Australopithecine

Australopithecina or Hominina is a subtribe in the tribe Hominini. The members of the subtribe are generally Australopithecus (cladistically including the genera Homo, Paranthropus,[2] and Kenyanthropus), and it typically includes the earlier Ardipithecus, Orrorin, Sahelanthropus, and Graecopithecus. All these related species are now sometimes collectively termed australopithecines or homininians.[3][4] They are the extinct, close relatives of humans and, with the extant genus Homo, comprise the human clade. Members of the human clade, i.e. the Hominini after the split from the chimpanzees, are now called Hominina[5] (see Hominidae; terms "hominids" and hominins).

Australopithecines
Temporal range: Pliocene–Present, 5.6 – 0 Mya (Range includes humans (Homo))
Australopithecus sediba
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Suborder: Haplorhini
Infraorder: Simiiformes
Family: Hominidae
Subfamily: Homininae
Tribe: Hominini
Subtribe: Australopithecina
Gregory & Hellman, 1939
Type species
†Australopithecus africanus
Dart, 1925
Genera
Synonyms

Hominina

While none of the groups normally directly assigned to this group survived, the australopithecines do not appear to be literally extinct (in the sense of having no living descendants) as the genera Kenyanthropus, Paranthropus and Homo probably emerged as sister of a late Australopithecus species such as A. africanus and/or A. sediba.

The terms australopithecine, et al., come from a former classification as members of a distinct subfamily, the Australopithecinae.[6] Members of Australopithecus are sometimes referred to as the "gracile australopithecines", while Paranthropus are called the "robust australopithecines".[7][8]

The australopithecines occurred in the Plio-Pleistocene era and were bipedal, and they were dentally similar to humans, but with a brain size not much larger than that of modern apes, with lesser encephalization than in the genus Homo.[9] Humans (genus Homo) may have descended from australopithecine ancestors and the genera Ardipithecus, Orrorin, Sahelanthropus, and Graecopithecus are the possible ancestors of the australopithecines.[8]

Phylogeny

Phylogeny of subtribe Australopithecina according to Briggs & Crowther 2008, p. 124.

Physical characteristics

The post-cranial remains of australopithecines show they were adapted to bipedal locomotion, but did not walk identically to humans. They have a high brachial index (forearm/upper arm ratio) when compared to other hominins, and they exhibit greater sexual dimorphism than members of Homo or Pan but less so than Gorilla or Pongo. It is thought that they averaged heights of 1.2–1.5 metres (3.9–4.9 ft) and weighed between 30 and 55 kilograms (66 and 121 lb). The brain size may have been 350 cc to 600 cc. The postcanines (the teeth behind the canines) were relatively large, and had more enamel compared to contemporary apes and humans, whereas the incisors and canines were relatively small, and there was little difference between the males' and females' canines compared to modern apes.[8]

Relation to Homo

Most scientists maintain that one of the australopithecine species evolved into the genus Homo in Africa around two million years ago. However, there is no consensus on which species:

"Determining which species of australopithecine (if any) is ancestral to the genus Homo is a question that is a top priority for many paleoanthropologists, but one that will likely elude any conclusive answers for years to come. Nearly every possible species has been suggested as a likely candidate, but none are overwhelmingly convincing. Presently, it appears that A. garhi has the potential to occupy this coveted place in paleoanthropology, but the lack of fossil evidence is a serious problem. Another problem presents itself in the fact that it has been very difficult to assess which hominid [now "hominin"] represents the first member of the genus Homo. Without knowing this, it is not possible to determine which species of australopithecine may have been ancestral to Homo."[8]

Marc Verhaegen has argued that an australopithecine species could have also been ancestral to the genus Pan (i.e. chimpanzees).[10]

Asian australopithecines
See also: Meganthropus

A minority held viewpoint among palaeoanthropologists is that australopithecines moved outside Africa. A notable proponent of this theory is Jens Lorenz Franzen, formerly Head of Paleoanthropology at the Research Institute Senckenberg. Franzen argues that robust australopithecines had reached not only Indonesia, as Meganthropus, but also China:

"In this way we arrive at the conclusion that the recognition of australopithecines in Asia would not confuse but could help to clarify the early evolution of hominids ["hominins"] on that continent. This concept would explain the scanty remains from Java and China as relic of an Asian offshoot of an early radiation of Australopithecus, which was followed much later by an [African] immigration of Homo erectus, and finally became extinct after a period of coexistence."[11]

In 1957, an Early Pleistocene Chinese fossil tooth of unknown province was described as resembling P. robustus. Three fossilized molars from Jianshi, China (Longgudong Cave) were later identified as belonging to an Australopithecus species (Gao, 1975). However further examination questioned this interpretation; Zhang (1984) argued the Jianshi teeth and unidentified tooth belong to H. erectus. Liu et al. (2010) also dispute the Jianshi-australopithecine link and argue the Jianshi molars fall within the range of Homo erectus:

"No marked difference in dental crown shape is shown between the Jianshi hominin and other Chinese Homo erectus, and there is also no evidence in support of the Jianshi hominin's closeness to Australopithecus."

But, Wolpoff (1999) notes that in China "persistent claims of australopithecine or australopithecine-like remains continue".

gollark: Contrary to gnobody belief, it sort of is.
gollark: I *might*, although I probably wouldn't want to continue living literally forever even when the universe has no more harvestable energy (assuming this happens).
gollark: But I don't really want to live for just 80 years or whatever it is.
gollark: I mean, full immortality i.e. you literally can never die might be apioforms.
gollark: Sometimes we construct arbitrarily recursive subuniverses and extract all possible energy from them.

See also

Notes
  1. Stanford 2012.
  2. Wood 2010.
  3. Wood & Richmond 2000.
  4. Briggs & Crowther 2008, p. 124.
  5. "GEOL 204 The Fossil Record: The Scatterlings of Africa: the Origins of Humanity". www.geol.umd.edu. Retrieved 24 December 2016.
  6. Kottak 2004.
  7. Mai, Owl & Kersting 2005.
  8. Szpak, P. (2007). "Evolution of the Australopithecines". Tree of Life.
  9. Mai, Owl & Kersting 2005, p. 45.
  10. Verhaegen, M (1990). "African ape ancestry". Human Evolution. 5 (3): 295–297. doi:10.1007/BF02437246.
  11. Franzen 1985.

References
  • Briggs, D.; Crowther, P. R., eds. (2008). Palaeobiology II. John Wiley & Sons. p. 600. ISBN 9780470999288.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
  • Cela-Conde, C. J.; Ayala, F. J. (2003). "Genera of the human lineage". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 100 (13): 7684–7689. doi:10.1073/pnas.0832372100. PMC 164648. PMID 12794185.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
  • Franzen, J. L. (1985). "Asian australopithecines?". In: Hominid Evolution: Past, Present, and Future. New York: Wiley-Liss, 255–263.
  • Gao, J (1975). "Australopithecine teeth associated with Gigantopithecus". Vertebrata PalAsiatica. 13 (2): 81–88.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
  • Kottak, C. P. (2004). "Glossary". Cultural Anthropology: The Exploration of Human Diversity (10th ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0072832259.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
  • Liu, Wu; Clarke, Ronald; Xing, Song (2010). "Geometric morphometric analysis of the early Pleistocene hominin teeth from Jianshi, Hubei Province, China". Science China Earth Sciences. 53 (8): 1141–1152. doi:10.1007/s11430-010-4013-0.
  • Mai, L. L.; Owl, M. Y.; Kersting, M. P. (2005). The Cambridge Dictionary of Human Biology and Evolution. Cambridge & New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 45. ISBN 978-0-521-66486-8.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
  • Stanford, C. B. (2012). "Chimpanzees and the behavior of Ardipithecus ramidus". Annual Review of Anthropology. 41: 139–149. doi:10.1146/annurev-anthro-092611-145724.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
  • Wood, B. (2010). "Reconstructing human evolution: Achievements, challenges, and opportunities". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 107: 8902–8909. doi:10.1073/pnas.1001649107. PMC 3024019. PMID 20445105.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
  • Wood, B.; Richmond, B. G. (2000). "Human evolution: Taxonomy and paleobiology". Journal of Anatomy. 197 (Pt 1): 19–60. doi:10.1046/j.1469-7580.2000.19710019.x. PMC 1468107. PMID 10999270.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
  • Wolpoff, M. H. (1999). Paleoanthropology. New York: McGraw-Hill.
  • Zhang, Y. (1985). "Gigantopithecus and "Australopithecus in China". In: Palaeoanthropology and palaeolithic archaeology in the People’s Republic of China, 69–78.
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