Mass surveillance in China

Mass surveillance in China is the network of monitoring systems used by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) to supervise the lives of Chinese citizens under CCP General Secretary Xi Jinping's administration.[2] It is primarily conducted through the government, although non-publicized corporate surveillance in connection with the Chinese government has been speculated to occur. China monitors its citizens through Internet, camera as well as through other digital technologies.[3][4] Mass surveillance in China is closely related to its Social Credit System, and has significantly expanded under the China Internet Security Law and with the help of local companies like Tencent, Dahua Technology, Hikvision, SenseTime, ByteDance,[5] Megvii, Huawei and ZTE, among many others.[6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13] As of 2019, it is estimated that 200 million monitoring CCTV cameras of the "Skynet" system have been put to use in mainland China, four times as many surveillance cameras in the United States.[3][14][15] By 2020, the number of surveillance cameras in mainland China is expected to reach 626 million.[16][17][18]

Surveillance cameras at Tiananmen Square in 2009. In 2019, Comparitech reported that 8 out of 10 of the most monitored cities in the world are in China.[1]
Part of a series on
Mass surveillance
By location

History

Origin

Mass surveillance in China emerged in the Maoist era after the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949.[19] Mao invented this mechanism of control that encompassed the entire nation and its people in order to strengthen his power in the newly founded government.[19] In the early years, when technology was relatively undeveloped in China, mass surveillance was realized through disseminating information by word of mouth.[19] Chinese people kept a watchful eye on one another and reported inappropriate behaviors that infringed upon the dominant social ideals of the time.[19]

21st century
See also: Internet in China and Supercomputing in China

In the late 20th century and 21st century, as a result of the Chinese economic reform, computer and Internet technology spread to China.[20] As a result, more means of mass surveillance emerged. NSA whistleblower Edward Snowden said China's mass surveillance mechanisms and machinery of private communications was “utterly mind-boggling”.[21] The most notable mechanisms today are mass camera surveillance on the streets, Internet surveillance, and newly invented surveillance methods based on social credit and identity.[4][22]

As part of a broader surveillance push, the Chinese government also encouraged the use of various mobile phone apps. Local regulators launched mobile apps for national security purposes and to allow citizens to report violations, "which is a way for residents to conduct social supervision," according to a commentary in the state-run tabloid Global Times.[23][24] Besides mobile phone apps, the Chinese central government has adopted facial recognition technology, surveillance drones, robot police, and big data collection targeting online social media platforms to monitor its citizens.[25][26][27]

As of 2019, it is estimated that 200 million monitoring CCTV cameras of the "Skynet" system have been put to use in mainland China, four times as many as the surveillance cameras in the United States.[3][14][15] State media in China claim that Skynet is the largest video surveillance system in the world, utilizing facial recognition technology and big data analysis.[10][28][29] In 2019, Comparitech reported that 8 out of 10 most monitored cities in the world are in China, with Chongqing, Shenzhen and Shanghai being the world's top 3.[16][30][31] In addition, the number of surveillance cameras in mainland China is expected to reach 626 million by 2020, while Shenzhen alone reportedly intends to raise its number of surveillance cameras from 1.93 million to 16.68 million in the upcoming years.[16][17][18] In 2019, China supplies surveillance Technology to most of the world, positioning the country to have control over the Mass surveillance industry.[32]

Timeline
  • In 2011, the Beijing Municipal Science & Technology Commission proposed a mobile phone tracking program, to be called the Information Platform of Real-time Citizen Movement, which was ostensibly intended to ease traffic flow on the city's streets.[33]
  • Officials asserted that in the four years up to 2012, 100,000 crimes had been solved with the aid of the cameras. However, a critic said that "one of the most important purposes of such a smart surveillance system is to crack down on social unrest triggered by petitioners and dissidents."[34]
  • In 2013, the government saw the severe atmospheric pollution in Chinese cities as a security threat because the closed-circuit television cameras were rendered useless.[35] In December 2013, the Vice Minister of the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology asked China Telecom, a major landline and mobile telephone company, to implement a real name registration scheme.
  • In 2014, it followed with a request to regulate the dissemination of objectionable information over the network.[36] Also in 2014, China have used a government-backed brain and emotional surveillance project on an unprecedented scale in factories, public transport, state-owned companies and the military.[37][38]
  • In January 2014, the State Administration of Press, Publication, Radio, Film, and Television announced that real names would be required of users who wished to upload videos to Chinese web sites. The agency explained that the requirement was meant to prevent vulgar content, base art forms, exaggerated violence and sexual content in Internet video having a negative effect on society.[39]
  • In 2016, China introduced a cybersecurity law, requiring Internet companies to store all network logs for at least six months and to store all personal data and critical information within mainland China.[40] Also in 2016, China deploys AnBot Police Robot equipped with stun weapon and facial recognition cameras start patrolling the Shenzhen airport.[41]
  • In 2018, Chinese law enforcement officials have been equipped with facial recognition Smartglasses in order to apprehend criminals, especially drug smugglers.[42] This technology was adopted at the 2017 Qingdao International Beer Festival.[42] With the assistance of it, policemen captured many criminals, including 25 fugitives, 19 drug smugglers, and 37 plagiarists.[42] Also in 2018, Chinese authorities admitted for the first time that they could access WeChat users' deleted messages without their permission.[43] The Chaohu city discipline inspection and supervision commission retrieved a suspect's entire conversation history that had already been deleted in one incident.[43]
  • In March 2019, China announced a regulation on small video apps, which was deemed to be a method preventing teenagers' Internet addiction by China. It allows related apps tracing users' location and analyzing users' behaviors to forcibly trigger teenager mode. It started in March 2019 and was used in all small video apps by June.[44] In 2019, China announced that the third generation of Resident Identity Cards will be able to trace location. Blood information will also be collected and recorded in the card.[45]
  • By 2020, according to an official document released in 2015, the Chinese government aims to build a nationwide video surveillance network for ensuring public security which will be omnipresent, fully networked, working all the time, and fully controllable.[46]

Technologies

Internet
See also: WeChat § State surveillance, and Internet censorship in China

The Chinese government has been strengthening its tight control over the Internet and digital communication. There are more than 750 million Internet users in China, and their online actions are strictly regulated.[47] In 2017, the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC) released a new regulation, which imposed restrictions on the production and distribution of online news.[48] The regulation required all platforms, such as online blogs, forums, websites, and social media apps to be managed by party-sanctioned editorial staff.[48] These staff must obtain approval from the national or local government Internet and information offices and be trained by the central government.[48] As required by the Chinese government, major internet platforms and messaging services in China established elaborate self-censorship mechanisms. Some have hired teams of thousands to police content and invested in powerful artificial intelligence algorithms.[49] In 2019, on the 30th anniversary of the Tiananmen Square protest, China's AI censors crank up.[50]

Launched in 2011, WeChat, China's most popular messaging app, is under surveillance by Internet police. Any message sent through a WeChat group is monitored by the Chinese technology giant Tencent, the application's operator. All conversations are stored for six months.[51] Even conversations deleted by WeChat users can be retrieved back by Tencent, especially when government authorities seek evidence of a suspect's illegal activities.[52] Authorities have admitted that they can retrieve archived messages once sent on WeChat.[52][53] Nevertheless, Tencent CEO Ma Huateng stated that his company will not use user chats for big data analysis or invade users' privacy.[52][53]

In 2017, the Chinese government required all users of Sina Weibo, microblogging site, to register with their real names and identity numbers by September 15 of that year.[54] Weibo users who refused to register their accounts with real names were not able to post, repost, and comment on the site.[54]

At the beginning of 2018, Ma Huateng, chairman and CEO of Tencent, claimed that WeChat's monthly active users across the globe reached a billion for the first time.[55] Since Tencent cooperates with the central government to implement self-censorship and mass surveillance, it enjoys dominance of its industry in China. Other messaging apps, such as WhatsApp, Messenger, and Line are mostly blocked or even forced out of the Chinese market.

Chinese Internet users have several ways to circumvent censorship. Netizens generally rely on virtual private networks (VPNs) to access blocked websites and messaging apps. However, in July 2017, the Chinese government required telecommunications carriers including China Mobile, China Unicom, and China Telecom to block individual access to VPNs by February 1.[56] In August 2017, more than 60 VPNs, such as Astrill and Express VPN, were removed from China's App Store.[57] VPNs that are allowed to be used in China must be approved by state regulators and use the state network infrastructure.[58] Instead of sensitive words which can be censored online, Chinese netizens use puns and Chinese homophones to communicate.[59]

Sex and pornography on the Internet

Movies, books, comics, and videos involving sexually sensitive or provocative material are typically banned on Chinese Internet.[60] The government denounces sex and pornography culture and actively establishes sex education for teenagers and high school students in order to prevent them from developing an interest in this culture.[60] Conservative attitudes toward sex talk have remained standard amongst the general public.[61] Additionally, there are sections in China's criminal law that explicitly forbid the production, dissemination, or sale of obscene material, for which people can be imprisoned.[60][62] In the 1980s, there was a campaign against "spiritual pollution," referring to sex-related content.[60][62] In 2018, a Chinese erotic writer who wrote and sold a gay porn novel named Occupy online was sentenced to a ten-and-a-half year prison sentence.[63]

The most frequent way Chinese people access otherwise banned sexual material is through the Internet. Web administrators seek sexual information online and remove information as soon as they find it or otherwise censor it.[60] However, according to a 2012 article, the number of sex-related pages was increasing at the time.[60] China's Ministry of Public Security has collected intelligence agents from student groups to spy on people's Internet activities.[64] Instances of erotic activism also emerged online when government efforts at porn censorship and surveillance heightened in 2010.[60]

Videocameras
A camera monitoring warning sign near the Monument to the Peaceful Liberation of Tibet, Lhasa, Tibet, 2018

By 2018, the Chinese government had installed close to 200 million surveillance cameras across the country, which amounts to approximately one camera per seven citizens.[22] At the same time, approximately 40 million surveillance cameras were active in the United States in 2014,[65] which amounts to approximately one camera per eight citizens; however, these are largely installed by homeowners and stores rather than the government. According to official statistics in 2012, more than 660 of the mainland's 676 cities use surveillance systems.[66] In Guangdong province, 1.1 million cameras were installed in 2012, with plans to increase the number to two million by 2015 at a predicted cost of 12.3 billion yuan.[66] By 2020, the Chinese government expects to integrate private and public cameras, leveraging the country's technological expertise in facial recognition technology to build a nation-wide surveillance network.[67]

The facial recognition technology has technological and systematic limitations.[22] For example, a supervisor at an AI firm that provides research support for this technology has stated that the system of activity profile can only look for a maximum of a thousand people in one search.[22] Additionally, the system cannot work continuously for long periods of time, requiring reactivation in cases of extreme need.[22]

The National Information Security Standardization Technical Committee (全国信标委生物特征识别分技术委), which is subordinate to the China Communications Standards Association, has, as of 27 November 2019, started a project to create a standard for facial recognition in China. The project is led by SenseTime and has been assigned to a working group comprising 27 Chinese companies. As of 27 November 2019, it is not known whether the created standards will be binding.[68] Also Chinese companies are working to shape United Nations’ standards for facial recognition, video surveillance of cities and vehicles, with ZTE, Dahua Technology, China Telecom and others proposing standards to the International Telecommunications Union (ITU).[69][70]

Other digital technologies

China has highly advanced facial recognition technology.[71] The technology is integrated with others, such as big data and AI, to build a national surveillance and data sharing platform.[72] Facial recognition technology has been used in many different fields. In the domain of security, facial recognition technology has been installed in banks, airports, and shopping malls to monitor crowds. In 2018, a system known as the “Electronic Police at Zebra Crossing” or the "Smart System for Collecting Evidence of Jaywalking” was implemented in Shenzhen.[73] The smart system is equipped with facial recognition technology to record jaywalkers and non-motor vehicles that break traffic rules.[74] When shopping in the self-service markets of Alibaba and Jingdong, two top Chinese e-commerce companies, customers can use electronic payments through the facial recognition system, which links them with their bank cards.[74] Moreover, Baidu, a Chinese multinational technology company, cooperated with China Southern Airlines to install the facial recognition technology in Nanyang Jiangying Airport, Henan for boarding.[75]

Robot police have been installed in public places such as train stations, museums, and tourist attractions.[76][77] However, the market of robot police is still in its early stage, and one challenge to the implementation of the technology is its high price.[78] If the price of a robot police can be lowered down to 100,000 RMB, the market will more easily accept it.[78]

Furthermore, the Chinese government uses big data technology in order to analyze and monitor people's online behavior, such as Sesame Credit, which ranks its users based on their online activities along with its previously mentioned functions.[79]

Applications

Social credit system
See also: Social Credit System

In connection with camera surveillance, the Chinese government is developing a social credit system that rates the trustworthiness of its citizens by analyzing their social behaviors and collecting fiscal and government data.[80][81][82] After capturing people's activities and identifying them through facial recognition techniques, the government links their activities to this personal credit rating so that the information is stored in a quantifiable and measurable way. Under this algorithmic surveillance system, people, their identities, and their actions are connected to a citizen score.[83] By utilizing information gathered about the citizens' activities captured by cameras and analyzing them with AI and data mining techniques, the state calculates and updates their citizen scores regularly. Participation in this system is currently voluntary but will become mandatory in 2020.[4][81][83] Many Chinese citizens have already started using the Sesame Credit created and operated by Alibaba, an e-commerce company.[83] The Sesame Credit is designed such that those with good credit scores can live a more convenient life than others with low credits scores.[4][81] For instance, people with high credit scores do not need to pay deposits when checking in at hotels and can obtain visas more quickly than others.[80][81] On the other hand, people with low credit scores cannot easily eat in restaurants, register at hotels, purchase products, or travel freely.[80][81]

By region

Mainland (excluding frontiers)

In mainland China, one of the most important ongoing projects is a Skynet project with an installation of more than 200 million video surveillance cameras.[84] The real-time pedestrian tracking and recognition system can precisely identify people's clothing, gender, and age, as well as both motor and non-motor vehicles.[85] Additionally, the surveillance system can instantly match a person's image with their personal identification and information.[85] Golden Shield is a giant mechanism of censorship and surveillance that blocks tens of thousands of websites that may present negative reports about the Communist Party's narrative and control.[86]

Tibet

The Chinese government sent groups of cadres to Tibetan villages as part of the Benefit the Masses campaign in 2012.[87] The purpose of the campaign was to improve service and living quality in Tibet and to educate the locals about the importance of social stability and adherence to the Communist Party.[87] The local people were also supervised in order to prevent uprisings from taking place.[87]

In Tibet, users of mobile phones and the Internet must identify themselves by name.[88] The government reported that the program had reached full realization in June 2013.[88] An official said that "the real-name registration is conducive to protecting citizens' personal information and curbing the spread of detrimental information."[88]

In 2018, during the Saga Dawa, the holy fourth month for Tibetan Buddhists, the government enforced stricter rules in Lhasa, according to the Global Times.[89] People were also discouraged from engaging in religious practices in this month.[89] When they did, they were supervised closely.[89]

As a method of protesting, some Tibetans have engaged in immolation, which is a tradition of protest against Chinese control that was first practiced in the mid-20th century.[90]

Xinjiang

In Xinjiang and especially its capital city, Ürümqi, there are security checkpoints and identification stations almost everywhere.[91] People need to show their ID cards and have their faces scanned by cameras at a security station before entering a supermarket, a hotel, a train station, a highway station, or other public place.[91] The ratio of police officers stationed in Xinjiang to population is higher than elsewhere.[92] This strict enforcement of security checks is partly a response to the separatist movement in 2009 associated with Muslim Uyghurs.[91] Additionally, the cameras on streets are denser there than elsewhere, numbering 40,000.[91][92] The information collected by the cameras is matched with individual profiles, which include previously collected biometric data, such as DNA samples and voice samples.[93] People are rated on a level of trustworthiness based on their profiles, which also takes into account their familial relations and social connections.[93] These levels include "trustworthy," "average," and "untrustworthy."[93] The data is fed into the Integrated Joint Operations Platform (Chinese: 一体化联合作战平台), an AI-powered system used for mass surveillance which generates lists of suspects for detention.[94][95]

Xinjiang residents, especially those from the Uyghur ethnic group, are not allowed to practice certain religious acts.[92] They are also more actively and strictly monitored by surveillance apps, voice printing, and facial recognition cameras.[92] Since 2017, The government has set up re-education camps in Xinjiang for the local people to improve their compliance.[92] People in the re-education camps are usually closely watched by guards and are not allowed to contact others outside the facilities, including family members and other close relations.[93] They learn about Mandarin Chinese characters and the rules that they need to follow in those camps as well as outside once they leave.[93]

The security spending in Xinjiang ballooned in 2017, witnessing an increase of 90% to $8.52 billion as compared to that in 2016.[92] Since at least 2017, Chinese police have forced Uyghurs in Xinjiang to install the Jingwang Weishi app on their phones, allowing for remote monitoring of the phones' contents.[96][97]

In 2018, China has deployed a flock of drones disguised to look like birds to step up surveillance levels in region.[98]

In November 2019, the International Consortium of Investigative Journalists published the China Cables, consisting of six documents, an "operations manual" for running the camps and detailed use of predictive policing and AI to target people and regulate life inside the camps.[99][100]

Hong Kong

Hong Kong's Umbrella Movement, a pro-democracy campaign, aims to demand full democracy so that Hong Kong's citizens can have the right to nominate and elect the head of the Hong Kong government.[101] However, key pro-democracy figures, such as some lawmakers, academics, and political activists, are under the central government's surveillance. Some activists engaged in the umbrella movement have been intimidated or arrested by policemen.[102] News reports, social media posts, and images about Hong Kong's pro-democracy protests are censored in mainland China.[103]

Internet users and civil society groups in Hong Kong have been facing cyber-attacks and debated threats to privacy online during the past few years.[104] In June 2014, a white paper on the "one country, two systems" agreement issued by Beijing articulated that the central government has comprehensive jurisdiction over Hong Kong and that the power to run local affairs is authorized by the central government.[105][106]

Taiwan

The "SkyNet" technology used by the Chinese government to monitor the population through pervasive cameras covers everyone appearing under the camera network, while it does not affect Taiwan.[107] Meanwhile, Taiwanese officials have informed Taiwanese people living in mainland China about the increasing prevalence of surveillance on their activities.[107] This has become an heightened concern since China started offering residence cards and a full national status to people from Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Macau who were living in the mainland.[108] As a result of Beijing's initiative, individuals such as students and workers can apply for a residence permit after residing in mainland China for six months.[107] This policy extends social service and medical benefits to them, who now enjoy those services in the same way as other Chinese citizens.[107] Taiwanese authorities are worried about surveillance on the Taiwanese because of the residence cards issued to them, which provide their identities to the Chinese government and subject them to the same surveillance regime composed of cameras, facial recognition technology, and social credit.[109]

Spending estimates

In 2010, domestic security expenditure exceeded spending on external defense for the first time. By 2016, domestic security spending surpassed external defense by 13%.[110]

In 2017, China's spending on domestic security was estimated to be US$197 billion, excluding spending on security-related urban management and surveillance technology initiatives.[110] In the same year, the central government's total public security spending in Xinjiang reached 57.95 billion RMB, the equivalent of US$9.16 billion, which is ten times the spending of the previous decade.[46]

In 2018, China spent the equivalent of US$20 billion purchasing closed-circuit television cameras and other surveillance equipment.[111] This large number of purchases reaches half the size of the global market's, according to an estimate reported in a state newspaper.[111]

gollark: Every position change *of a square or more*.
gollark: Alternatively, on every position change.
gollark: CONSTANTLY.
gollark: So you could make eyes follow you around the room.
gollark: Or a monitor.

See also

References
  1. Bischoff, Paul. "Surveillance camera statistics: which cities have the most CCTV cameras?". Comparitech. Retrieved 17 June 2020.
  2. Inc., US Legal. "Mass Surveillance Law and Legal Definition | USLegal, Inc". definitions.uslegal.com. Archived from the original on 2018-11-18. Retrieved 2018-10-31.
  3. Mozur, Paul (2018-07-08). "Inside China's Dystopian Dreams: A.I., Shame and Lots of Cameras". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 2019-10-16. Retrieved 2019-11-14.
  4. "She's a model citizen, but she can't hide in China's 'social credit' system". ABC News. 2018-09-18. Archived from the original on 2018-10-31. Retrieved 2018-10-31.
  5. Doffman, Zak. "Has Huawei's Darkest Secret Just Been Exposed By This New Surveillance Report?". Forbes. Archived from the original on 2019-12-19. Retrieved 2019-12-19.
  6. Doffman, Zak. "Beyond 5G: Huawei's Links To Xinjiang And China's Surveillance State". Forbes. Archived from the original on 2019-12-19. Retrieved 2019-12-19.
  7. Marr, Bernard. "Chinese Social Credit Score: Utopian Big Data Bliss Or Black Mirror On Steroids?". Forbes. Archived from the original on 2019-10-08. Retrieved 2019-11-15.
  8. Buckley, Chris; Mozur, Paul (2019-05-22). "How China Uses High-Tech Surveillance to Subdue Minorities". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 2019-08-16. Retrieved 2019-08-15.
  9. "China's Sharp Eyes surveillance system puts the focus on shaming". South China Morning Post. 2018-10-30. Archived from the original on 2019-08-15. Retrieved 2019-08-15.
  10. ""Skynet", China's massive video surveillance network". Abacus. Archived from the original on 2019-11-08. Retrieved 2019-11-14.
  11. "Archived copy" 中国天网工程背后有三大功臣：包括中兴与华为. news.dwnews.com. 2018-08-29. Archived from the original on 2019-04-10. Retrieved 2019-11-14.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  12. "In China, Facial Recognition Tech Is Watching You". Fortune. Archived from the original on 2019-11-12. Retrieved 2019-11-14.
  13. "Archived copy" 打造平安城市精品视频监控网络 (PDF). Huawei. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2019-02-17.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  14. "Chinese city with world's heaviest surveillance has 2.5 million cameras". South China Morning Post. 2019-08-19. Archived from the original on 2019-10-16. Retrieved 2019-11-14.
  15. "Archived copy" 中国天网已建成 2亿摄像头毫秒级寻人. Phoenix New Media Limited. Archived from the original on 2018-05-04.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  16. "The world's most-surveilled cities". Comparitech. Archived from the original on 2019-10-09. Retrieved 2019-11-14.
  17. 未来三年我国公共监控摄像头将增加到6.26亿个. www.afzhan.com. Retrieved 2019-11-14.
  18. 摄像头下的13亿中国人：安全何去，隐私何从？| Hey，Data！. www.sohu.com. Retrieved 2019-11-14.
  19. author., Chang, Jung, 1952-. Wild swans : three daughters of China. OCLC 986425453.
  20. Guo, Pingxin; Sun, Qiangnan (April 1987). "General review of computer technology and application in China". Computers in Industry. 8 (2–3): 113–117. doi:10.1016/0166-3615(87)90116-3. ISSN 0166-3615.
  21. Jiangtao, Shi (2019-09-17). "How China's surveillance state was a mirror to the US for whistle-blower Edward Snowden". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on 2019-12-04. Retrieved 2019-12-04.
  22. "Inside China's Dystopian Dreams: A.I., Shame and Lots of Cameras". Archived from the original on 2019-10-16. Retrieved 2018-10-31.
  23. Times, Global. "Reporting apps allow Chinese to take part in national governance: experts". www.globaltimes.cn. Archived from the original on 2018-01-02. Retrieved 2018-01-05.
  24. Page, Jeremy; Dou, Eva (2017-12-29). "In Sign of Resistance, Chinese Balk at Using Apps to Snitch on Neighbors". Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. Archived from the original on 2018-01-04. Retrieved 2018-01-05.
  25. "China is building a vast civilian surveillance network — here are 10 ways it could be feeding its creepy 'social credit system'". Business Insider. Archived from the original on 2018-11-11. Retrieved 2018-11-02.
  26. "Traffic police in China are using drones to give orders from above". South China Morning Post. 2019-09-06. Archived from the original on 2019-12-04. Retrieved 2019-12-04.
  27. "Drones, facial recognition and a social credit system: 10 ways China watches its citizens". South China Morning Post. 2018-08-04. Archived from the original on 2019-12-12. Retrieved 2019-12-11.
  28. "Archived copy" "天网"网什么. paper.people.com.cn. Archived from the original on 2019-03-03. Retrieved 2019-11-14.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  29. "New York's police are using Chinese facial recognition tech on citizens". South China Morning Post. 2019-01-11. Archived from the original on 2019-11-14. Retrieved 2019-11-14.
  30. Navlakha, Meera (2019-08-21). "Eight Of The Ten Most-Surveilled Cities In The World Are In China". Vice. Archived from the original on 2019-09-02. Retrieved 2019-09-02.
  31. "Chinese city with world's heaviest surveillance has 2.5 million cameras". South China Morning Post. 2019-08-19. Archived from the original on 2019-10-16. Retrieved 2019-09-02.
  32. "The World Relies on China's Surveillance Technology". PC Magazine. 2019-12-13. Archived from the original on 2019-12-13. Retrieved 2019-12-13.
  33. Lewis, Leo (2011-03-04). "China mobile phone tracking system attacked as 'Big Brother' surveillance". The Australian. Archived from the original on 2014-06-19.
  34. Tam, Fiona (2012-06-15), 2m spy cameras in Guangdong by 2015, South China Morning Post, archived from the original on 2014-01-30
  35. John Hall (2013-11-06). "China's CCTV culture suffers as record high pollution and smog levels render country's 20 million surveillance cameras effectively useless - Asia - World". The Independent. Archived from the original on 2014-03-01. Retrieved 2014-01-31.
  36. China Telecom Corporation Limited. "China Telecom 2014 Annual Work Conference Highlights" (Press release). Investor Relations Asia Pacific. Archived from the original on 2014-01-31. [...] Mr. Shang made four requests for the work in 2014: [...] To bolster network information security by diligently implementing the telephone customer real name registration system and protecting the privacy of customer personal information while coordinating with relevant authorities to regulate the dissemination of objectionable information over the network to ensure a secure and reliable network environment.
  37. Chen, Stephen (2012-06-15), 'Forget the Facebook leak': China is mining data directly from workers' brains on an industrial scale, South China Morning Post, archived from the original on 2019-12-22, retrieved 2019-12-13
  38. China is monitoring employees' brain waves and emotions — and the technology boosted one company's profits by $315 million, Business Insider, 2018-05-01, archived from the original on 2019-12-13, retrieved 2019-12-13
  39. "China orders real name register for online video uploads", Reuters, Reuters, 2014-01-21, archived from the original on 2014-01-21
  40. "2016 Cybersecurity Law". www.chinalawtranslate.com. 2016-11-07. Archived from the original on 2018-12-02. Retrieved 2018-11-09.
  41. "China's first intelligent security robot starts work at Shenzhen Airport". People's Daily Online. 2016-09-22. Retrieved 2018-11-16.
  42. 中國警察戴上人臉識別墨鏡 已抓七名逃犯 [Chinese policemen equipped with facial recognition glasses captured 7 criminals]. BBC News 中文. 2018-02-08. Archived from the original on 2018-11-21. Retrieved 2018-11-08.
  43. "The Chinese government confirmed that it can access deleted WeChat conversations — and people are terrified". Business Insider. Archived from the original on 2018-11-21. Retrieved 2018-11-09.
  44. 国家网信办组织网络短视频平台试点青少年防沉迷工作 [National Network Office organized short video platform pilot youth anti-addiction work]. Cyberspace Administration of China. Archived from the original on 2019-05-10. Retrieved 2019-08-02.
  45. 第三代身份证新功能曝光：定位银行卡都可以 [Third generation ID card new feature exposure: bank cards can be located]. Zhongguancun Online News. Archived from the original on 2019-04-09. Retrieved 2019-08-02.
  46. Lucas, Louise; Feng, Emily. "Inside China's surveillance state". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 2018-11-16. Retrieved 2018-11-08.
  47. Choudhury, Cheang Ming, Saheli Roy (2017-10-26). "China has launched another crackdown on the internet — but it's different this time". CNBC. Archived from the original on 2018-11-21. Retrieved 2018-11-19.
  48. CNBC (2017-05-02). "China tightens rules on online news, network providers". CNBC. Archived from the original on 2018-11-21. Retrieved 2018-11-19.
  49. Yuan, Li (2 January 2019). "Learning China's Forbidden History, So They Can Censor It". Archived from the original on 29 February 2020. Retrieved 6 January 2020 – via NYTimes.com.
  50. "China's robot censors crank up as Tiananmen anniversary nears". Reuters. Archived from the original on 26 May 2019. Retrieved 26 May 2019.
  51. "China is building a vast civilian surveillance network — here are 10 ways it could be feeding its creepy 'social credit system'". Business Insider. Archived from the original on 2018-11-11. Retrieved 2018-11-07.
  52. "Privacy fears after cadres punished over 'deleted' WeChat messages". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on 2018-11-21. Retrieved 2018-11-07.
  53. "Chinese authorities admit they're able to retrieve deleted WeChat messages". The Verge. Archived from the original on 2018-11-21. Retrieved 2018-11-21.
  54. Gao, Charlotte. "Weibo Requires All Users to Register With Real Names by Mid-September". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on 2018-11-21. Retrieved 2018-11-19.
  55. Liu, Hui; Hu, Hao. 马化腾：微信全球月活跃用户数首次突破十亿-新华网 [Ma Huateng: the number of WeChat's global monthly active users reaches a billion]. www.xinhuanet.com (in Chinese). Archived from the original on 2018-11-21. Retrieved 2018-11-08.
  56. Urman, Aleksandra (2018-01-18). "Chinese Government to Tighten Internet Censorship Further in 2018". The Globe Post. Archived from the original on 2018-11-21. Retrieved 2018-11-19.
  57. "Archived copy" 苹果中国商店为什么要下架60多个VPN应用？. BBC News 中文 (in Chinese). 2017-08-01. Archived from the original on 2018-11-21. Retrieved 2018-11-19.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  58. Cadell, Cate. "Apple says it is removing VPN services from China App Store". U.S. Archived from the original on 2018-11-21. Retrieved 2018-11-19.
  59. Fergus, O'Sullivan (2017-11-13). "Internet Censorship in China: How the Middle Kingdom Blocks the Web". Cloudwards. Archived from the original on 2018-11-21. Retrieved 2018-11-19.
  60. Katrien., Jacobs (2012). People's Pornography. Intellect. ISBN 978-1283610025. OCLC 817813659.
  61. "Durex ads 'more frightening than pornography', China's online watchdog says after bubble tea brand Heytea joins innuendo-filled campaign". AsiaOne. 2019-04-25. Archived from the original on 2019-07-19. Retrieved 2019-07-19.
  62. "How the Chinese watch porn on China's censored internet — Quartz". qz.com. Archived from the original on 2018-11-23. Retrieved 2018-11-23.
  63. "Outcry as Chinese writer jailed for over 10 years for gay sex scenes". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on 2018-11-20. Retrieved 2018-11-23.
  64. "DSD Police Recruit and Maintain Informant Networks Among University Students – China Digital Times (CDT)". chinadigitaltimes.net. Archived from the original on 2018-11-23. Retrieved 2018-11-23.
  65. Moore, Kevin. "Keven Moore: Surveillance cameras are everywhere, providing protection — but not much privacy". Northern Kentucky Tribune. Archived from the original on 19 February 2019. Retrieved 19 February 2019.
  66. Tam, Fiona (2012-06-15), 2m spy cameras in Guangdong by 2015, South China Morning Post, archived from the original on 2014-01-30
  67. Deyner, Simon (January 7, 2018). "China bets on facial recognition in big drive for total surveillance". Washington Post. Archived from the original on January 13, 2018. Retrieved 2018-01-13.
  68. Xue, Yujie (27 November 2019). "27 Companies Drafting China's First National Facial Recognition Standard". Sixth Tone. Archived from the original on 28 November 2019. Retrieved 28 November 2019.
  69. "Chinese tech groups shaping UN facial recognition standards". Financial Times. 2019-12-02. Archived from the original on 2019-12-10. Retrieved 2019-12-10.
  70. "Chinese tech companies are shaping UN facial recognition standards, according to leaked documents". South China Morning Post. 2019-12-02. Archived from the original on 2019-12-11. Retrieved 2019-12-10.
  71. "In China, Facial Recognition Tech Is Watching You". Fortune. Archived from the original on 2019-03-31. Retrieved 2019-03-31.
  72. "Integration of surveillance and new digital tech is unnerving". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on 2018-11-24. Retrieved 2018-11-07.
  73. Xiao, Sun. "'Electronic Police' is on guard at Shenzhen's crossings". CGTN. Archived from the original on 2018-11-21. Retrieved 2018-11-19.
  74. Zhang, Yixuan; Shang, Dan. 解码人脸识别技术："刷脸"，正走入你我生活 [Knowing about facial recognition technology in our daily life]. www.xinhuanet.com (in Chinese). Archived from the original on 2018-11-21. Retrieved 2018-11-07.
  75. Zhang, Yixuan; Shang, Dan. "刷脸"，正走入你我生活 [Facial technology is around us]. paper.people.com.cn (in Chinese). Archived from the original on 2018-10-27. Retrieved 2018-11-07.
  76. Halder, Ben (2018-05-31). "CHINA TURNS TO ROBOTIC POLICING". Ozy. Archived from the original on 2019-11-28. Retrieved 2019-11-28.
  77. Wakefield, Jane (2018-06-10). "Tomorrow's Cities: Dubai and China roll out urban robots". BBC. Archived from the original on 2019-07-09. Retrieved 2019-11-28.
  78. Zhang, Yang. 真实版机械战警？ 中国机器人警察已经上岗执勤 [China's robot police has been on duty]. smart.huanqiu.com (in Chinese). Archived from the original on 2018-11-21. Retrieved 2018-11-08.
  79. "China is building a vast civilian surveillance network — here are 10 ways it could be feeding its creepy 'social credit system'". Business Insider. Archived from the original on 2018-11-11. Retrieved 2018-11-08.
  80. Botsman, Rachel. "Big data meets Big Brother as China moves to rate its citizens". Archived from the original on 2018-01-04. Retrieved 2018-01-05.
  81. Hatton, Celia (2015-10-26). "China sets up huge 'social credit' system". BBC News. Archived from the original on 2018-01-05. Retrieved 2018-01-05.
  82. Carrasco-Villanueva, Marco (2018-12-17). "China: ¿Big data, crédito social y nudges?". SinoLatam (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 2019-03-06. Retrieved 2019-03-05.
  83. Diamond, Anna Mitchell, Larry (2018-02-02). "China's Surveillance State Should Scare Everyone". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on 2018-11-05. Retrieved 2018-11-06.
  84. Chen, Shixian; Li, Zhen. "天网"网什么 [What's Skynet]. paper.people.com.cn (in Chinese). Archived from the original on 2019-03-03. Retrieved 2018-11-08.
  85. 王建芬. "China's Skynet Project finds people in minutes - Chinadaily.com.cn". www.chinadaily.com.cn. Archived from the original on 2018-11-21. Retrieved 2018-11-08.
  86. Denyer, Simon. "China's scary lesson to the world: Censoring the Internet works". Washington Post. Archived from the original on 2018-12-06. Retrieved 2018-11-20.
  87. "China: No End to Tibet Surveillance Program". Human Rights Watch. 2016-01-18. Archived from the original on 2019-03-03. Retrieved 2018-11-08.
  88. Patranobis, Sutirtho (2013-06-19), "China completes mass surveillance scheme in Tibet", Hindustan Times, archived from the original on 2014-01-30
  89. "Climate of total 24-hour surveillance as restrictions intensified for Tibetan Buddhist festival in Lhasa - International Campaign for Tibet". International Campaign for Tibet. 2018-05-25. Archived from the original on 2018-11-18. Retrieved 2018-11-11.
  90. Carrico, Kevin. "China's Cult of Stability Is Killing Tibetans". Foreign Policy. Archived from the original on 2018-11-18. Retrieved 2018-11-18.
  91. Journal, Josh Chin and Clément Bürge | Photographs by Giulia Marchi for The Wall Street. "Twelve Days in Xinjiang: How China's Surveillance State Overwhelms Daily Life". WSJ. Archived from the original on 2018-11-11. Retrieved 2018-11-11.
  92. "How a Chinese region that accounts for just 1.5% of the population became one of the most intrusive police states in the world". Business Insider. Archived from the original on 2018-10-28. Retrieved 2018-11-11.
  93. author., Wang, Maya. "Eradicating ideological viruses" : China's campaign of repression against Xinjiang's Muslims. OCLC 1052124054.
  94. "Perfected in China, a threat in the West". The Economist. 427 (9094): 16. June 2, 2018 – via ProQuest.
  95. Wang, Maya (May 1, 2019). "China's Algorithms of Repression". Human Rights Watch. Archived from the original on March 26, 2020. Retrieved April 10, 2020.
  96. Cox, Joseph (April 9, 2018). "Chinese Government Forces Residents To Install Surveillance App With Awful Security". Vice Media. Archived from the original on April 11, 2018. Retrieved April 10, 2018.
  97. Rajagopalan, Megha; Yang, William (April 9, 2018). "China Is Forcing People To Download An App That Tells Them To Delete "Dangerous" Photos". BuzzFeed News. Archived from the original on April 10, 2018. Retrieved April 10, 2018.
  98. "China takes surveillance to new heights with flock of robotic Doves, but do they come in peace?". South China Morning Post. 2018-06-24. Archived from the original on 2019-11-29. Retrieved 2019-12-03.
  99. "Exposed: China's Operating Manuals For Mass Internment And Arrest By Algorithm". ICIJ. 2019-11-24. Archived from the original on 2019-11-26. Retrieved 2019-11-26.
  100. "Data leak reveals how China 'brainwashes' Uighurs in prison camps". BBC. 2019-11-24. Archived from the original on 2019-11-26. Retrieved 2019-11-26.
  101. IYENGAR, RISHI. "Occupy Central: An Explainer". Time. Archived from the original on 2018-11-01. Retrieved 2018-11-20.
  102. Lague, David. "Special Report: How China spies on Hong Kong's democrats". U.S. Archived from the original on 2018-11-13. Retrieved 2018-11-08.
  103. Park, Madison. "China's Internet firewall censors Hong Kong protests". CNN. Archived from the original on 2018-11-21. Retrieved 2018-11-20.
  104. "Hong Kong's Internet Freedom Under Threat". freedomhouse.org. 2015-01-22. Archived from the original on 2018-11-21. Retrieved 2018-11-20.
  105. Chen, Zhifen (陳志芬). "Archived copy" 分析：白皮書被質疑港「一國兩制」已死. BBC News 中文 (in Chinese). Archived from the original on 2018-11-21. Retrieved 2018-11-20.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  106. Hume, Tim. "Alarm in Hong Kong at Chinese white paper affirming Beijing control - CNN". CNN. Archived from the original on 2018-11-21. Retrieved 2018-11-20.
  107. "Taiwan warns nationals in mainland China about surveillance". Asia Times. Archived from the original on 2019-08-02. Retrieved 2019-08-02.
  108. "China's Residence Card Offer Brings 'Risks' in Surveillance State: Taiwan". Radio Free Asia. Archived from the original on 2018-11-21. Retrieved 2018-11-21.
  109. "Taiwanese in China warned of surveillance - Taipei Times". Taipei Times. Archived from the original on 2018-11-21. Retrieved 2018-11-21.
  110. "China's Domestic Security Spending: An Analysis of Available Data". Jamestown Foundation. Archived from the original on 2018-03-19. Retrieved 2018-03-19.
  111. "How tensions with West are crippling China's surveillance system". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on 2018-11-16. Retrieved 2018-11-09.
Library resources about
Mass surveillance in China
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.