Cuban medical internationalism

Cuban medical internationalism is the Cuban programme, started after the 1959 Cuban Revolution, of sending medical personnel overseas, particularly to Latin America, Africa and, more recently, Oceania,[1] and of bringing medical students and patients to Cuba. In 2007, Cuba had 42,000 workers in international collaborations in 103 different countries, of whom more than 30,000 were health personnel, including at least 19,000 physicians.[2] Cuba provides more medical personnel to the developing world than all the G8 countries combined,[2] although this comparison does not take into account G8 development aid spent on developing world healthcare. The Cuban missions have had substantial positive local impacts on the populations served.[3] It is widely believed that medical workers are Cuba's most important export commodity.[4] According to Granma, the Cuban state newspaper, the number of Cuban medical staff abroad fell from 50,000 in 2015 to 28,000 in 2020.[5]

The United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, in an official public communication in 2019 by the Mandates of the Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of slavery, including its causes and consequences; and the Special Rapporteur on trafficking in persons, especially women and children, have indicated that the working conditions of the Cuban medical workers in these missions "could rise to forced labor, according to the forced labor indicators established by the International Labor Organization. Forced labor constitutes a contemporary form of slavery".[6]

Missions abroad
A Cuban surgeon with scrub cap performing an open air operation in Guinea-Bissau for the PAIGC liberation movement, 1974

In 2007, one academic study on Cuban internationalism surveyed the history of the programme, noting its broad sweep: "Since the early 1960s, 28,422 Cuban health workers have worked in 37 Latin American countries, 31,181 in 33 African countries, and 7,986 in 24 Asian countries. Throughout a period of four decades, Cuba sent 67,000 health workers to structural cooperation programs, usually for at least two years, in 94 countries ... an average of 3,350 health workers working abroad every year between 1960 and 2000".[7] In 2020, Cuban doctors were active in over 60 countries.[8] On November 15, 2019, the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, in an official public communication by the Mandates of the Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of slavery, including its causes and consequences; and the Special Rapporteur on trafficking in persons, especially women and children, have indicated that "Currently, some 30,000 Cuban doctors would be active in 67 countries.".[6]

Anti-colonialism
A Cuban Doctor in Guinea-Bissau in 1974.

The programme was initiated in 1963 as part of Cuba's foreign policy of supporting anti-colonial struggles. It began when Cuba sent a small medical brigade to Algeria, which suffered from the mass withdrawal of French medical personnel during the Algerian War of Independence; some wounded soldiers and war orphans were also transported back to Cuba for treatment.[9][10] Cuba was able to put this programme in place despite half the country's 6,000 doctors fleeing after the Cuban revolution.[2] Between 1966 and 1974, Cuban doctors worked alongside Cuban artillery in Guinea-Bissau during its war of independence against Portugal.[2] Cuba's largest foreign campaign was in Angola where, in 1977, two years after the campaign's commencement, only one Angolan province out of sixteen was without Cuban health technicians.[11] After 1979, Cuba also developed a strong relationship with Nicaragua.[12]

Humanitarianism

In addition to the internationalism which was driven by foreign policy objectives, humanitarian objectives also played a role in Cuba's overseas medical programme, with medical teams despatched to countries governed by ideological foes. For example, in 1960, 1972 and 1990 it dispatched emergency assistance teams to Chile, Nicaragua, and Iran following earthquakes.[2] Similarly, Venezuela's Mission Barrio Adentro programme grew out of the emergency assistance provided by Cuban doctors in the wake of the December 1999 mudslides in Vargas state, which killed 20,000 people.[13]

Cuban medical missions were sent to Honduras, Guatemala and Haiti following 1998's Hurricane Mitch and Hurricane Georges, and remained there semi-permanently.[9] From 1998 onwards, Cuba expanded its international cooperation in health dramatically.[14] The number of Cuban doctors working abroad jumped from about 5000 in 2003 to more than 25,000 in 2005.[14]

In Honduras the medical personnel had a substantial impact: "In the areas they served, infant mortality rates were reduced from 30.8 to 10.1 per 1,000 live births and maternal mortality rates from 48.1 to 22.4 per 1,000 live births between 1998 and 2003."[2] However, as one academic paper noted, "The idea of a nation saving lives and improving the human condition is alien to traditional statecraft and is therefore discounted as a rationale for the Cuban approach."[2] In 2004 the 1700 medical personnel in Guatemala received the Order of the Quetzal, the country's highest state honour.[2] A 2005 attempt by Honduras to expel the Cuban mission on the basis that it was threatening Honduran jobs was successfully resisted by trade unions and community organisations.[9]

Following the 2004 Asian tsunami, Cuba sent medical assistance to Banda Aceh and Sri Lanka.[7] In response to Hurricane Katrina, Cuba prepared to send 1500 doctors to New Orleans, however, the offer was refused. Several months later a mission was dispatched to Pakistan following the 2005 Kashmir earthquake. Ultimately, Cuba sent "more than 2,500 disaster response experts, surgeons, family doctors, and other health personnel", who stayed through the winter for more than 6 months.[7][15] Cuba helped during the medical crisis in Haiti after the 2010 Haiti earthquake.[16] All 152 Cuban medical and educational personnel in the Haitian capital Port-au-Prince at the time of the earthquake were reported to be safe, with two suffering minor injuries.[17] In 2014, Cuba sent 103 nurses and 62 doctors to help fight the Ebola virus epidemic in West Africa, the biggest contribution of health care staff by any single country.[18] During the Covid-19 pandemic, a Cuban medical team consisting of 50 medical personnel was dispatched to Italy. [19][20]

Venezuela
Main article: Mission Barrio Adentro

Cuba's largest and most extensive medical aid effort is with Venezuela. The program grew out of the emergency assistance provided by Cuban doctors in the wake of the December 1999 mudslides in Vargas state, which killed 20,000 people. Under this bilateral effort, also known as the "oil for doctors" program, Cuba provided Venezuela with 31,000 Cuban doctors and dentists and provided training for 40,000 Venezuelan medical personnel.[21] In exchange, Venezuela provided Cuba with 100,000 barrels of oil per day. Based on February 2010 prices, the oil was worth $7.5 million per day, or nearly $3 billion per year.[4]

Other countries

Cuba has also sent notable missions to Bolivia (particularly after the 2005 election of Evo Morales) and South Africa, the latter in particular after a post-apartheid brain drain of white doctors.[22] Since 1995, a co-operation agreement with South Africa has seen hundreds of Cuban doctors practice in South Africa, while South Africa sends medical students to Cuba to study.[23] In 2012, the two governments signed another deal, increasing numbers on both sides. Under the deal, South African could send 1,000 students to Cuba for training which, South Africa believed, will help train the doctors it desperately needs for the implementation of its National Health Insurance Scheme.[24] After the 1999 violence in East Timor, the country of a million people was left with only 35 physicians and 75% of its population displaced. The number later increased to 79 physicians by 2004, and Cuba sent an additional 182 physicians and technicians.[25]

"From 1963 to 2004, Cuba was involved in the creation of nine medical faculties in Yemen, Guyana, Ethiopia, Guinea-Bissau, Uganda, Ghana, Gambia, Equatorial Guinea, and Haiti."[7]

Oceania

In the 2000s, Cuba began establishing or strengthening relations with Pacific Island countries, and providing medical aid to those countries. Cuba's medical aid to Pacific countries has involved sending its doctors to Oceania, and providing scholarships for Pacific students to study medicine in Cuba at Cuba's expense.

In 2007, there were sixteen Cuban doctors providing specialised medical care in Kiribati, and an additional sixteen scheduled to join them.[26] Cuba also offered training to Kiribati doctors.[27] Cuban doctors have reportedly provided a dramatic improvement to the field of medical care in Kiribati, reducing the child mortality rate in that country by 80%,[28] and winning the proverbial hearts and minds in the Pacific. In response, the Solomon Islands began recruiting Cuban doctors in July 2007, while Papua New Guinea and Fiji considered following suit.[28]

In 2008, Cuba was due to send doctors to the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, Tuvalu, Nauru and Papua New Guinea,[1] while seventeen medical students from Vanuatu would study in Cuba.[29] It was reported that it might also provide training for Fiji doctors.[30]

As of September 2008, fifteen Cuban doctors were serving in Kiribati, sixty-four Pacific students were studying medicine in Cuba, and Cuban authorities were offering "up to 400 scholarships to young people of that region".[31] Among the sixty-four students were twenty-five Solomon Islanders, twenty I-Kiribati, two Nauruans and seventeen ni-Vanuatu.[32] Pacific Islanders have been studying in Cuba since 2006.[33]

In June 2009, Prensa Latina reported that Cuban doctors had "inaugurated a series of new health services in Tuvalu". One Cuban doctor had been serving in Tuvalu since October 2008, and two more since February 2009. They had reportedly "attended 3,496 patients, and saved 53 lives", having "opened ultrasound and abortion services, as well as specialized consultations on hypertension, diabetes, and chronic diseases in children". They had visited all the country's islands, and were training local staff in "primary health care, and how to deal with seriously ill patients, among other subjects".[34]

Principles

Cuba's overseas medical missions are intended to provide services at low cost to the host country. "Patients are not charged for services, and the recipient countries are expected to cover only the cost of collective housing, air fare, and limited food and supplies not exceeding $200 a month. While Cuban doctors are abroad, they continue to receive their salaries as well as a stipend in the foreign currency".[2] In 2008, the pay for Cuban doctors abroad was $183 per month, whereas the pay for doctors working domestically was $23 per month.[22] A new term - "disaster tourism" - arose in response to a growing number of large-scale natural disasters. The phrase refers to individuals, governments and organisations who travel to a disaster area with the primary goal of having an "experience" rather than providing meaningful aid. Such aid is often short-lived, and may even get in the way of more serious rescue efforts. Cuban medical internationalism represents a polar opposite to this disaster tourism mentality, with a focus on large-scale, sustained aid targeting the most marginalised and under-served populations across the globe.[35]

Internationalism at home

Since 1990, Cuba has provided long-term care for 18,000 victims of the Chernobyl disaster, "offering treatment for hair loss, skin disorders, cancer, leukemia, and other illnesses attributed to radioactivity".[2]

In response to Hurricane Mitch in 1998, Cuba set up the "Escuela Latinoamericana de Medicina" ("Latin American School of Medicine"; ELAM) outside Havana, converted from a former naval base. It accepts around 1500 students per year.[2] ELAM forms part of a range of medical education and training initiatives; "Cubans, with the help of Venezuela, are currently educating more doctors, about 70,000 in all, than all the medical schools in the United States, which typically have somewhere between 64,000 to 68,000 students enrolled in their programs".[9]

Following the development of cooperation with Venezuela through Mission Barrio Adentro, Mission Milagro/Operación Milagro was set up to provide ophthalmology services to Cuban, Venezuelan and Latin American patients, both in Cuba and in other countries. "As of August 2007, Cuba had performed over 750,000 eye surgeries, at no cost, including 113,000 surgeries for its own citizens".[2]

Effects on Cuba

Benefits

Both humanitarian and ideological factors were prominent in Cuba's "doctor diplomacy", particularly during the Cold War. Subsequently, its continuation has been seen a vital means to promote Cuba's image abroad and prevent international isolation. Cuba's health missions in Honduras were "undoubtedly a deciding factor" in the re-establishment of diplomatic relations between the two countries in 2002, ;[2] Guatemala re-established diplomatic relations with Cuba in 1998.[7]

At the 2009 5th Summit of the Americas, U.S. President Barack Obama commented that at the summit he had heard much about the impact of Cuban "soft diplomacy" in the form of its medical internationalism. He said this might be a reminder to the United States that limiting its interactions with Latin American countries to military and drug interdiction might be limiting its influence.[36]

It has also been suggested that Cuban medical internationalism promotes exports of Cuban medical technology, and may be a source of hard currency. However, the targeting of poor countries reduces the hard currency potential of missions abroad.[2] In 2006, Cuba's earnings from medical services, including the export of doctors, amounted to US$2,312M – 28% of total export receipts and net capital payments. This exceeded earnings from both nickel and cobalt exports and from tourism.[22] These earnings were achieved despite the fact that a substantial part of Cuba's medical internationalism since 1998 has been organised within the framework of the "Integrated Health Program" (Programa Integral de Salud, PIS); this cooperation program is free for the receiving country.[7] Cuba's co-operation with Venezuela provides Cuba with cheap oil in exchange for its medical support to Mission Barrio Adentro.[7] Bloomberg reported in March 2014 that Cuban state-controlled media forecasted revenue of $8.2 billion that year from the program.[37]

It has also been argued that the programme has, particularly in the 1980s and 1990s, "perform[ed] a critical function in consolidating socialist consciousness" within Cuba.[38]

Costs

Although Cuba's large-scale medical training programmes and high doctor-patient ratios give it much latitude, the expansion of doctor diplomacy since 2004, particularly with the Barrio Adentro programme, has been dramatic: the number of Cuban doctors working abroad jumped from about 5000 in 2003 to more than 25,000 in 2005.[14] This has had some impact on the domestic health system, for example there have been increased waiting times, particularly with regard to family doctors.[22] The number of patients per doctor rose from 139 to 179.[25] In March 2008 Cuba announced a reorganisation of its domestic family doctor programme for greater efficiency.[22]

Possible effects of lifting the U.S. embargo

A 2010 article by Laurie Garrett in Foreign Affairs warned that lifting the United States trade and travel restrictions on Cuba could have dire consequences for Cuba's healthcare system, leading to an exodus of thousands of well-trained Cuban healthcare professionals. U.S. companies could also transform the remaining healthcare system into a destination for medical tourism. Garrett concluded that, if politicians do not take great care, lifting of the restrictions would rob Cuba of its greatest triumph.[39]

Reports of slavery and political coercion

The United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, in an official public communication by the Mandates of the Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of slavery, including its causes and consequences; and the Special Rapporteur on trafficking in persons, especially women and children, have indicated that the working conditions of the Cuban medical workers in these missions "could rise to forced labor, according to the forced labor indicators established by the International Labor Organization. Forced labor constitutes a contemporary form of slavery". In particular, related to defection the communication indicated that "If a professional decides to retire from work abroad, it is classified as «abandonment of the mission of civilian workers» under the Cuban Penal Code, which in its article 135.1 stipulates that «the official or employee in charge of fulfilling a mission in a foreign country that abandons it, or, once it has been completed, or required at any time to return, refuses, expressly or tacitly, to do so, incurs a punishment of deprivation of freedom for three to eight years.»”[6]

According to Luis Zuñiga, director of human rights for the Cuban American National Foundation, Cuban doctors are "slave workers" who labor for meager wages while bolstering Cuba's image as a donor nation and "the Cuban government exports these doctors as merchandise".[40] According ADN Cuba, the Cuban government keeps between 70 and 90% of their salary and those who break the mission are punished for 8 years, without allowing them to return to Cuba.[41]

According to a 2019 The New York Times article, 16 Cuban doctors from Mission Barrio Adentro in Venezuela acknowledged to have denied medicine and other treatments in order to secure votes for the United Socialist Party of Venezuela (PSUV) during elections through coercion. Especially during 2018 Venezuelan presidential election in which Nicolás Maduro assured his reelection. Cuban doctors would have been instructed to go door to door warning residents that medical treatments would be cut off if they did not vote for Maduro. They also were asked to register people into the Venezuelan government homeland card, to secure medical services, and refuse treatment to those who did not apply for it. Some doctors report to have provided counterfeit ID cards to patients to be able to vote. Maduro administration has used social benefits before as coercion. According to 4 doctors, Maduro administration has established electoral command centers next to clinics leaded by members of the PSUV to dispatch doctors to pressure residents.[42]

Defection

In 2000, two Cuban doctors working in Zimbabwe attempted to defect to Canada. They were prevented from doing so by two Zimbabwean soldiers, who handed them over to Cuban officials.[40] United Nations officials said Zimbabwe appeared to have violated national and international laws.

In August 2006 the United States under George W. Bush created the Cuban Medical Professional Parole program,[43] specifically targeting Cuban medical personnel and encouraging them to defect while working outside Cuba.[9] From an estimated 40,000 eligible medical personnel, over 1000 had entered the United States under the program by October 2007, according to the chief of staff for U.S. Rep. Lincoln Díaz-Balart.[44] By 2017, more than 7000 thousand have entered the program.[5] The promised fast-track visa was not always forthcoming, with at least one applicant having to wait a year for his visa; although according to Dr. Julio Cesar Alfonso of the Cuban dissident organisation "Outside the Barrio," the U.S. government has rejected only a handful of the hundreds of applications for visas.[45] On 12 January 2017, President Obama announced the end of the program, saying that both Cuba and the US work to "combat diseases that endanger the health and lives of our people. By providing preferential treatment to Cuban medical personnel, the medical parole program contradicts those efforts, and risks harming the Cuban people".[46]

According to a 2007 paper published in The Lancet medical journal, "growing numbers of Cuban doctors sent overseas to work are defecting to the USA", some via Colombia, where they have sought temporary asylum.[47] In February 2007, at least 38 doctors were requesting asylum in the U.S. embassy in Bogotá after asylum was denied by the Colombian government.[48] Cuban doctors working abroad were reported to be monitored by "minders" and subject to curfew.[47]

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See also

Sources
  • Robert Huish and John M. Kirk (2007), "Cuban Medical Internationalism and the Development of the Latin American School of Medicine", Latin American Perspectives, 34; 77 doi:10.1177/0094582x07308119
  • C Muntaner, RM Guerra-Salazar, J Benach and F Armada,(2006) "Venezuela's barrio adentro: an alternative to neoliberalism" in health care, Int J Health Services 36(4), pp. 803–811 doi:10.2190/c4ew-x8rp-gum4-p5ad
  • Cooper R.S., Kennelly J.F., Ordunez-Garcia P., (2006) "Health in Cuba", International Journal of Epidemiology, 35 (4), pp. 817–824.
  • De Vos et al. (2007), "Cuba's International Cooperation in Health: an Overview", International Journal of Health Services, Volume 37, Number 4, Pages 761–776 doi:10.2190/HS.37.4.k
  • John M. Kirk and H. Michael Erisman (2009), Cuban Medical Internationalism: Origins, Evolution, and Goals, Palgrave Macmillan ISBN 978-0-230-62222-7

References
  1. "Cuban Physicians to Aid 81 Nations", Prensa Latina, March 29, 2008
  2. Robert Huish and John M. Kirk (2007), "Cuban Medical Internationalism and the Development of the Latin American School of Medicine", Latin American Perspectives, 34; 77
  3. San Sebastián, Miguel, Anna-Kari Hurtig, Jaime Breilh, et al. 2005 “The People’s Health Movement: health for all now.” Revista Panamericana de Salud Pública/Pan American Journal of Public Health 18: 45–49.
  4. Foreign Affairs, July/August 2010. page 69
  5. "Cuba's doctors are in high demand". The Economist. 4 April 2020. ISSN 0013-0613. Retrieved 2020-06-13.
  6. Bhoola, Urmila; Giammarinaro, Maria Grazia (November 6, 2019). "Information received in relation to alleged human rights abuses suffered by 30,000 Cuban doctors participating in "internationalization missions."". United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. Archived from the original on June 9, 2020. Retrieved June 11, 2020.
  7. De Vos et al (2007), "Cuba's International Cooperation in Health: an Overview", International Journal of Health Services, Volume 37, Number 4, Pages 761–776
  8. "Trump puts Cuban doctors in firing line as heat turned up on island economy". The Guardian. 11 February 2020. Retrieved 11 February 2020.
  9. Brouwer, Steve (January 2009). "The Cuban Revolutionary Doctor: The Ultimate Weapon of Solidarity". Monthly Review.
  10. Gleijeses, Piero (1996). "Cuba's First Venture in Africa: Algeria, 1961-1965". Journal of Latin American Studies. 28 (1): 159–195. doi:10.1017/s0022216x00012670. JSTOR 157991. The Minister of Public Health, Jose Ramón Machado Ventura, led the group, which included 29 doctors, three dentists, 15 nurses and eight medical technicians. (There were 45 men and ten women.) . . . With the arrival of this medical mission in Algeria on 24 May 1963, Cuba's technical assistance abroad began. (Quote is from p. 165).
  11. Cohen, Sylvester, 1994. “Cuba and the liberation of Southern Africa.” Monthly Review 46 (September): 17–25.
  12. Schwab, T., Sims, H.D. (1985), "Cuba and Nicaragua: a key regional relationship, 1979-1984." Cuban Studies 15 (2), pp. 73-81
  13. Briggs, Charles, and Mantini-Briggs, Clara (2009), American Journal of Public Health, "Confronting Health Disparities: Latin American Social Medicine in Venezuela", I(3)
  14. De Vos et al (2008), "Cuba's health system: Challenges ahead", Health Policy and Planning, 23(4), pg:288-290
  15. Akhtar, A.S. (2006). "Cuban doctors in Pakistan: Why Cuba still inspires". Monthly Review 58 (6), pp. 49-55
  16. "Cuba grants medical aid to Haitian earthquake victims". Agencia Angola Press. 18 January 2010. Retrieved 19 January 2010.
  17. Robinson, Circles (January 14, 2010). "Cuba Reacts to Haiti Earthquake". Havana Times. Retrieved 19 January 2010.
  18. Kupferschmidt, Kai (12 September 2014). "Cuba to commit large health corps to Ebola fight". news.sciencemag.org. Retrieved 15 September 2014.
  19. https://www.rte.ie/news/coronavirus/2020/0323/1124857-italy_coronavirus/
  20. https://www.indiatoday.in/trending-news/story/watch-cuban-doctors-arrive-in-italy-to-fight-coronavirus-get-a-loud-welcome-1658771-2020-03-23
  21. Rodriguez, Andrea (26 December 2016). "Cuban President Raul Castro faces deep problems in 2017". bigstory.ap.org. Associated Press. Retrieved 26 December 2016. Venezuela was the prime destination alongside Brazil for Cuban doctors and other professionals whose salaries go directly to the Cuban government, providing another vital source of hard currency believed to be slackening in recent years.
  22. Julie M. Feinsilver (2008), "Oil-for-Doctors: Cuban Medical Diplomacy Gets a Little Help From a Venezuelan Friend", Nueva Sociedad 216 July–August 2008
  23. "Cuba, SA health deal is in good shape". Business Day (28 May 2012)
  24. "SA signs deal with Cuba for more doctors". Business Day (28 May 2012)
  25. Robert Huish and Jerry Spiegel (2008), "INTEGRATING HEALTH AND HUMAN SECURITY INTO FOREIGN POLICY: CUBA’S SURPRISING SUCCESS", The International Journal of Cuban Studies Volume 1 Issue 1, June 2008
  26. Pacific Magazine: Six More Cuban Physicians To Serve In Kiribati
  27. "Kiribati discusses medical training with Cuba". Archived from the original on 2011-05-22. Retrieved 2009-06-14.
  28. Cuban doctors reduce Kiribati infant mortality rate by 80 percent
  29. "Vanuatu to get six doctors from Cuba", Radio New Zealand International, August 10, 2008
  30. "Fiji says Cuban help sought as neighbours turn away", Radio New Zealand International, April 4, 2008
  31. "Cuban Foreign Minister Opens Cuba-Pacific Islands Meeting" Archived 2009-06-14 at Archive.today, Cuban News Agency, September 16, 2008
  32. "Small Island States and Global Challenges", Cuban News Agency, September 30, 2008
  33. "Cuba-Pacific ministerial meeting underway in Havana", ABC Radio Australia, September 17, 2008
  34. "Cuban doctors have inaugurated a series of new health services in Tuvalu a small island nation in the Pacific", Prensa Latina, June 14, 2009
  35. Kirk, John (2015). Healthcare Without Borders: Understanding Cuban Medical Internationalism. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida. p. 118. ISBN 9780813061054.
  36. "Chavez-Obama Meeting at Summit Relaunches U.S.-Venezuela Relations" (20 April 2009). venezuelanalysis.com.
  37. Eric Sabo, Bloomberg.com, Mar 2014.
  38. Saney, I. 2009, "Homeland of humanity: Internationalism within the Cuban revolution", Latin American Perspectives 36 (1), pp. 111-123
  39. Foreign Affairs, July/August 2010. page 63.
  40. Miami Herald, 6 June 2000, Cuban doctors vanish in Zimbabwe
  41. "Trata de Médicos Cubanos" (in Spanish). ADN Cuba. 13 January 2020. Retrieved 20 March 2020.
  42. Casey, Nicholas (2019-03-17). "'It Is Unspeakable': How Maduro Used Cuban Doctors to Coerce Venezuela Voters". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2020-06-13.
  43. U.S. State Dept, "Cuban Medical Professional Parole Program" , accessed 4 April 2009
  44. Abbady, Tal (10 October 2007). "Hundreds of Cuban medical workers defecting to U.S. while overseas". South Florida Sun-Sentinel.
  45. Ceasar, Mike (August 1, 2007). "Cuban Doctors Abroad Helped to Defect by New U.S. Visa Policy". World Politics Review.
  46. Whitefield, Mimi (12 January 2017). "Obama ending 'wet foot, dry foot' Cuban immigration policy". Miami Herald.
  47. Ceaser, Michael (2007). "Cuban doctors working abroad defect to the USA". The Lancet, Volume 369, Issue 9569
  48. El Universal 3 Feb 2007 (in Spanish) "Cubanos desertores atrapados en Bogotá" Archived 2008-10-04 at the Wayback Machine.
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