Kru languages

The Kru languages belong to the Niger–Congo language family and are spoken by the Kru people from the southeast of Liberia to the east of Ivory Coast.

Kru
Geographic distribution	Ivory Coast, Liberia, Burkina Faso
Linguistic classification	Niger–Congo Atlantic–Congo Volta-Congo Kru
Subdivisions	Aizi (5) Eastern Kru (4) Kuwaa (2) Siamou (1) Western Kru (3)
ISO 639-2 / 5	kro
Glottolog	krua1234  (Kru)[1] siam1242  (Siamou)[2]
Kru languages, labeled as above

Etymology

The term "Kru" is of unknown origin. According to Westermann (1952) it was used by Europeans to denote a number of tribes speaking related dialects. Marchese (1989) notes the fact that many of these peoples were recruited as "crew" by European seafarers; "the homonymy with crew is obvious, and is at least one source of the confusion among Europeans that there was a Kru/crew tribe".[3]

Classification

Andrew Dalby noted the historical importance of the Kru languages for their position at the crossroads of African-European interaction. He wrote that "Kru and associated languages were among the first to be encountered by European voyagers on what was then known as the Pepper Coast, a centre of the production and export of Guinea and melegueta pepper; a once staple African seaborne trade".[4] The Kru languages are known for some of the most complex tone systems in Africa, rivaled perhaps only by the Omotic languages.

Current status

Recent documentation has noted "Kru societies can now be found along the coast of Monrovia, Liberia to Bandama River in Côte d'Ivoire".[5] "Villages maintain their ties based on presumed common descent, reinforced by ceremonial exchanges and gifts".[5] The Kru people and their languages, although now many speak English (in Liberia) or French (in Côte d'Ivoire) as a second language, are said to be "dominant in the southwest region where the forest zone reaches the coastal lagoons".[5] The Kru people rely on the forest for farming, supplemented by hunting for their livelihood. In 2010, Kru and associated languages were spoken by 95 percent of the approximately 3.5 million people in Liberia.

Subgroups and associated languages

The Kru languages include many subgroups such as Kuwaa, Grebo, Bassa, Belle, Belleh, Kwaa and many others. According to Breitbonde, categorization of communities based on cultural distinctiveness, historical or ethnic identity, and socio-political autonomy "may have brought about the large number of distinct Kru dialects; "Although the natives were in many respects similar in type and tribe, every village was an independent state; there was also very little intercommunication".[6] Breitbonde notes the Kru people were categorized based on their cultural distinctiveness, separate historical or ethnic identities, and social and political autonomy. This is the possible reason for so many subgroups of the Kru language. As noted by Fisiak, there is very little documentation on the Kru and associated languages.[7]

Marchese's (1989) classification of Kru languages is as follows.[8] Many of these languages are dialect clusters and are sometimes considered more than a single language.

Kru	Sɛmɛ (Siamou)       Aizi     Kuwaa   Kru  proper   Eastern  Kru  Bakwe    Bakwe     Wane      Bété    Kuya     Godié       Dida     Kodia (Kwadia)      Western  Kru  Bassa    Bassa     Dewoin     Gbii      Grebo    Grebo (Jabo)     Krumen     Glio-Oubi      Klao    Klao     Tajuasohn      Wee   Guere    Daho-Doo     Glaro-Twabo     Sapo     Wè     Krahn       Nyabwa     Konobo     Wobe

Ethnologue adds Neyo, which may be closest to Dida or Godie.

Grammar

Kru word order is primarily subject-verb-object (SVO), but can also often be subject-object-verb (SOV).[8]

Comparative vocabulary

Sample basic vocabulary of 12 Kru languages from Marchese (1983):[9]

Language	eye	ear	nose	tooth	tongue	mouth	blood	bone	tree	water	eat	name
Tepo	jíê	nω̂â	mɪ̂jã́	ɲɛ́	mɛ̂	wũ̂t	dâblώ	klá	tûgbɛ̀	nîjẽ́	dî	dώ
Jrwe	ɟró	nω̃̂ã̂	mɪ̃̂ã̂	ɲɛ̃́	mɛ̃̂	wṹ	klώω̂	klá	túwɛ̀	nĩ́ẽ́	dîdɛ̂	ɲɔ̃́
Guere	ɟrííē	dōṹ	mlâ	ɲnɪ̃̂ɛ̄̃	mē̃õ̀	ŋɔ̄̃	ɲmɔ̄̃	kpâ	tū	ní	dîɛ̄	ɲnɪ̃̂
Wobé	ɟríɛ́	dōṹ	mlã̂	ɲnə̃̂	mɛ̄̃õ̀	ŋʷɔ̄̃	nmɔ̄	kpâ	tū	nĩ́	dī	ɲnẽ̂
Niaboua	ɟîrî	lòkû	máná	ɲéɲé	méɛ̃̀	ŋʷɔ̄̃	ɲēmō	kpá	tū	nî	dī	ɲéɲé
Bété (Daloa)	ɟi	jûkûlî	mlə̂	gléí	mɪ́ɔ́	ŋō	drú	kwâ	sū	ɲû	lí	ŋʉ̂nɪ̂
Bété (Guibéroua)	jiri	júkwɨ́lí	mə́ɲə́	gʌ̂lʌ̂	mɪ̄ɔ̄	nûə̂	dûrû	kwá	sû	ɲú	dī	ŋʉ́ɲɪ́
Néyo	jɪ́	ɲúkwlí	mlé	glè	mɪ̄ɔ̄	né	dòlū	féē	sūú	ɲú	lī	jlɪ́
Godié	jɨdí	ɲūkúlú	mə́ɲə́	gə̄lè	mɪ̄ɔ̄	nə̄	drù	féè	sū	ɲú	ɗɨ̄	ŋʉ́nʉ́
Koyo	jɪjē	ɲúkiwí	—	glà	mɪ̄ɔ̄	nə́	dòlú	féjē	sūú	ɲú	lɨ̄	ŋɨ́nɨ́
Dida	cí	ɲúkwlí	mné	glā	mɪ̄ɔ̄	nɪ̄	dólū	kwíjè	sū	ɲú	lî	ŋlɪ́
Aïzi	zre	lωkɔ	mωvɔ	ɲɪ	mrɔ	mu	ɲre	kra	ke	nrɪ	li	—

An additional sample basic vocabulary of 21 Kru languages from Marchese (1983):[9]

Language	eye	ear	nose	tooth	tongue	mouth	blood	bone	water	eat	name
Aïzi	zre	lωkɔ	mωvɔ	ɲɪ	mrɔ	mu	ɲre	kra	nrɪ	li
Vata	jé	ɲêflú	mênê	glà	meɔ̄	nɪ̄	dūlū	fâ	ɲú	lî
Dida	cí	ɲúkwlí	mné	glā	mɪ̄ɔ̄	nɪ̄	dòlū	kwíjè	ɲú	lî	ŋlɪ́
Koyo	jíjē	ɲúkwlí	ŋʉ́nʉ́	glà	mɪ̄ɔ̄	nə́	dòlú	féjē	ɲú	lɨ̄	ŋɨ́nɨ́
Godié		ɲūkúlú	mə́ňə́	gə̀lè	mɪ̄ɔ̄	nə̄	dřù	féè	ɲú	ɗɨ̄	ŋʉ́nʉ́
Néyo	jɪ́	ɲúkwlí	mlé	glè	mɪ̄ɔ̄	né	dòlū	féē	ɲú	lī	jlɪ́
Bété (Guibéroua)	jiři	júkwɨ́lí	mə́ňə́	gʌ̂lâ	mɪ̄ɔ̄	nûə̂	dûřû	kwá	ɲú	lī	nʉ́nɪ́
Bété (Daloa)	ɟi	jûkûlî	mlə̂	gléí	mɪ́ɔ́	ŋō	dřú	kwâ	ɲú	lí	nʉ̀nɪ̂
Niaboua		lòkû	mə́ná	ɲéné	méɛ̃̀	ŋwɔ̃̄	ɲēmō	kpá	nî	dī	ɲéné
Wobé	ɟríɛ́	dōṹ	mlã̂	ɲnẽ̂	mɛ̄ɔ̃̀	ŋwɔ̃̄	nmɔ̄	kpâ	nĩ́	dī	ɲnẽ̂
Guéré	ɟrííē	dōṹ	mlâ	ɲnɪ̃̂ẽ̄	mẽ̄õ̀	ŋɔ̃̄	ɲmɔ̃̄	kpâ	ní	dìɛ̄	ɲnɪ̃̂
Konobo	jidɔ	nao	mlã		mɛ		daluo	kla	ɲɛ	di	ɲi
Oubi	jīrō	nōā	mēã̄			ŋu	dòùlā	kala	ɲɛ́	dīdɛ̄	ɲírṍ
Bakwe	ɲʉ́	ɲákúlú	mňṍ	glɛ̀	mɛ̄	mʌ́	tùřú	kɔ̄ō	nē	ɟɨ	nrɪ
Tépo	jíê	nω̂â	mɪ̂jã́	ɲɛ́	mɛ́		dâblώ	klá	nîjẽ́	dî	dώ
Grebo	jê	nóá	méá		mɛ̄	ŋwúnɔ̄	ɲénɔ́	klã́	nĩ́	dí	ɲéné
Klao	ɟí	nɔ̄kũ̀	mnã́		mɛ̄	wɔ̃̄	ɲnɔ̄	kpã́	nĩ́	dī	ɲnɛ̃́
Bassa	ɟélé		máná		mɔ	wɔ̃̄	nɔmɔ	kpá	dunu	ɗi	ɲɛnɛ
Dewoin	gire		málã́		mīlã̀	wɔ̃̄ĩ́	ɲimo	gba	ní	zī	ŋɛ́lɛ́
Kuwaa	sĩ̌	nɔi	ɲũ		mɛ̀wũ	wɔ̃̀	tòyò	kwa	nímí	ɟì	ɲɛlɛ̃
Sɛmɛ	ɲa	tasjẽ	mar	ɲen	dɛ	kõ	tõ	kpar	nũ	di	jĩ

Numerals

Comparison of numerals in individual languages:[10]

Classification	Language	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10
Kuwaa	Kuwaa (Belleh)	dee	sɔ̃r	tãã̀	ɲìjɛ̀hɛ	wàyɔ̀ɔ	wɔ̀rfɔlɛ̀ (5 + 1)	kɔrlɔrɔ̃r (5 + 2)	kwatãã̀ (5 + 3)	kɔ̃yĩ̀yɛ̀hɛ (5 + 4)	kowaa
Seme	Seme (Siamou) (1)	byẽ́ẽ	nĩ́ĩ̄	tyáār	yūr	kwɛ̃̄l	kpã̄â	kĩ̄î	kprɛ̄n̂	kɛ̄l	fú
Seme	Seme (Siamou) (2)	dyuɔ̃15	nĩ15	tyɛr15	yur3	kwɛ̃l3	k͡pa4a34	kyi4ĩ34	k͡prɛ4ɛ̃34	kal3	fu1
Eastern, Bakwe	Bakwé	ɗôː	sɔ̂ː	tʌ̄ː	mɾɔ̄ː	ɡ͡bə̀ə̄	ŋǔːɗō (5 + 1)	ŋǔːsɔ̄ (5 + 2)	ŋǔːtʌ̄ (5 + 3)	ŋǔːmɾɔ̄ (5 + 4)	pʊ̀
Eastern, Bakwe	Wané	do³ / ɗo³	sɔ²	ta³	ⁱhɪɛ̃⁴	ŋʷũ⁴²	ŋʷũ⁴² kloː²⁴(5 + 1)	ŋʷũ⁴² sɔ² (5 + 2)	ŋʷũ⁴² ta³ (5 + 3)	ŋʷũ⁴² ⁱhɪɛ̃⁴ (5 + 4)	ŋʷũ⁴² bu⁴ or bu⁴
Eastern, Bete	Daloa Bété	ɓlʊ̄	sɔ̋	tá	mʊ̄wana	ŋ́ɡ͡bɨ́	ŋ́ɡ͡bʊplʊ (5 + 1)	ŋ́ɡ͡bisɔ́ (5 + 2)	ɡ͡bʊ̀wata (5 + 3)	ŋ́ɡ͡bimʊwana (5 + 4)	kʊ́ɡ͡ba
Eastern, Bete	Guiberoua Bété	ɓlʊ̄	sɔ̋	tá	mʊ̄wana	ŋ́ɡ͡bɨ́	ŋ́ɡ͡bʊplʊ (5 + 1)	ŋ́ɡ͡bisɔ́ (5 + 2)	ɡ͡bʊ̀wata (5 + 3)	ŋ́ɡ͡bimʊwana (5 + 4)	kʊ́ɡ͡ba
Eastern, Bete	Godié	ɓlōō	sɔ́ɔ́	tāā	ŋ̀mɔ̀ɔ̀nā	ŋ̀ɡ͡bɨ́	ŋ̀ɡ͡bóplóo (5 + 1)	ŋ̀ɡ͡bɔ̀ɔ́sɔ́ (5 + 2)	ŋ̀ɡ͡bàátā (5 + 3)	ŋ̀vɔ̀ɔ̀nā	kʊ́ɡ͡bá
Eastern, Bete, Eastern	Gagnoa Bété	ɓɵ̯̀ɺō	sɔ̋	tɑ̄	mɔ̀ɔ̀nɔ̄	ŋ͡m̩̄.ɡ͡bú	ɡ͡bé.pó̯ɺó (5 + 1)	ɡ͡bɔ́ɔ́.sɔ̋ (5 + 2)	ɡ͡bɔ̋ɔ́.tā (5 + 3)	fɛ̀ɛ̀.nɔ̄	kō.ɡ͡bɔ́
Eastern, Bete, Eastern	Guébie Bété	ɡ͡bɔlɔ².³	so⁴	ta³¹	mɔna¹.³¹	mŋɡ͡be²	mŋɡ͡beɡ͡bɔlɔ².².³ (5 + 1)	mŋɡ͡boso³.⁴ (5 + 2)	mŋɡ͡bata³.³¹ (5 + 3)	mŋɡ͡bɔfɛna³.¹.³¹ (5 + 4)	kɔɡ͡ba².³
Eastern, Bete, Eastern	Kouya	ɓlò	sɔ́	tā	mnʊ̀à	ɡ͡bu	ɡ͡beliɓlò (5 + 1)	ɡ͡besɔ́ (5 + 2)	ɡ͡betā (5 + 3)	ɡ͡bomnʊ̀à (5 + 4)	kuɡ͡bua
Eastern, Dida	Yocoboué Dida	bóló	mwɔsɔ́	mwɔtá	mwɔná	ɛŋɡ͡bɪ́	ɛŋɡ͡bʊ́frɔ (5 + 1)	ɛmɓɔ́sɔ́ (5 + 2)	ɛmɓáta (5 + 3)	ɛmvwaná	kóɡ͡ba
Eastern, Dida	Neyo	ɓɔ̄ló	sɔ́	tāā	mɔ̀nā	ɡ͡bɪ́	ɡ͡bɪ́flɔ́ (5 + 1)	ɡ͡básɔ́ (5 + 2)	ɡ͡bátā (5 + 3)	fɛ̄nā (5 + 4)	kʊ́ɡ͡bá
Eastern, Kwadia	Kodia	ɡ͡bɤlɤ³² / ɓɤlɤ³²	sɔː²	taː²	mɔna⁴³	ⁿɡ͡bɤ³	ⁿɡ͡bɤwlɤ³³³ (5 + 1)	ⁿɡ͡bɔː⁴³sɔ³ (5 + 2)	ⁿɡ͡baː⁴³ta³ (5 + 3)	ⁿɡ͡bɤmɔna³⁴³ (5 + 4)	kʊɡ͡ba³³
Western, Bassa	Bassa	ɖò, dyúáɖò	sɔ̃́	tã	hĩinyɛ	hm̀m̌	mɛ̀nɛ̌ìn-ɖò (5 + 1)	mɛ̀nɛ̌ìn-sɔ̃́ (5 + 2)	mɛ̀nɛ̌ìn-tã (5 + 3)	mɛ̀nɛ̌ìn-hĩinyɛ (5 + 4)	ɓaɖa-bùè
Western, Bassa	Dewoin (Dewoi)	ɡ͡bǒ	sɔ̃́	ta	hĩinyɛ	hm̀m̌	meɖe-ɡ͡bǒ (5 + 1)	meɖe-sɔ̃́ (5 + 2)	meɖe-ta (5 + 3)	meɖe-hĩinyɛ (5 + 4)	vù
Western, Bassa	Gbasei (Gbii) (1)	dɔ̀ː / ɗɔ̀káⁱ	sɔ̃́	tã	ɲ̀yɛ̃	m̀ḿ	m̀mɽědɔ̀ (5 + 1)	m̀mɽěsɔ̃́ (5 + 2)	m̀mɽětã́ (5 + 3)	m̀mɽěɲ̀yɛ̃ (5 + 4)	báɽápʰùwe
Western, Bassa	Gbii (Gbi-Dowlu) (2)	dòò, dyúáɖò	sɔ̃́	tã	hĩ̀nyɛ	hm̀m̀	mɛ̀nɛ̀ɛ̄n-ɖò (5 + 1)	mɛ̀nɛ̀ɛ̄n-sɔ̃́ (5 + 2)	mɛ̀nɛ̀ɛ̄n-tə̃ (5 + 3)	mɛ̀nɛ̀ɛ̄n-hĩ̀nyɛ (5 + 4)	ɓaɖabùè
Western, Grebo, Glio-Oubi	Glio-Oubi	dō	hwə̃	tã́	hə̃	ɡ͡bə̀	hṹdò (5 + 1)	hũ̀sɔ́ (5 + 2)	mɛra (5 + 3)	mɛ́ɲɛ̀ (5 + 4)	pue
Western, Grebo, Ivorian	Pye (Piè) Krumen	dò	hʋɛ̃́	tā	hɛ̃̀	hũ̌	hũ̀jārō [hũ̀jāɾō] ('five plus one')	hũ̀jāhʋɛ̃́ ('five plus two')	hũ̀jātā ('five plus three')	hũ̀jāhɛ̃̀ ('five plus four')	pù
Western, Grebo, Ivorian	Tepo Krumen (1)	dò	hɔ̃́	tā	hɛ̃̀	hũ̌	huõ̀nɔ̀ (5 + 1)	nɪ́pātā (litː 'not/be/three')	nɪ́pāhɔ̃́, yèhɛ̃̀yèhɛ̃̀ (2 x 4)	sēlédò (litː 'remains /there/one')	pù
Western, Grebo, Ivorian	Tepo Krumen (2)	dô	ɔ̄ɛ́n	tā	hɛ̀n	ùm	ùmnɔ̄dô (5 + 1)	ùmnɔ̄ɔ̄ɛ́n (5 + 2)	blɛ̄nbìɛ̀n	ùmīyándō	pù
Western, Grebo, Liberian	Central Grebo (Barrobo)	dòo	ɔ̌n	taan	hɛ̃ɛn	wùun	wùnɔ̀dǒ (5 + 1)	jetan (4 + 3) ?	jiinhɛ̀n (4 + 4) ?	sǒndò (litː 'remain one' before 10)	fù
Western, Grebo, Liberian	Northern Grebo	do	sɔ̃̌	tã	hɛ̃̀	m̀m	mmɔ̀do (5 + 1)	nyiɛtã (4 + 3)	nnyɛɛ (4 + 4)	siědo (litː 'remain one' before 10)	pù
Western, Klao	Klao	dô	sɔ́n	tan	nyìɛ̀	mù	mùnéɛ́do (5 + 1)	mùnéɛ́sɔ́n (5 + 2)	mùnéɛtan (5 + 3)	sopádo (10 - 1)	puè
Western, Klao	Tajuasohn	doe	sunn nn = ?	tan	hin	hoom	ḿhon doe (5 + 1)	ḿhon sunn (5 + 2)	hinin (4 + 4)	siɛrdoe (litː 'remains one')	punn
Western, Wee, Guere-Krahn	Western Krahn	tòò	sɔɔ̌n	ta̓a̓n	nyìɛ̓	m̀m̌	mɛ̀o̓ (5 + 1)	mɛ̀sɔɔ̌n (5 + 2)	mɛta̓a̓ǹ (5 + 3)	mɛ̀nyìɛ̓ (5 + 4)	pùèè
Western, Wee, Guere-Krahn	Sapo	duě / tòò	sɔn	tan	nyìɛ	m̀m̌	mɛ̀lǒ (5 + 1)	mɛ̀sɔn (5 + 2)	mɛ̌tan (5 + 3)	mɛ̌nyiɛ (5 + 4)	pùè
Western, Wee, Nyabwa	Nyabwa (Nyaboa)	do4	sɔ̃2	tã3	ɲiɛ33	mu4u1	mɛ4ɛ1lo4 (5 + 1)	mɛ4ɛ1sɔ̃2 (5 + 2)	mɛ4ɛ1tã3 (5 + 4)	mɛ4ɛ1ɲiɛ33 (5 + 5)	bue44
Western, Wee, Wobe	Northern Wè (Wobe)	too3 / due1	sɔɔn2 / sɔn2	taan3	nyiɛ43	mm41	mɛ41o3 (5 + 1)	mɛ41sɔn2 (5 + 2)	mɛ41na3 (5 + 3)	mɛ41nyiɛ3 (5 + 4)	puue3

Reconstruction

Proto-Kru
Reconstruction of	Kru languages

According to Marchese Zogbo (2012), Proto-Kru had:[11]

• phonemic nasalized vowels
• four level tones
• *CVCV-(C)V and probably *CVV syllable structure. *CCV syllables, and possibly also *CVV syllables, are derived from *CVCV roots.
• SVO word order, but with much OV typology
• suffixing morphology
• perfective and imperfective aspects

Proto-Kru consonants (Marchese Zogbo 2012):

p	t	k	kp
b	d	g	gb
ɓ
m	n	ŋ (?)
	s
	l	w

Derived consonants:

• /ɟ/ is likely derived via palatalization (*g > ɟ), e.g. *gie > ɟie.
• *c, *ɲ, *kʷ, *gʷ, *ŋʷ are derived from alveolar or velar consonants preceding high back or high front vowels.
• /ɗ/ is likely derived from *l.

Proto-Kru vowels (Marchese Zogbo 2012):

ɪ	ʊ
e	o
ɛ	ɔ
a

There is a clear bipartite division between Western and Eastern Kru marked by phonological and lexical distinctions. Some isoglosses between Western Kru and Eastern Kru:

Gloss	Proto-Western Kru	Proto-Eastern Kru
tree	*tu	*su
dog	*gbe	*gwɪ
fire	*nɛ	*kosu
tooth	*ɲnɪ	*gle

References

1. Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Kru". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
2. Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Siamou". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
3. Breitbonde, L. B. (1991). "City, Countryside, and Kru Ethnicity". Africa. 61 (2): 186–201. doi:10.2307/1160614. JSTOR 1160614.
4. Dalby, Andrew (1998). Dictionary of Languages. New York: Columbia UP.
5. Bahl, Taru; Syed, M. H., eds. (2003). Encyclopaedia of Muslim World. New Delhi: Ammol Publications. pp. 24–25.
6. McEvoy, Frederick (1997). "Understanding Ethnic Realities among the Grebo and Kru People of West Africa". Africa. 47 (1): 62. doi:10.2307/1159195.
7. Fisiak, Jacek (1984). Historical Syntax. New York: Mouton.
8. Marchese, Lynell. 1989. Kru. In Bendor-Samuel, John (ed.), The Niger-Congo Languages: A Classification and Description of Africa's Largest Language Family, 119-139. Lanham MD, New York & London: Lanham: University Press of America.
9. Marchese, Lynell. 1983. Atlas linguistique Kru: nouvelle edition. Abidjan: Agence de Coopération Culturelle et Technique (ACCT).
10. Chan, Eugene (2019). "The Niger-Congo Language Phylum". Numeral Systems of the World's Languages.
11. Marchese Zogbo, Lynell. 2012. Kru revisited, Kru revealed. Paper presented at the International Congress "Towards Proto-Niger-Congo: Comparison and Reconstruction," Paris, 18‒21 September. (Abstract)

• Westerman, Diedrich Hermann (1952) Languages of West Africa (Part II). London/New York/Toronto: Oxford University Press.

External links

• PanAfrican L10n page on Kru/Bassa