spoken by indentured labourers who came to Fiji.

Language/DialectNumberPercentage
Bihari dialects (Includes Bhojpuri, Maithili and Magahi)17,86839.3%
Eastern Hindi dialects (Awadhi)16,87137.1%
Western Hindi dialects (Dehlavi, Bundeli, etc...)6,90315.2%
Rajasthani dialects1,1112.4%
Dravidian languages (Tamil, Telugu, etc...)2,1864.8%

Indian indentured labourers mainly spoke dialects from the Hindi Belt. Initially, the majority of labourers came to Fiji from districts of central and eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, while a small percentage hailed from North-West Frontier and South India such as Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Over time, a distinct Indo-Aryan language with an Eastern Hindi substratum developed in Fiji, combining elements of the Hindi languages spoken in these areas with some native Fijian and English. The development of Fiji Hindi was accelerated by the need for labourers speaking different languages to work together and by the practice of leaving young children in early versions of day-care centers during working hours. Percy Wright, who lived in Fiji during the indenture period, wrote:

Indian children born in Fiji will have a mixed language; there are many different dialects amongst the Indian population, and of course much intercourse with the Fijians. The children pick up a little of each language, and do not know which is the one originally spoken by their parents.

— [4]

Other writers, including Burton[5] (1914) and Lenwood[6] (1917), made similar observations. By the late 1920s all Fiji Indian children born in Fiji learned Fiji Hindi, which became the common language in Fiji of North and South Indians alike.[7]

Status
Pidgin Hindustani
Fiji Hindi-based pidgin
Language codes
ISO 639-3None (mis)
Glottologpidg1251[8]

Later, approximately 15,000 Indian indentured labourers, who were mainly speakers of Dravidian languages (Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Tulu, and Malayalam), were brought from South India. By this time Fiji Hindi was well established as the lingua franca of Indo-Fijians and the Southern Indian labourers had to learn it to communicate with the more numerous Northern Indians and their European overseers. After the end of the indenture system, Indians who spoke Gujarati and Punjabi arrived in Fiji as free immigrants. A few Indo-Fijians speak Tamil, Telugu, and Gujarati at home, but all are fluently conversant and able to communicate using Fiji Hindi. The census reports of 1956 and 1966 shows the extent to which Fiji Hindi (referred to as 'Hindustani' in the census) was being spoken in Indo-Fijian households.

Language Number of households in 1956 Number of households in 1966
Fijian Hindustani17,16430,726
Hindi3,644783
Tamil1,498999
Urdu1,233534
Gujarati830930
Telugu797301
Punjabi468175
Malayalam13447
Other90359

Fiji Hindi is also understood and even spoken by Indigenous Fijians in areas of Fiji where there are large Indo-Fijian communities. A pidgin form of the language is used by rural ethnic Fijians, as well as Chinese on the islands, while Pidgin Fijian is spoken by Indo-Fijians.

Following the recent political upheaval in Fiji, many Indo-Fijians have emigrated to Australia, New Zealand, Canada and the United States, where they have largely maintained their traditional Indo-Fijian culture, language, and religion.

Some writers have begun to use Fiji Hindi, until very recently a spoken language only, as a literary language. The Bible has now been translated into Fiji Hindi, and the University of the South Pacific has recently begun offering courses in the language. Fiji Hindi is written using both the Latin script and the Devanāgarī script.

A Fiji Hindi movie has also been produced depicting Indo-Fijian life and is based on a play by local playwright, Raymond Pillai.[9]

Phonology

The phonemes of Fiji Hindi are very similar to Standard Hindi, but there are some important distinctions. As in the Bhojpuri and Awadhi dialects of the Hindi Belt spoken in rural India, mainly Bihar and Eastern Uttar Pradesh — the consonant /ʃ/ is replaced with /s/ (for example, saadi instead of shaadi) and /ʋ/ replaced with /b/ (for example, bid-es instead of videsh). There is also a tendency to ignore the differences between the consonants /pʰ/ and /f/ (In Fiji Hindi a fruit is fal instead of phal) and between /d͡ʒ/ and /z/ (in Fiji Hindi land is jameen instead of zameen). The consonant /n/ is used in Fiji Hindi for the nasal sounds /ŋ/, /ɲ/ and /ɳ/ in Standard Hindi. These features are common in the Eastern Hindi dialects.[10] Some other characteristics of Fiji Hindi which is similar to Bhojpuri and Awadhi are:

  • Pronunciation of the vowels ai and au as diphthongs /ɐɪ ɐʊ/, rather than monophthongs /ɛː ɔː/ (as in standard Hindi). For example, bhauji (sister-in-law) and gaiya (cow).
  • Coda clusters are removed with the use of epenthetic vowels. For example, dharm (religion) is pronounced as dharam.
  • Shortening of long vowels before a stressed syllable. For example, Raajen (a common name) is pronounced as Rajen.[11]

Pronouns
Pronoun Fiji Hindi Standard Hindi
I Hum Main
You (Informal) Tum Tu/Tum
You (Formal) Aap Aap
We Hum log Hum/Hum log

Morphology

Verb

Etymology

In Fiji Hindi verb forms have been influenced by a number of Hindi dialects in India. First and second person forms of verbs in Fiji Hindi are the same, there is no gender distinction and number distinction is only in the third person past tense. Although, gender is used in third person past tense by the usage of "raha" for a male versus "rahi" for a female.

The use of the first and second person imperfective suffixes -taa, -at are of Awadhi origin. Example: तुम मन्दिर जाता हैं / तुम मन्दिर जात हैं। "tum Mandir jaata hai/tum Mandir jaat hai." (You are going to the Temple).

While the third person imperfective suffix -e is of Bhojpuri origin. Example: ई बिल्ली मच्छरी खावे हैं। "Ee billi macchari KHAWE hai." (This cat is eating a fish).

The third person perfective suffixes (for transitive verbs) -is and -in are also derived from Awadhi. Example: किसान गन्ना काटीस रहा। "Kisaan ganna katees raha." (The farmer cut the sugarcane). पण्डित लोगन रामायण पढ़ीन रहा/पण्डित लोगन रामायण पढ़े रहीन। "Pandit logan Ramayan padheen raha/padhe raheen." (The priests read the Ramayana).

The third person definite future suffix -ii is found in both Awadhi and Bhojpuri. Example: प्रधानमंत्री हमलोग के पैसा दई। "Pradhanamantri humlog ke paisa daii" (The prime minister will give us money).

The influence of Hindustani is evident in the first and second person perfective suffix -aa and the first and second person future siffix -ega. Example: हम करा। तुम करेगा। "Hum karaa, tum karega." (I did, you will do).

The origin of the imperative suffix -o can be traced to the Magahi dialect. Example: तुम अपन मुह खोलो। "Tum apan muh khulo." (You open your mouth). Spoken in the Gaya and Patna districts, which provided a sizeable proportion of the first indentured labourers from Northern India to Fiji.

Fiji Hindi has developed its own polite imperative suffix -naa. Example: आप घर के सफा कर लेना। "Aap ghar ke sapha kar Lena." (You clean the house (polite)).

The suffix -be, from Bhojpuri, is used in Fiji Hindi in emphatic sentences.

Another suffix originating from Awadhi is -it. Example: ई लोगन पानी काहे नहीं पीत हैं। "Ee logan paani kahey nahi peet hai." (Why aren't these people drinking water." but is at present going out of use.

Tenses

Fiji Hindi tenses are relatively similar to tenses in Standard Hindi. Bhojpuri and Awadhi influence the Fiji Hindi tenses.

Sentence Fiji Hindi Standard Hindi
To come आना Aana आना (ānā)
Come! आओ Aao! आओ! (āo!)
(I) am coming हम आता हैं Ham aata hai मैं आ रहा हूँ (ma͠i ā rahā hū̃)
(I) came हम आया रहा Ham aaya raha मैं आया (ma͠i āyā)
(I) will come हम आयेगा Ham aayega मैं आऊंगा (ma͠i āūṅgā)
(I) was coming हम आत (आवत) रहा Ham aat (aawat) raha मैं आ रहा था (ma͠i ā rahā thā)
(I) used to play हम खेलत रहा Ham khelat raha मैं खेला करता था (ma͠i khelā kartā thā)
(He/she/they) is/are coming ऊ आवे हैं / ऊ लोगन आत हैं oo aawe hai/oo logan aat hai वो आ रहा है/वह आ रही है/वे आ रहे हैं
(vo ā rahā hai/vah ā rahī hai/ve ā rahe ha͠i)
(He/she) came ऊ आईस Oo Aais वह आया/वह आई (vah āyā/vah āī)
(They) came ऊ लोगन आईन Oo logan Aain वे आये (ve āye)

Grammatical features
  • Fiji Hindi does not have plurals. For example, one house is ek gharr and two houses is dui gharr. In this example, the number is used to denote plurality. Plurals can also be stated with the use of log. For example, ee means "this person" (singular) and ee log means "these people" (plural). Sabb (all) and dHerr (many) are also used to denote plural. There are some exceptions, however. For example, a boy is larrka (single) but boys are larrkan (plural). Older generations still use a similar form of plural, for example, admian, for more than one man (singular: admi).
  • There is no definite article ("the") in Fiji Hindi, but definite nouns can be made by adding the suffix wa; for example, larrka (a boy) and larrkwa (the boy). Definite nouns are also created using the suffix "kana"; for example, chhota (small) and chhotkana (the small one). Another way of indicating a definite article is by the use of pronouns: ii (this), uu (that) and wahii (the same one).

Fijian loan words

Indo-Fijians now use native Fijian words for those things that were not found in their ancestral India but which existed in Fiji. These include most fish names and root crops. For example, kanade for mullet (fish) and kumaala for sweet potato or yam. Other examples are:

Fiji Hindi
Latin ScriptDevanāgarī ScriptFijian originMeaning
nangonaनंगोनाyaqonakava
tabaleतबालेtavalewife's brother
biloबिलोbilocup made of coconut, used to drink kava

Words derived from English

Many English words have also been borrowed into Fiji Hindi with sound changes to fit the Indo-Fijian pronunciation. For example, hutel in Fiji Hindi is borrowed from hotel in English. Some words borrowed from English have a specialised meaning, for example, garaund in Fiji Hindi means a playing field, geng in Fiji Hindi means a "work gang", particularly a cane-cutting gang in the sugar cane growing districts and tichaa in Fiji Hindi specifically means a female teacher. There are also unique Fijian Hindi words created from English words, for example, kantaap means cane-top.

Semantic shifts

Indian languages

Many words of Hindustani origin have shifted meaning in Fiji Hindi. These are due to either innovations in Fiji or continued use of the old meaning in Fiji Hindi when the word is either not used in Standard Hindi anymore or has evolved a different meaning altogether.[12] Some examples are:

Fiji Hindi wordFiji Hindi meaningOriginal Hindustani meaning
baadefloodflooding
bekaarbad, not good, uselessunemployed, nothing to do, or useless
bhagaoelopeabduct
bighaacre1 bigha = 1600 square yards or 0.1338 hectare or 0.3306-acre (1,338 m2)
bihaantomorrowtomorrow morning (Bhojpuri)
BombaiyaaMarathi/Gujaratis (Indians)from city of Mumbai
fokatiyaauselessbankrupt
gapliegossip, idle talk, chit chat
jaatiracecaste (more often misused/misunderstood as a term to reference a native Fijian)
jhaapshedtemporarily built shed
jorfast, quickforce, strength, exertion
juluumbeautifultyranny, difficulty, amazing (Hindustani zalim, meaning "cruel", is metaphorically used for a beautiful object of affection)
kalyesterdayyesterday or tomorrow
kamaaniismall spear (for prawns)wire, spring
khassimale goatcastrated animal
konchijwhatfrom kaun chij (Awadhi), literally meaning what thing or what stuff
maalikgodemployer/owner or god
MandaraajiSouth Indianoriginal word, Madraasi, meant "from Madras (or Tamil Nadu)"
palladoorshutter
PunjabiSikhnative of Punjab, whether Hindu, Muslim or Sikh

English

Many words of English origin have shifted meaning in Fiji Hindi.

English wordFiji Hindi meaning
pursewallet
theatrecinema
teacherfemale teacher
enginelocomotive (in addition to usual vehicle/boat engines)
pipetap (faucet) (in addition to artificially made tubes)
cabbageChinese cabbage or bok choy
seteverything is ok (used as a statement or question)
rightok (used as a statement)

Counting

Though broadly based on standard Hindi, counting in Fiji Hindi reflects a number of cross-language and dialectal influences acquired in the past 125 years.

The pronunciation for numbers between one and ten show slight inflections, seemingly inspired by Bihari dialects such as Bhojpuri. The number two, consequently, is दो (do) in standard Hindi, while in Fiji Hindi it is dui (दुइ), just as it is in Bhojpuri.

Words for numbers between 10 and 99 present a significant difference between standard and Fiji Hindi. While, as in other north Indian languages, words for numbers in standard Hindustani are formed by mentioning units first and then multiples of ten, Fiji Hindi reverses the order and mentions the tens multiple first and the units next, as is the practice in many European and South-Indian languages. That is to say, while "twenty-one" in Standard Hindi is इक्कीस (ikkīs), an internal sandhi of ek aur biis, or "one-and-twenty", in Fiji Hindi the order would be reversed, and simply be biis aur ek (बिस और एक), without any additional morpho-phonological alteration. Similarly, while the number thirty-seven in standard Hindi is सैंतीस (saintīs), for saat aur tiis or "seven-and-thirty", the number would be tiis aur saat (तिस और सात), or 'thirty-and-seven' in Fiji Hindi.

Additionally, powers of ten beyond ten-thousand, lakh (100,000) and karor (10 million) are not used in Fiji Hindi.

Numeral EnglishHindiFiji Hindi
21 twenty-oneइक्कीस (ikkīs)bis aur ek
22 twenty-twoबाईस (bāīs)bis aur dui
23 twenty-threeतेईस (teīs)bis aur teen
31 thirty-oneइकत्तीस (ikattīs)tiis aur ek
32 thirty-twoबत्तीस (battīs)tiis aur dui
33 thirty-threeतैंतीस (taintīs)tiis aur teen
41 forty-oneइकतालीस (iktālīs)chaalis aur ek
42 forty-twoबयालीस (bayālīs)chaalis aur dui
43 forty-threeतैंतालीस (taintālīs)chaalis aur teen

Spread overseas

With political upheavals in Fiji beginning with the first military coup in 1987, large numbers of Indo-Fijians have since migrated overseas and at present there are significant communities of Indo-Fijian expatriates in Australia, New Zealand, Canada and the United States. Smaller communities also reside on other Pacific Islands and Britain. The last census in each of the countries where Fiji Hindi is spoken (counting Indo-Fijians who were born in Fiji) provides the following figures:

Country Number of Fiji-born Indo-Fijians
Fiji 313,798[13]
New Zealand 27,882[14]
Australia 27,542[15]
United States 24,345[16]
Canada 22,770[17]
Tonga 310[18]

Writers
  • Rodney F. Moag, who had lived in India before joining the University of the South Pacific as a lecturer. He analysed Fiji Hindi and concluded that it was a unique language with its own distinct grammar, rather than "broken Hindi", as it had been previously referred to. Moag documented his findings and wrote lessons using the Fijian Hindi dialect in the book, Fiji Hindi: a basic course and reference grammar (1977).
  • Jeff Siegel, in his thesis on Plantation languages in Fiji (1985), has written a detailed account of the development of Fiji Hindi and its different forms as used by Indo-Fijians and Indigenous Fijians. Earlier, Siegel had written a quick reference guide called Say it in Fiji Hindi (1976).
  • Subramani, professor in literature at the University of the South Pacific, who wrote the first Fiji Hindi novel, Duaka Puraan (2001), which is the story of Fiji Lal (an old villager) as told by him to a visiting scholar to his village. The book is written in the style of the Puraans but in a humorous way (Puraan being a sacred text also known as Purana; 18 Puraans have come out of India). He received a Government of India award for his contribution to Hindi language and literature for this novel. In June 2003, in Suriname at the Seventh World Hindi Conference, Professor Subramani was presented with a special award for this novel.
  • Raymond C. Pillai wrote the story for the first Fiji Hindi movie, Adhura Sapna (Incomplete Dream), produced in 2007.
  • Urmila Prasad, who helped translate the Biblical Gospels of Mark, Luke, Matthew and John into Fiji Hindi, written using Roman script, known as Susamaachaar Aur Romiyo (2002)
gollark: It's the town we took you to. On that very long trip. Through the nether.
gollark: Well, Void Town™ mostly needs... more resources generally, I guess, but particularly ender pearls and End access.
gollark: It's a country.
gollark: I have a solar panel and some machines.
gollark: remotecraft.cc is the IP, though it's in the pack anyway, and make sure to set 3072MB of RAM or something.

See also

References
  1. Fiji Hindi at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
  2. Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Fiji Hindi". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
  3. "Hindi Diwas 2018: Hindi travelled to these five countries from India".
  4. Wright, Percey (1910). Seventy-two years in Australia and the South Pacific. Sydney: Mitchell Library.
  5. Burton, John W. (1910). The Fiji of Today. London: Charles H. Kelly.
  6. Lenwood, F. (1917). Pastels from the Pacific. London: Oxford University Press.
  7. Hands, W. J. (1929). Polynesia. Westminster: Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts.
  8. Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Pidgin Hindustani". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
  9. "Fiji Hindi film set to be released soon". Fijilive. 9 February 2007. Retrieved 10 July 2007.
  10. Barz, Richard K.; Jeff Siegel (1988). Language transplanted: the development of overseas Hindi. Wiesbaden: OttoHarrassowitz. p. 127. ISBN 3-447-02872-6.
  11. South Asian bilingualism: Hindi and Bhojpuri
  12. Barz, Richard; Jeff Siegel (1988). Language Transplanted: The Development of Overseas Hindi. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz. ISBN 3-447-02872-6.
  13. Fiji - 2007 census Archived 9 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  14. "New Zealand - 2006 census". Archived from the original on 17 May 2011. Retrieved 11 April 2011.
  15. "Australian Government - 2006 census" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 September 2006. Retrieved 11 April 2011.
  16. United States - 2000 census
  17. Migration Facts Stats and Maps
  18. Tonga census 2006

Bibliography
  • Siegel Jeff, Plantation Languages in Fiji, Australian National University, 1985 (Published as Language Contact in a Plantation Environment: A Sociolinguistic History of Fiji, Cambridge University Press, 1987, recently reprinted in paperback).
  • Siegel, Jeff (1977). Say it in Fiji Hindi. Sydney: Pacific Publications (Aust) Pty Ltd. ISBN 0-85807-026-X.
  • Moag, Rodney F. (1977). Fiji Hindi: A basic course and reference grammar. Canberra: Australian National University. ISBN 0-7081-1574-8.
  • R. F., ', 1977
  • Barz, Richard K.; Jeff Siegel (1988). Language transplanted: the development of overseas Hindi. Wiesbaden: OttoHarrassowitz. ISBN 3-447-02872-6.
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