Gamera

Gamera (Japanese: ガメラ, Hepburn: Gamera) is a fictional monster originating from a series of Japanese films of the same name. Gamera first appeared in Noriaki Yuasa's 1965 film Gamera, the Giant Monster, produced by Daiei Film. The character and the first film were intended to compete with the success of Toho's Godzilla film series. Since then, Gamera has become a Japanese icon in his own right, appearing in a total of 12 films produced by Daiei Film and later Kadokawa Daiei Studio, as well as in comic books, manga, anime and video games. Gamera has been given various nicknames throughout the history of the franchise, including the Friend of All Children and the Guardian of the Universe.

Gamera
Gamera film series character
Gamera, as featured in Gamera, the Giant Monster
First appearance	Gamera, the Giant Monster (1965)
Last appearance	Gamera the Brave (2006)
Created by	Yonejiro Saito
Portrayed by	Shōwa era: Teruo Aragaki Umenosuke Izumi Heisei era: Naoaki Manabe Jun Suzuki Akira Ohashi[1] Hirofumi Fukuzawa Toshinori Sasaki
In-universe information
Alias	the Friend of All Children[2][3] the Friend to All Children[4][5] the Guardian of the Universe[6]

Gamera is depicted a massive, fire-breathing, prehistoric monster resembling a turtle, mutated by exposure to nuclear weapons. In the first film, Gamera is portrayed as aggressive and destructive, though he also saves the life of a young Japanese boy. As the film series progressed, Gamera took on a more benevolent role, becoming a protecter of humanity, and especially of human children, from extraterrestrial races and other giant monsters.[3]

In the United States, Gamera attained prominence during the 1970s due to the burgeoning popularity of UHF television stations featuring Saturday afternoon matinée showcases like Creature Double Feature,[7] and later in the 1990s when five Gamera films were featured on the television series Mystery Science Theater 3000.

Overview

Conception

The Black Tortoise, one of the Four Symbols of the Chinese constellations, is a possible source of inspiration for Gamera.[8]

The idea for Gamera was developed by Yonejiro Saito.[9] The character was created as a property of the production company Daiei Film, and was intended to compete with the Godzilla film series (featuring the giant monster character of the same name), owned by rival studio Toho.[10][11][12] Gamera has been described as being a rip-off of Godzilla.[3][13][14]

The name Gamera (ガメラ) derives from the Japanese kame ("turtle"), and the suffix -ra, a suffix shared by such other kaiju characters as Godzilla (Gojira) and Mothra.[15] Gamera's name was spelled Gammera in the title of Gammera the Invincible, the re-titled American release of the first film in the franchise, Gamera, the Giant Monster.[16][17]

Gamera's turtle-like design may have been inspired by the Black Tortoise, one of the Four Symbols of the Chinese constellations in East Asian mythology.[8] The Black Tortoise is known as Genbu in Japanese, and is usually depicted as a turtle entwined together with a snake.[8] Each of the Four Symbols are said to act as guardians over each of the four cardinal directions, with the dragon Seiryu in the east; the tiger Byakko in the west; the bird Suzaku in the south; and the tortoise Genbu in the north.[8][18] In Gamera, the Giant Monster, the first film in the franchise, Gamera is depicted as awakening in the Arctic, the northernmost region on Earth.[8][19] Gamera 3: Revenge of Iris, the 11th film in the franchise, contains a scene featuring a book describing the Four Symbols, including Genbu.[8]

Characteristics

Gamera resembles an enormous prehistoric turtle, and is capable of both bipedal movement and flight. He occasionally walks on all four legs in the first three films of the Gamera franchise. He can fly by means of "jets" which can be ignited out of his limb holes when he retracts his legs into his shell.[13] The jets allow Gamera to rise into the air and spin, propelling him forward.[20] In later films, he is shown to be able to fly with only his rear legs drawn inside his shell, allowing his front limbs more freedom. Gamera's shell is presented as being incredibly resilient and strong, and can deflect missiles and other projectiles. His plastron (lower shell) is more vulnerable than his carapace (upper shell), however, and he has been wounded in his plastron to the point of bleeding. He possesses a pronounced crest on his head, his mouth contains rows of teeth, and two tusks protrude upward from each side of his lower jaw.[21]

During the franchise's Shōwa period, Gamera is depicted as feeding on flammable substances, such as oil and fire.[22][23] According to notes by frequent series director Noriaki Yuasa, Gamera's internal anatomy includes sacs which allow him to store oil, lava, coal, and uranium.[24][25] In Gamera, the Giant Monster and Gamera vs. Barugon, cold temperatures are shown to weaken Gamera.[26] During the franchise's Heisei period, Gamera has retractable spikes protruding from his elbows,[21] and is shown to be able to shoot plasma fireballs from his mouth.[27][28] Gamera has also been portrayed as being able to absorb mana from the Earth,[29] to fire a plasma beam from his chest, and to regenerate lost limbs.

The original 1965 film, Gamera, the Giant Monster, depicts Gamera's origins as being a result of United States military fighters launching an attack on enemy bombers (presumably belonging to the Soviet Union),[30] which causes the detonation of an atomic bomb on board one of the aircraft. The nuclear blast releases Gamera from a state of suspended animation in the ice. Meanwhile, a Japanese research team stumbles upon an Inuit tribe in possession of an ancient stone etching that depicts a giant turtle, which the tribe refers to as "Gamera".[30]

In the franchise's Heisei era, which began with the 1995 reboot film Gamera: Guardian of the Universe, Gamera's in-universe origins were changed. In the Heisei films, Gamera is portrayed as an ancient, bio-engineered creature from Atlantis, created for the purpose of defending the people of Atlantis from Gyaos, a pterosaur-like creature which breathes a destructive supersonic beam when on the attack.[21][31] Human researchers find Gamera floating in the Pacific Ocean, encased in rock, and mistake him for an atoll.[32] Within the rock, they discover a large monolith explaining Gamera's origins, along with dozens of magatama made from orichalcum, which allow for a psychic link between Gamera and humans. In Gamera 3: Revenge of Iris, an undersea graveyard containing numerous Gamera-like fossils is shown, suggesting that Gamera was not the only one of his kind. One character in the film refers to these fossils as "beta versions" of Gamera, possibly failures in Atlantis' attempts to create the final version.

The continuity of the franchise was rebooted a second time with the 2006 film Gamera the Brave, the 12th entry in the series. The opening scene of the film, set in 1973, depicts the original Gamera sacrificing himself by means of self-destruction to save a coastal village from three Gyaos.[33]33 years later, a young boy named Toru Aizawa finds a glowing, heart-shaped rock near his home, with a small egg lying on top of it.[33][34] A baby turtle soon hatches from the egg, and begins to grow in size at an alarming rate.[34] The turtle, dubbed "Toto" by Toru, quickly forms a bond with the boy and develops the ability to breathe fire and fly.[34] After consuming the glowing rock found with his egg, Toto fully transforms into the next incarnation of Gamera, gaining the power to defeat a lizard-like monster known as Zedus.[35]

Film history

The Gamera film series is broken into two different eras, each reflecting a characteristic style and corresponding to the same eras used to classify all kaiju eiga (monster movies) in Japan. The names of the two eras refer to the Japanese emperor during production: the Shōwa era and the Heisei era.

Shōwa period (1965–1980)

The film series began in 1965 with Gamera, the Giant Monster, directed by Noriaki Yuasa, which is the first and only entry in the entire series to be shot in black-and-white. In 1966, the film was released in the United States under the title Gammera the Invincible. A total of seven Gamera films were produced between 1965 and 1971, with one being released each year. These films, several of which were also directed by Yuasa, became popular with child audiences. During this time, five of the seven films were picked up for television distribution in the United States by American International Television. Like Gamera, the Giant Monster becoming Gammera the Invincible, each film (except for Gamera vs. Zigra) was re-titled for American viewers—Gamera vs. Barugon became War of the Monsters;[36] Gamera vs. Gyaos became Return of the Giant Monsters;[37] Gamera vs. Viras became Destroy All Planets;[38] Gamera vs. Guiron became Attack of the Monsters;[39] and Gamera vs. Jiger became Gamera vs. Monster X.[40]

An eighth entry was slated for a 1972 release, tentatively titled Gamera vs. Garasharp.[41][42][43] However, in 1971, Daiei Film went into bankruptcy and the Gamera films were forced to cease production as a result.[41][44]

After Daiei was purchased by Tokuma Shoten in 1974, the new management wanted to produce another Gamera film, resulting in Gamera: Super Monster, released in 1980. The filmmakers were forced to make the movie because of the contract for one more Gamera film that they owed to Daiei. Approximately 1/3 of Gamera: Super Monster is composed of stock footage from six of the previous seven films.[45] However, when production of the film had begun, Yuasa saw how poorly Tokuma Shoten was handling things and knew that Gamera's reputation would never recover from the film, so he had Takahashi rewrite the ending into one where Gamera was killed at the end by sacrificing his life to save Earth.

In 1985, the American distribution rights to the Gamera films were bought by producer Sandy Frank, who distributed five of the eight films with new English dubbing.[46] In 1988 and 1989, Frank's versions of Gamera, the Giant Monster (simply re-titled Gamera),[17] Gamera vs. Barugon, Gamera vs. Gyaos (re-titled Gamera vs. Gaos), Gamera vs. Guiron, and Gamera vs. Zigra were each used in episodes of the television program Mystery Science Theater 3000, during the show's first season, which aired on KTMA-TV.[17][46][47]

Heisei period (1995–2006)

In the 1995 series reboot, Gamera: Guardian of the Universe, three Gyaos are discovered on a remote island. The Japanese government discovers that they are all female and decides that since they are the last of their kind, they should be captured and studied. Meanwhile, a search has been assembled for a moving atoll in the Pacific. They find it, along with small gems made of an unknown metal and a stone sticking up out of the center of it. They manage to take pictures and collect some of the strange gems, but the stone crumbles and the atoll takes off towards Japan at high speeds. It ends up that the atoll is actually an ancient monster, made by the Atlanteans, called Gamera. He attacks the Gyaos, killing two, but one escapes. The remaining Gyaos grows to Gamera-like proportions and the two battle. Gamera manages to defeat his foe and heads out to sea.

In Gamera 2: Attack of Legion, released in 1996, Earth is attacked by an alien force known as Legion.

In Gamera 3: Revenge of Iris, released in 1999, Gamera has to face hordes of Gyaos and a new foe known as Iris.

Reboot

In March 2014, Anime News Network reported that a new Gamera production was planned, with no release date specified.[48] On October 8, 2015, Kadokawa Daiei Studio's senior managing director Tsuyoshi Kikuchi and producer Shinichiro Inoue screened a proof-of-concept trailer at the New York Comic Con, revealing plans to commemorate the Gamera franchise's 50th anniversary by producing a new film reboot of the series, set to be directed by Katsuhito Ishii. The proof-of-concept trailer featured a newly designed Gamera, a swarm of newly designed Gyaos and a new, as of yet unnamed monster, all of which were created and rendered through the use of computer-generated imagery.[2][49][50]

Filmography

Daiei and Kadokawa productions

No.	Title	Year	Director(s)	Monster co-star(s)	Licenses
Shōwa period (1965–1980)
1	Gamera, the Giant Monster	1965	Noriaki Yuasa	None	Arrow Video[51]
2	Gamera vs. Barugon	1966	Shigeo Tanaka	Barugon
3	Gamera vs. Gyaos	1967	Noriaki Yuasa	Gyaos
4	Gamera vs. Viras	1968		Viras
5	Gamera vs. Guiron	1969		Guiron, Space Gyaos
6	Gamera vs. Jiger	1970		Jiger, Jiger's baby
7	Gamera vs. Zigra	1971		Zigra
8	Gamera: Super Monster	1980		Gyaos, Zigra, Viras, Jiger, Guiron, and Barugon
Heisei period (1995–2006)
9	Gamera: Guardian of the Universe	1995	Shusuke Kaneko	Gyaos	Arrow Video[51]
10	Gamera 2: Attack of Legion	1996		Legion
11	Gamera 3: Revenge of Iris	1999		Iris, Gyaos
12	Gamera the Brave	2006	Ryuta Tasaki	Gyaos, Zedus

Other media

Home media

In 2003, Alpha Video released the American versions of four Shōwa films on pan and scan DVDs: Gammera the Invincible,[52][53] Gamera vs. Barugon (as War of the Monsters),[54] Gamera vs. Viras (as Destroy All Planets)[55] and Gamera vs. Guiron (as Attack of the Monsters).[56]

In 2010, Shout! Factory acquired the rights from Kadokawa Pictures for all eight of the Showa Gamera films in order to release the uncut Japanese versions on DVD for the first time ever in North America. These "Special Edition" DVDs were released in sequential order, starting with Gamera, the Giant Monster on May 18, 2010, followed by Gamera vs. Barugon and two double features: Gamera vs. Gyaos with Gamera vs. Viras, and Gamera vs. Guiron with Gamera vs. Jiger. On March 15, 2011, Shout! Factory released the last two films of the Showa series in a double feature of Gamera vs. Zigra with Gamera: Super Monster. Shout! Factory later released MST3K vs. Gamera, a special 21st volume of Mystery Science Theater 3000 containing the episodes featuring all five Gamera movies from the show's third season.

On April 29, 2014, Mill Creek Entertainment released the eight Showa Gamera films (1965–1980) on Blu-ray in two volumes, Gamera: The Ultimate Collection Volume 1 and Gamera: The Ultimate Collection Volume 2, featuring the original widescreen video and original Japanese audio only with English subtitles, and also the first 11 films (1965–1999) on DVD again as The Gamera Legacy Collection: 1965 - 1999, also featuring the original widescreen video and original Japanese audio only with English subtitles.[57] The Heisei trilogy was re-released on Blu-ray earlier from Mill Creek Entertainment on September 27, 2011, once again featuring the original widescreen video and original Japanese audio only with English subtitles.

On August 17, 2020, Arrow Video released a Blu-ray boxset title "Gamera: The Complete Collection". The set features the original Japanese cuts for all 12 films, with English audio options; the Blu-ray debut of Gammera the Invincible and War of the Monsters; digital HD transfers and 4K restorations of the Heisei trilogy; case artwork by Matt Frank; audio commentaries by August Ragone, David Kalat, Steve Ryfle, and Ed Godziszewski; a full color hardcover reprint of Dark Horse Comics' four-issue comic book miniseries Gamera the Guardian of the Universe; the English-language printing debut of the comic book story Gamera: The Last Hope by Matt Frank and Joshua Bugosh; and an 80-page book featuring a retrospective on the series by Patrick Macias with illustrations by Jolyon Yates.[51]

Comics

The first issue of the comic book miniseries Gamera the Guardian of the Universe by Dark Horse Comics

Dark Horse Comics published a four-issue miniseries based on Gamera called Gamera the Guardian of the Universe in 1996.[58] The miniseries features Gamera, Gyaos, Zigra, and Viras.[59][60][61][62] The manga series Dr. Slump, written and illustrated by Akira Toriyama, depicts Gamera as appearing in the land of Penguin Village.[63] In the manga series Dragon Ball, also by Toriyama, a flying turtle which resembles a smaller version of Gamera is summoned by Master Roshi to carry him to Fire Mountain.[64] There are references to Gamera in chapters of the manga series Kochira Katsushika-ku Kameari Kōen-mae Hashutsujo, written and illustrated by Osamu Akimoto, and Kinnikuman, created by Yudetamago. These chapters appear in Gamera: Super Monster, the eighth film in the franchise.[65]

Television

The third season of Mystery Science Theater 3000 contains five episodes which each feature a film from the Gamera franchise's Shōwa period: Gamera, the Giant Monster, Gamera vs. Barugon, Gamera vs. Gyaos, Gamera vs. Guiron, and Gamera vs. Zigra.[66][67] In a similar manner to events depicted in the manga series upon which it was based, the anime television series Dragon Ball features a creature known as Baby Gamera, a flying turtle resembling a miniature version of Gamera which transports Master Roshi to Fire Mountain.[68][69] Gamera was parodied in the South Park episode "Mecha-Streisand",[70] and was featured in the Simpsons episode "Thirty Minutes Over Tokyo".[71]

Video games

Gamera appeared in several video games released in 1995, including Gamera: Daikaiju Kuchu Kessen for the Game Boy,[72] Gamera: Gyaosu Gekimetsu Sakusen for the Super Famicom,[73] and Gamera: The Time Adventure for the Bandai Playdia.[74] In 1997, Gamera 2000 was released exclusively in Japan for the PlayStation.[75] In 2017, Gamera appeared in the video game City Shrouded in Shadow, released for the PlayStation 4, alongside such characters as Legion, Godzilla, Ultraman, and Evangelion Unit-01.[76][77]

Reception

Box office performance and critical response

Many of the Gamera films were commercially successful in Japan, rivaling the Godzilla franchise at the box office during the 1960s.[13] However, they were commonly regarded as being inferior to the Godzilla films, with criticism being aimed at the derivative and absurd nature of the series.[78] Despite this, the 1995 reboot Gamera: Guardian of the Universe was a critical and financial success, remaining in the top 10 films in Japan for its first six weeks of release and grossing more than Godzilla vs. SpaceGodzilla, which was also playing in Japanese theaters at that time.[78]

Legacy

Todd McCarthy, in his review of Gamera: Guardian of the Universe for Variety, wrote that "Despite its horrific countenance and plated shell, Gamera remains one of the most likable of all movie monsters".[79] Brian Solomon of the website Bloody Disgusting ranked Gamera eighth on his list of "Most Kick-Ass Giant Monsters in Movie History".[80] Gamera was also ranked eighth on Rick Mele of Sharp's list of "Greatest Giant Monsters in Movie History".[81] Chris Coffel of Film School Rejects wrote that "I would argue that the Gamera franchise is better than the Godzilla franchise", complimenting Gamera's turtle-like design and his affinity for children.[82]

The extinct Cretaceous baenid turtle Gamerabaena sonsalla, classified in 2010, was named after Gamera.[83]

The University of Maryland Gamera I human-powered helicopter, along with its successor, was named after Gamera.[84] Developed by University of Maryland engineering students in 2011 and 2012, respectively, the name was also chosen in reference to the University's mascot, the diamondback terrapin, as well as to flights undertaken by Japanese human-powered helicopters years prior.[84]

In July 2011, Washington State University veterinarians successfully fixed a prosthetic caster onto an African spurred tortoise named Gamera (after the giant turtle), who was a single amputee.[85][86][87]

References

1. Galbraith IV 2008, p. 395.
2. Amaya, Erik (9 October 2015). "NYCC '15: Gamera Is Still The Friend Of All Children In New Trailer". Bleeding Cool. Avatar Press. Retrieved 7 July 2019.
3. Kalat 2010, p. 178.
4. Hurtado, J. (14 December 2011). "Gamera Trilogy Blu-ray Review". Screen Anarchy. Retrieved 7 July 2019.
5. Chapman, Paul (4 April 2015). "Be a Friend to All Children with a Gamera Vinyl Figure". Crunchyroll. Retrieved 7 July 2019.
6. "Gamera Trilogy Blu-ray: Gamera: Guardian of the Universe, Gamera 2: Attack of Legion, Gamera 3: Revenge of Iris". Blu-ray.com. 27 September 2011. Retrieved 7 July 2019.
7. Corey, Joe (31 August 2012). "DVD Review: Mighty Morphin Power Rangers (Season 1, Vol. 1)". InsidePulse. Retrieved 7 July 2019.
8. Kotz, Sean (19 March 2006). "Why the Heck is Gamera a Turtle?". SciFi Japan. Retrieved 7 July 2019.
9. Galbraith IV 1996, p. 177.
10. Clarke, Frederick S. (1996). "Cinefantastique". Cinefantastique. Vol. 28. Google Books. p. 3. Retrieved 7 July 2019.
11. "Here's Why We Probably Won't See Gamera in GODZILLA: KING OF THE MONSTERS". Dread Central. 22 December 2018. Retrieved 7 July 2019.
12. Raymond, Nicholas (21 June 2019). "Godzilla: King Of The Monsters' Atlantis Sets Up Multiple New Titans". ScreenRant. Retrieved 7 July 2019.
13. Deusner, Stephen M. (17 May 2010). "Turtle Soup: 'Gamera, the Giant Monster'". The Washington Post. Retrieved 7 July 2019.
14. Orr, Christopher (22 May 2014). "Why You Should Watch the (Actual) Original Godzilla". The Atlantic. Retrieved 7 July 2019.
15. Di Giorgio, Gigante & Gordiano 2012, p. 64.
16. "Gammera The Invincible (1966)". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved 8 July 2019.
17. Galbraith IV, Stuart (18 May 2010). "Gamera - The Giant Monster". DVD Talk. Retrieved 8 July 2019.
18. "Tomb murals of guardian spirits tapped for Japan treasure status". The Asahi Shimbun. 19 March 2019. Retrieved 7 July 2019.
19. "A Brief History of Gamera: Celebrating 50 Years of Spinning Turtles". Scified.com. 29 November 2015. Retrieved 7 July 2019.
20. Goldweber 2015, p. 729.
21. Edmundson-Cornell, Harry (6 February 2015). "Elbow Spikes and Atlantis: Gamera: Guardian of the Universe". Sequart.org. Sequart Organization. Retrieved 8 July 2019.
22. Bogue 2017, p. 192.
23. Rhoads & McCorkle 2018, p. 98.
24. Phipps, Keith (2 June 2010). "Gamera: The Giant Monster". The A. V. Club. Retrieved 24 July 2019.
25. Newitz, Annalee (27 October 2008). "Internal Organs that Allow Giant Monsters to Breathe Fire". io9. Gawker Media. Retrieved 24 July 2019.
26. Chung & Diffrient 2015, p. 83.
27. Clarke, Frederick S. (1995). "Cinefantastique". Cinefantastique. Vol. 27. Google Books. p. 39. Retrieved 8 July 2019.
28. Kikuchi, Daisuke (2 November 2016). "Mysterious green fireball observed in skies above Japan on Halloween likely a meteor". The Japan Times. Retrieved 8 July 2019.
29. McKee 2007, p. 14.
30. Rhoads & McCorkle 2018, p. 91.
31. Rhoads & McCorkle 2018, p. 175.
32. Ebert, Roger (29 August 1997). "Gamera: Guardian Of The Universe Movie Review (1997)". RogerEbert.com. Retrieved 8 July 2019.
33. Mes, Tom (29 September 2006). "Midnight Eye review: Gamera the Brave (Chiisaki Yusha-tachi Gamera, 2005, Ryuta Tasaki)". Midnight Eye. Retrieved 23 July 2019.
34. Aiken, Keith (1 March 2006). "Gamera the Brave". SciFi Japan. Retrieved 8 July 2019.
35. Barr 2016, p. 173.
36. Craig 2019, p. 401.
37. Galbraith IV 1996, p. 335.
38. Craig 2019, p. 120–121.
39. Craig 2019, p. 44.
40. Craig 2019, p. 160.
41. Rhoads & McCorkle 2018, p. 136.
42. "Gamera vs. Garasharp: The Gamera that Never Was". ShrineofGamera.com. Archived from the original on 19 April 2010. Retrieved 15 July 2009.
43. 『ガメラ対大邪獣ガラシャープ』 をちゃんと製作して欲しい。 (in Japanese). Tanomi.com. Archived from the original on 13 September 2012. Retrieved 15 July 2009.
44. Frédéric 2002, p. 137.
45. Player, Mark (7 July 2014). "Intergalactic Tokusatsu: Charting the Japanese Space Opera, Part 2". Midnight Eye. Retrieved 24 July 2019.
46. Morgan 2015, p. 10.
47. Murray, Noel (27 July 2011). "MST3K Vs. Gamera". The A. V. Club. Retrieved 24 July 2019.
48. Loo, Egan (12 March 2014). "New Gamera Project Listed by Retailer". Anime News Network. Retrieved 7 July 2019.
49. Loo, Egan (9 October 2015). "New Gamera Monster CG Footage Unveiled by Katsuhito Ishii". Anime News Network. Retrieved 7 July 2019.
50. Chapman, Paul (9 October 2015). "VIDEO: Teaser Trailer for New "Gamera" Film Directed by Katsuhito Ishii". Crunchyroll. Retrieved 7 July 2019.
51. "Gamera: The Complete Collection – Limited Edition Blu-ray Set Coming From Arrow Video". SciFi Japan. 21 February 2020. Archived from the original on 23 February 2020. Retrieved 22 February 2020.
52. Bolton, Csicsery-Ronay Jr. & Tatsumi 2007, p. 22.
53. Goldweber 2015, p. 730.
54. "War of the Monsters DVD". Amazon.com. Retrieved 16 July 2019.
55. "Destroy All Planets DVD". Amazon.com. Retrieved 16 July 2019.
56. "Attack of the Monsters DVD". Amazon.com. Retrieved 16 July 2019.
57. "New Gamera Blu-ray and DVD Sets from Mill Creek in April". SciFi Japan. 24 February 2014. Retrieved 8 July 2019.
58. "GCD :: Covers :: Gamera". Grand Comics Database. Retrieved 7 July 2019.
59. "Gamera #1 (of 4)". DarkHorse.com. Dark Horse Comics, Inc. Retrieved 7 July 2019.
60. "Gamera #2 (of 4)". DarkHorse.com. Dark Horse Comics, Inc. Retrieved 7 July 2019.
61. "Gamera #3 (of 4)". DarkHorse.com. Dark Horse Comics, Inc. Retrieved 7 July 2019.
62. "Gamera #4 (of 4)". DarkHorse.com. Dark Horse Comics, Inc. Retrieved 7 July 2019.
63. Thompson, Jason (17 October 2013). "Jason Thompson's House of 1000 Manga - Dr. Slump". Anime News Network. Retrieved 7 July 2019.
64. Padula 2015, p. 224–225.
65. Dent, Mike (22 March 2010). "Gamera: The Super Monster". Otaku USA. Retrieved 7 July 2019.
66. Brunson, Matt (21 April 2017). "Mystery Science Theater 3000's Best Episodes". ScreenRant. Retrieved 7 July 2019.
67. Jasper, Gavin (31 May 2019). "MST3K: A Guide to the Giant Monster Movies of Mystery Science Theater 3000". Den of Geek. Retrieved 7 July 2019.
68. Baird, Scott (8 March 2017). "15 Times Dragon Ball Z Crossed Over With Other Series". ScreenRant. Retrieved 7 July 2019.
69. Baird, Scott (30 November 2017). "Dragon Ball: 20 Surprising Things You Didn't Know About Master Roshi". TheGamer.com. Retrieved 7 July 2019.
70. Longo, Chris; Crow, David; Kurland, Daniel; Harley, Nick; Matar, Joe (15 April 2019). "The Complete Guide to South Park Movie Parodies and References". Den of Geek. Retrieved 7 July 2019.
71. Plumb, Alastair (14 May 2014). "From The Simpsons To Shrek 2: A History Of Godzilla In Pop Culture". Empire Online. Retrieved 7 July 2019.
72. Shaffer, Joseph (11 January 2015). "Gamera: Daikaijuu Kuuchuu Kessen (Game Boy) review". HonestGamers.com. Retrieved 17 July 2019.
73. "RF Generation: Gamera: Gyaos Gekinetsu Sakusen (Nintendo Super Famicom)". RF Generation. 6 September 2012. Retrieved 18 July 2019.
74. "RF Generation: Gamera: The Time Adventure". RF Generation. 3 October 2011. Retrieved 18 July 2019.
75. Fielder, Joe (19 June 1997). "Gamera 2000 (Import) Review". GameSpot. Retrieved 17 July 2019.
76. Romano, Sal (30 May 2017). "City Shrouded in Shadow now PS4-only, launches this fall in Japan [Update 3]". Gematsu. Retrieved 18 July 2019.
77. Gelmini, David (1 June 2017). "Gamera and King Ghidorah Officially Join Godzilla in City Shrouded in Shadow". Dread Central. Retrieved 18 July 2019.
78. Kalat 2010, p. 491.
79. McCarthy, Todd (4 September 1995). "Gamera: The Guardian of the Universe". Variety. Retrieved 16 July 2019.
80. Solomon, Brian (23 March 2010). "The Top 21 Most Kick-Ass Giant Monsters in Movie History!". Bloody Disgusting. Retrieved 16 July 2019.
81. Mele, Rick (10 March 2017). "The 16 Greatest Giant Monsters in Movie History". Sharp. Retrieved 16 July 2019.
82. Coffel, Chris (23 March 2018). "Attack of the 37 Big Monster Movies". Film School Rejects. Retrieved 16 July 2019.
83. Lyson, Tyler R.; Joyce, Walter G. (March 2010). "A new baenid turtle from the Upper Cretaceous (Maastrichtian) Hell Creek Formation of North Dakota and a preliminary taxonomic review of Cretaceous Baenidae" (PDF). Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 30 (#2): 394–402. doi:10.1080/02724631003618389. Retrieved 16 July 2019.
84. Berry, Ben; Bowen-Davies, Graham; Gluesenkamp, Kyle; Kaler, Zak; Schmaus, Joseph; Staruk, William; Weiner, Elizabeth; Woods (May 2012). "Design optimization of Gamera II: a human powered helicopter". Proc. 68th Am. Helicopter Soc. Annu. Forum. Retrieved 16 July 2019.
85. Skarda, Erin (25 July 2011). "Meet Gamera, the All-Terrain Tortoise With a Wheel for a Leg". Time. Retrieved 16 July 2019.
86. "Gamera". WSU University Veterinary Teaching Hospital. Washington State University. 30 July 2011. Retrieved 16 July 2019.
87. "Friends bid goodbye to well-traveled amputee tortoise". WSU Insider. Washington State University. 4 June 2014. Retrieved 16 July 2019.

Bibliography

• Barr, Jason (2016). The Kaiju Film: A Critical Study of Cinema's Biggest Monsters. McFarland & Company. ISBN 978-0786499632.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
• Bogue, Mike (2017). Apocalypse Then: American and Japanese Atomic Cinema 1951-1967. McFarland & Company. ISBN 978-1476668413.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
• Bolton, Christopher; Csicsery-Ronay Jr., Istvan; Tatsumi, Takayuki (2007). Robot Ghosts and Wired Dreams. University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 978-0816649747.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
• Chung, Hye Seung; Diffrient, David Scott (2015). Movie Migrations: Transnational Genre Flows and South Korean Cinema (New Directions in International Studies). Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0813569970.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
• Craig, Rob (2019). American International Pictures: A Comprehensive Filmography. McFarland & Company. ISBN 978-1476666310.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
• Di Giorgio, Davide; Gigante, Andrea; Gordiano, Lupi (2012). Godzilla: Il re Dei Mostri - Il Sauro Radioattivo di Honda e Tsuburaya (in Italian). Associazione Culturale Il Foglio. ISBN 978-8876063510.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
• Goldweber, David Elroy (2015). Claws & Saucers: Science Fiction, Horror, and Fantasy Film 1902-1982: A Complete Guide. Lulu Press, Inc. ISBN 978-1312288034.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
• Galbraith IV, Stuart (1996). The Japanese Filmography: A Complete Reference to 209 Filmmakers and the Over 1250 Films Released in the United States, 1900 through 1994. McFarland & Company. ISBN 978-0786400324.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
• Galbraith IV, Stuart (2008). The Toho Studios Story: A History and Complete Filmography. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0810860049.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
• Frédéric, Louis (2002). Japan Encyclopedia (Harvard University Press Reference Library). Translated by Roth, Käthe. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674007703.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
• Kalat, David (2010). A Critical History and Filmography of Toho's Godzilla Series - Second Edition. McFarland & Company. ISBN 978-0786447497.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
• McKee, Gabriel (2007). The Gospel According to Science Fiction: From the Twilight Zone to the Final Frontier. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 978-0664229016.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
• Morgan, Chris (2015). The Comic Galaxy of Mystery Science Theater 3000: Twelve Classic Episodes and the Movies They Lampoon. McFarland & Company. ISBN 978-0786496785.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
• Padula, Derek (2015). Dragon Ball Culture Volume 2: Adventure. ASIN B00S89R1YI.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
• Ragone, August (2010). Gamera, the Giant Monster Audio Commentary (DVD). Shout! Factory.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
• Rhoads, Sean; McCorkle, Brooke (2018). Japan's Green Monsters: Environmental Commentary in Kaiju Cinema. McFarland & Company. ISBN 978-1476663906.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
• Gamera Preservation Project (2010). A Retrospective Look Back at Gamera (DVD). Shout! Factory.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)

External links

• The Shrine of Gamera