Chinese aircraft carrier Liaoning

Liaoning (16; Chinese: 辽宁舰; pinyin: Liáoníng Jiàn) is a Chinese Type 001 aircraft carrier. The first aircraft carrier commissioned into the People's Liberation Army Navy Surface Force, she was originally classified as a training ship, intended to allow the Navy to experiment, train and gain familiarity with aircraft carrier operations. Following upgrades and additional training in late 2018, the Global Times announced that the ship would shift to a combat role in 2019.[7]

Liaoning (16)
The aircraft carrier Liaoning in Hong Kong in 2017
History
→ Soviet Union → Ukraine
Name: Riga (1988) then Varyag (1990)
Namesake: City of Riga, Latvia (1988) then Varyag, named for the Varangians (1990), the name Varyag was then adopted by another cruiser.
Ordered: 1983
Builder:
Laid down: 6 December 1985
Launched: 4 December 1988
Completed: Abandoned (68% complete)[1]
Fate:
  • Sold to a Chinese shell company, 1998
  • Transferred to Chinese navy, 2002
China
Name:
  • Liaoning
  • (Chinese: 辽宁舰)
Namesake: Liaoning Province
Builder: Dalian Shipbuilding Industry
Completed: 2011
Commissioned: 25 September 2012
Status: In active service
Badge:
General characteristics for Varyag as originally designed
Class and type: Kuznetsov-class aircraft carrier
Displacement:
  • 43,000 tons, light[2][3]
  • 53,000–55,200 tons, standard[2][3][4]
  • 67,500 tons, full load [5]
Length:
  • 304.5 m (999 ft) o/a
  • 270 m (890 ft) w/l
Beam:
  • 75 m (246 ft) o/a
  • 35 m (115 ft) w/l
Draft: 8.97 m (29.4 ft)
Installed power: Steam
Propulsion:
  • Steam turbines, 8 boilers, 4 shafts, 200,000 hp (150 MW)
  • 4 × 50,000 hp (37 MW) turbines
  • 9 × 2,011 hp (1,500 kW) turbogenerators
  • 6 × 2,011 hp (1,500 kW) diesel generators
  • 4 × fixed pitch propellers
Speed: 32 knots (59 km/h; 37 mph)
Range: 3,850 nautical miles (7,130 km; 4,430 mi) at 32 knots
Endurance: 45 days
Complement:
  • 1,960 crew
  • 626 air group
  • 40 flag staff
Sensors and
processing systems:
General characteristics for Liaoning after refit
Class and type: Type 001 aircraft carrier
Armament:
  • 3 × Type 1130 CIWS
  • 3 × HQ-10 (18 Cell Missile system)[6]
Aircraft carried:

Originally laid down in 1985 for the Soviet Navy as the Kuznetsov-class aircraft cruiser Riga, she was launched on 4 December 1988 and renamed Varyag in 1990.[8] After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, construction was halted and the ship was put up for sale by Ukraine. The stripped hulk was purchased in 1998 and towed to the Dalian naval shipyard in northeast China.

The ship was rebuilt and commissioned into the People's Liberation Army Navy (PLAN) as Liaoning on 25 September 2012. Its Chinese ship class designation is Type 001. In November 2016, the political commissar of Liaoning, Commodore Li Dongyou, stated that Liaoning was combat ready.[8]

Classification
See also: Montreux Convention Regarding the Regime of the Straits § Aircraft carriers

The Kuznetsov-class ships were originally designated by the Soviet Navy as "тяжёлый авианесущий крейсер" (tyazholiy avianesushchiy kreyser, TAKR or TAVKR), meaning "heavy aircraft-carrying cruiser". In addition to aircraft, the ships were designed to carry P-700 Granit anti-ship cruise missiles that also form the main armament of the Kirov-class battlecruisers. This multirole capability allowed the ships to avoid classification as aircraft carriers, thus allowing them to pass through the Turkish Straits between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean Sea. Under the Montreux Convention, aircraft carriers larger than 15,000 tons are not permitted to pass through the Straits, but there is no displacement limit on other types of capital ship from Black Sea powers.[9][10]

In contrast, the People's Liberation Army Navy considers Liaoning to be an aircraft carrier.[11] Since China is not located on the Black Sea and thus not considered a Black Sea power under the Montreux Convention, it does not need and cannot use the tonnage exemption for non-aircraft carrier capital ships. The ship was completed as an aircraft carrier, and cruise missiles were never installed. Liaoning is equipped only with air defence weapons and must use its aircraft for surface attack.

History

Origin
For other ships with the same name, see Russian ship Varyag.

The ship was laid down as Riga at Shipyard 444 (now Mykolaiv South) in Mykolaiv, Ukrainian SSR, on 6 December 1985.[12][13] Design work was undertaken by the Nevskoye Planning and Design Bureau.[14] Launched on 4 December 1988, the carrier was renamed Varyag in late 1990, after a previous similarly-named cruiser launched in 1899. When the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991, the ship was only 68% complete.[1] Construction was halted, and the ship was put up for sale. The name Varyag was then adopted by another cruiser launched in 1983.

Sale

Ukraine approached China, India, and Russia as potential buyers.[1] China sent a high-level delegation in 1992, which reported that the ship was in good condition and recommended a purchase. However, the Chinese government declined to purchase the ship because of the international diplomatic situation at the time.[15] Unable to find a buyer, Ukraine left the ship to deteriorate in the elements.[16]

In 1998, the rusting hulk was sold at auction for $20 million to Agencia Turistica E Diversoes Chong Lot Limitada, a company from Macau. Chong Lot proposed to tow Varyag to Macau, where the ship would be converted into a $200 million floating hotel and casino.[17] Western observers were suspicious, since Chong Lot had no listed telephone number, was not located at its listed address, and was run by former officers in the Chinese Navy. Officials in Macau also denied Chong Lot's application to operate a casino. However, analysts noted that Varyag had deteriorated too much to be used as an operational warship and pointed out that the Chinese Navy was concentrating on submarines.[13][16] The Soviet carriers Kiev and Minsk had also been sold to China as tourist attractions.

In January 2015, further details emerged in an interview with Hong Kong-based businessman Xu Zengping by the South China Morning Post. Xu, a former military basketball player, reported that he had been commissioned by the PLAN to purchase the vessel on its behalf, with the floating hotel and casino as a cover story. He was warned that the Chinese Navy did not have the budget to buy the ship, and the Chinese government did not support the purchase. However, Xu was so impressed when touring the ship that he resolved to purchase it using his personal funds. The previous year, Xu had borrowed HK$230 million from a Hong Kong business friend, spending HK$6 million to create Chong Lot as a Macau shell corporation. He described a harrowing negotiation in Kiev, lubricated by bribery and liquor, which helped to arrange victory at the auction. As a precaution, he shipped 40 tonnes of the carrier's blueprints to China overland in eight trucks.[15][18]

Transfer to China
Ex-Varyag under tow in Istanbul in 2001

The passage from Ukraine to China was even more troublesome than the purchase. In June 2000, Varyag was taken under tow. As the tugboat approached the Bosphorus, Turkey denied permission for the ship to pass through, citing the risk that a gust of wind would turn the ship widthwise and block the entire strait. Varyag spent the next 16 months being towed around the Black Sea, accruing towing charges of $8,500 a day as Chong Lot stopped paying its bills. The tugboat operator compared its fate to the Yellow Fleet that was stuck in the Suez Canal for eight years, and French thrillseekers even landed a helicopter on the ship.[16] Meanwhile, Chinese officials negotiated with Turkey, offering trade and tourism concessions.[19]

In August 2001, Turkey relented and agreed to allow the ship to pass. On 1 November 2001, the Bosphorus was cleared of all other traffic as Varyag was towed through.[19][20] On 2 November, Varyag also passed through the Dardanelles without incident. On 4 November, Varyag was caught in a force 10 gale and broke adrift while passing the Greek island of Skyros. The ship was taken back under tow on 6 November, after one sailor died while attempting to attach the tow lines.[21][22]

The Suez Canal does not permit passage of "dead" ships – those without an on-board power source – so the hulk was towed through the Strait of Gibraltar, around the Cape of Good Hope, and through the Straits of Malacca at an average speed of 6 knots (11 km/h) across the 15,200-nautical-mile (28,200 km) journey. The tugboat fleet called for supplies en route at Piraeus, Greece; Las Palmas, Canary Islands; Maputo, Mozambique; and Singapore. Varyag entered Chinese waters on 20 February 2002, and arrived 3 March at the Dalian naval shipyard in northeast China. The costs included $25 million to the Ukrainian government for the hull, nearly $500,000 in transit fees and $5 million for 20 months of towing fees.

Xu Zengping estimated in 2015 that his total out of pocket cost was at least US$120 million. He insisted that he had never been reimbursed by the Chinese government, and had spent the last 18 years repaying his debts, in part by selling properties such as his home. A source familiar with the acquisition explained that the naval official, Ji Shengde, who initiated the mission had been in prison because of smuggling.[23]

Contrary to initial reports that the ship had no engines, Xu reported that all four original engines remained intact at the time of purchase, but had been shut down and preserved in grease seals.[24] A refit restored them to working order in 2011.

Modernization and refit

701st Institute was tasked to redesign Varyag with Zhu Yingfu (朱英富) and Wu Xiaoguang (吴晓光) were assigned respectively as the general designer and deputy general designer. Wang Zhiguo (王治国) was assigned as the general system engineer, and Yang Lei (杨雷) was assigned the general supervisor.[25] The workload of converting Varyag for operational use was equivalent to building ten new destroyers.[25] Varyag was moved in June 2005 to a dry dock at Dalian (38.935°N 121.6141°E / 38.935; 121.6141 (Varyag)). Her hull was sandblasted, scaffolding erected, and the ship's island was painted in a red marine primer to treat metal corrosion.[26]

Liaoning at Dalian, China

Observers have noted the installation of Type 348 active electronically scanned array (AESA) Radar (four arrays) and Sea Eagle radar. The air defence system consists of the Type 1130 CIWS and the FL-3000N missile system. The anti-ship missile tubes would not be used, freeing up internal space for hangar or storage use. Russia has explored similar modifications to her sister ship Admiral Kuznetsov.[27]

On 8 June 2011, General Chen Bingde made the first public acknowledgement of the ship's refit.[28] On 27 July 2011, the Chinese Defence Ministry announced it was refitting the vessel for "scientific research, experiment and training".[29]

In 2018, Asia Times reported that Sun Bo (executive), a general manager of China Shipbuilding Industry Corporation, had allegedly passed on technical details of the Liaoning to the Central Intelligence Agency. Sun was a general manager at the Dalian shipyard where the ship's refurbishment was done.[30]

Sea trials and handover

The ship undertook her first sea trials from 10 August 2011 to 15 August 2011.[31] On 29 November 2011 the carrier left port for her second set of trials.[32][33][34] The carrier completed her eighth sea trial between 7 and 21 June 2012 and returned to Dalian. In July 2012, the ship set out for the longest trials thus far, 25 days.[35] The carrier completed sea trials in early August 2012 and loaded Shenyang J-15 aircraft and KJ-88, YJ-83K and YJ-91 missiles in preparation for weapons systems trials.[36]

During sea trials, Liaoning experienced a steam burst in the engine compartment which forced crew to evacuate some parts of the ship, and the ship lost power. The problem was ultimately resolved and power was restored, although the time duration of the problem has not been released by military officials.[37]

On 23 September 2012, the aircraft carrier was handed over to the PLAN, and was commissioned on 25 September 2012.[38] At the commissioning ceremony, the carrier was officially named Liaoning, in honour of the province in which she was retrofitted.[39][40] On 26 December 2012, the People's Daily reported that it would take four to five years for Liaoning to reach full capacity.[41] As it was a training ship until 2018, Liaoning was not assigned to any of China's operational fleets.[42]

According to geopolitical analysts, China could use Liaoning and its future carriers to intimidate other smaller countries that have territorial claims in the South China Sea, as well as extending air control further south of the disputed region.[43] In December 2016 the ship exercised in the Western Pacific, including passing through the Miyako Strait between the Japanese islands of Miyako-jima and Okinawa.[44][45] On 18 April 2018, Liaoning took part in the navy's live-fire exercises in the South China Sea, involving 76 fighter jets and 48 warships and submarines. The drills came after a large military display presided over by Chinese paramount leader Xi Jinping, and were condemned by Taiwan as "military intimidation".[46]

In August 2018, South China Morning Post reported that Liaoning was berthed at Dalian undergoing its first refit since its commissioning in 2012. The radar above Liaoning's bridge and the air traffic control at the rear of the island superstructure was noted to have been removed, and scaffolding was also noted around the command centre.[47] On 21 January 2019, Global Times reported that Liaoning had completed maintenance and modifications which lasted more than half a year, and had departed Dalian for a possible sea trial in the north Yellow Sea near Dalian, noting that changes were made to the superstructure.[48]

Aircraft handling

On 4 November 2012, the People's Liberation Army's website (Chinese: 中国军网) reported that Shenyang J-15s had performed carrier touch-and-go training.[49][50] On 25 November 2012, China announced that J-15s had made five successful arrested landings on Liaoning.[51][52][53][54] In June 2013, a second round of flight tests began on board Liaoning, with personnel from the fleet air arm of the Brazilian Navy providing carrier training support to the People's Liberation Army Navy Air Force who operate the J-15s. [55][56]

In August 2014, based on an article from Chinese state media, Western news outlets reported that two pilots had been killed testing jets slated to operate from Liaoning.[57][58] Chinese military officials stated such reports were misleading, and clarified that deaths were in fact unrelated with tests on the carrier.[59][60] The original Chinese article from Xinhua also did not link the deaths with the J-15 nor mention any loss of such aircraft.[61]

In August 2014, the Chinese-language Shanghai Morning Post listed that Liaoning would carry 36 aircraft: 24 Shenyang J-15 fighters, six Changhe Z-18F anti-submarine warfare (ASW) helicopters, four Changhe Z-18J airborne early warning helicopters and two Harbin Z-9C rescue helicopters. The Chinese carrier aircraft inventory is similar to a balanced combat and support aircraft approach intended for Soviet aircraft carriers, which supported nuclear submarines, large surface combatants, and land-based strike bombers performing anti-access roles. The air wing lacks long-range radar and anti-submarine fixed-wing aircraft, needing support from shore-based aircraft such as Tupolev Tu-154 ASW and Shaanxi Y-8 AWACS aircraft. The U.S. Department of Defense noted that J-15s will have below normal range and armament when operating from the carrier, due to limits imposed by the ski-jump takeoff system.[62] The lack of a carrier onboard delivery aircraft like the United States Navy (USN) Grumman C-2 Greyhound also limits logistics capabilities. Liaoning would need extensive land-based support to oppose a USN carrier strike group; however, it would be potent against the Vietnam People's Navy and the Philippine Navy. Deficiencies will likely be corrected with future aircraft carriers, which are expected to be larger with conventional takeoff decks and catapult launching for heavier fighters, plus fixed-wing radar and anti-submarine patrol aircraft.[63]

gollark: Like I said, you should make a compiler thing to "warp" stuff for you!
gollark: Interesting.
gollark: You said you could probably do infinite storage, so I assume it's doable maybe ish.
gollark: You could show that it *was* TC if you implement brain[REDACTED] or another Turing complete language in it.
gollark: I'm sure you can live with a few integers worth of storage used.

See also

References
  1. "Ukrainians Slice Up Carrier Ulyanovsk". Defense News. 21–27 September 1992. A second aircraft carrier is 68 percent complete and lacks electronics, weapons systems and aircraft, but sale of the carrier to India or China "is a fairy tale scenario," said Antonov. Russia is the only realistic potential purchaser.
  2. "Admiral Flota Sovetskogo Soyuza Kuznetsov". Rusnavy.com. Archived from the original on 7 October 2017. Retrieved 22 December 2014.
  3. "Kuznetsov Class: Project 1143.5". Globalsecurity.org. 7 September 2011. Archived from the original on 8 October 2014. Retrieved 22 December 2014.
  4. Keene, The Battles of Coxinga: Chikamatsu's Puppet Play, Its Background and Importance, 45.
  5. Project 1143.5 Kreml class; Aircraft Carrier Cruiser, GlobalSecurity.org
  6. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 29 March 2016. Retrieved 27 March 2016.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  7. Liu, Xuanzun (24 April 2019). "Role of aircraft carrier Liaoning shifts from training to combat: executive officer - Global Times". Global Times. Retrieved 15 March 2020.
  8. "How does China's first aircraft carrier stack up?". CSIS China Power. 9 December 2015. Archived from the original on 20 September 2016. Retrieved 25 August 2016.
  9. 14 San Diego L. Rev. 681 (1976–1977) Kiev and the Montreux Convention: The Aircraft Carrier That Became a Cruiser to Squeeze through the Turkish Straits; Froman, F. David
  10. "The Tbilisi and the Montreux Convention". Osaarchivum.org. Archived from the original on 1 June 2012. Retrieved 8 December 2011.
  11. Tao, Zhang (20 October 2015). "Captain delegation of U.S. Navy visits Chinese Liaoning aircraft carrier". Ministry of National Defense of the People's Republic of China. Archived from the original on 4 December 2016. Retrieved 14 November 2016.
  12. Rochlin, G. I; La Porte, T. R; Roberts, H (Autumn 1987). "The Self-Designing High-Reliability Organization: Aircraft Carrier Flight Operations at Sea". Naval War College Review. Naval War College. LI (3). Footnote 39. Archived from the original on 13 December 2006.
  13. Storey, I; Ji, Y (Winter 2004). "China's Aircraft Carrier Ambitions: Seeking Truth from Rumors". Naval War College Review. Naval War College. 57 (1). Archived from the original on 12 December 2006.
  14. "Aircraft Carrier Varyag". Russiafile.com. Archived from the original on 17 December 2014. Retrieved 9 May 2011.
  15. Minnie Chan (19 January 2015). "The inside story of the Liaoning: how Xu Zengping sealed deal for China's first aircraft carrier". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on 19 January 2015. Retrieved 20 January 2015.
  16. Anderson, John Ward (22 July 2001). "Turks Keep Ship Going Round in Circles". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 24 February 2017. Retrieved 24 February 2017.
  17. "Macau Company Denies Buying Carrier For China". Utusan Online. 11 November 1998. Archived from the original on 24 February 2017. Retrieved 24 February 2017.
  18. Minnie Chan (29 April 2015). "'Unlucky guy' tasked with buying China's aircraft carrier: Xu Zengping". South China Morning Post.
  19. "Giant vessel shuts the Bosphorus". BBC News. 1 November 2001. Archived from the original on 24 February 2017. Retrieved 24 February 2017.
  20. Holland, Ben (1 November 2001). "After 16 months, Turkey lets half-built aircraft carrier pass through Bosporus". AP Worldstream. Associated Press  – via HighBeam Research (subscription required) . Archived from the original on 29 March 2015. Retrieved 17 December 2014.
  21. "UPI Insider". Chicago Sun-Times. Sun-Times Media Group  – via HighBeam Research (subscription required) . 9 November 2001. Archived from the original on 29 March 2015. Retrieved 17 December 2014.
  22. "Varyag emerges from storm". Kyiv Post. 8 November 2001. Archived from the original on 17 December 2014. Retrieved 17 December 2014.
  23. Minnie Chan (20 January 2015). "Mission impossible II: the battle to get China's aircraft carrier home". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on 20 January 2015. Retrieved 20 January 2015.
  24. Minnie Chan (19 January 2015). "Mission impossible: How one man bought China its first aircraft carrier". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on 21 January 2015. Retrieved 20 January 2015.
  25. "Designers". Archived from the original on 12 September 2017. Retrieved 14 March 2017.
  26. "The Rising Sea Dragon in Asia Varyag Transformation". Jeffhead.com. 4 February 2011. Archived from the original on 20 September 2016. Retrieved 9 May 2011.
  27. "Upgrading the Admiral: Russia's Kuznetsov". Defense Industry Daily. 8 April 2010. Archived from the original on 10 January 2014. Retrieved 17 December 2014.
  28. "China Carrier Confirmed by General". BBC News. 8 June 2011. Archived from the original on 9 June 2011. Retrieved 8 June 2011.
  29. Li Gang (27 July 2011). "China refitting aircraft carrier body for research, training". Xinhua News Agency. Archived from the original on 4 January 2014. Retrieved 29 July 2011.
  30. Chen, Frank (21 June 2018). "Disgraced manager at shipbuilding juggernaut allegedly 'sold Chinese carrier intel to CIA'". Asia Times. Retrieved 14 March 2020.
  31. "China's first aircraft carrier completes sea trial". Xinhua News Agency. 15 August 2011. Archived from the original on 24 November 2011. Retrieved 15 August 2011.
  32. "China's first aircraft carrier starts second trial". MaritimeSecurity.Asia. Archived from the original on 2 May 2012. Retrieved 15 December 2011.
  33. AFP (30 November 2011). "China's first aircraft carrier starts 2nd trial | World". Manilatimes.net. Archived from the original on 9 December 2011. Retrieved 15 December 2011.
  34. Agencies (15 December 2011). "US satellite snaps China's first aircraft carrier at sea | World news | guardian.co.uk". London: Guardian. Archived from the original on 1 October 2013. Retrieved 15 December 2011.
  35. Yang, Jian (12 July 2012). "J-15 jets on deck as carrier sets off on longest sea trials". Shanghai Daily. Archived from the original on 10 November 2014. Retrieved 4 January 2014.
  36. "China's first aircraft carrier ready to enter service: report". China Times. 6 August 2012. Archived from the original on 17 December 2014. Retrieved 17 December 2014.
  37. "China's Aircraft Carrier Trouble: Spewing Steam and Losing Power". 22 October 2014. Archived from the original on 6 November 2014. Retrieved 6 November 2014.
  38. "China's Navy passes first aircraft-carrier into service". The Voice of Russia. Interfax. 25 September 2012. Archived from the original on 24 September 2014. Retrieved 29 August 2014.
  39. Chang, Felix K. (October 2012). "Making Waves: Debates Behind China's First Aircraft Carrier" (PDF). Foreign Policy Research Institute. p. 6. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 October 2013. Retrieved 24 October 2012.
  40. Pang Li (10 September 2012). "China to name its first aircraft carrier 'Liaoning'". China.org.cn. Archived from the original on 11 September 2012. Retrieved 11 September 2012.
  41. "Liaoning aircraft carrier will reach full capacity in 4–5 years". AirForceWorld.com. 26 December 2012. Archived from the original on 27 October 2018. Retrieved 27 December 2012.
  42. Waldron, Greg (24 April 2013). "Chinese officer hints at country's big aircraft carrier plans". Flightglobal. Flight International. Archived from the original on 2 December 2013. Retrieved 24 April 2013.
  43. Goldstein, Lyle (December 2011). "Chinese Naval Strategy in the South China Sea: An Abundance of Noise and Smoke, but Little Fire". Contemporary Southeast Asia. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. 33 (3): 324. doi:10.1355/cs33-3c. JSTOR 41446233.
  44. Blanchard, Ben (29 December 2016). Birsel, Robert (ed.). "Come and have a look, China says as carrier skirts Japan". Reuters. Archived from the original on 29 December 2016. The Soviet-built Liaoning, accompanied by several warships, this week travelled through the passage between the Japanese islands of Miyako and Okinawa and into the Pacific for what China has described as a routine exercise.
  45. "China's first aircraft carrier in Western Pacific drill". BBC Online. 25 December 2016. Archived from the original on 25 December 2016. Retrieved 25 December 2016.
  46. CNBC (21 April 2018). "China navy drills in Pacific as tension with Taiwan rises". cnbc.com. Archived from the original on 23 May 2018. Retrieved 23 May 2018.
  47. Liu Zhen (28 August 2018). "China's Liaoning aircraft carrier gets brand new command centre". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on 8 September 2018. Retrieved 7 September 2018.
  48. Liu Xuanzun (21 January 2019). "Aircraft carrier Liaoning in likely sea trial after maintenance, modification". Global Times. Archived from the original on 23 January 2019. Retrieved 26 January 2019.
  49. "滑跃14°：中国海军起飞的仰角". 解放军报. Beijing. 4 November 2012. Archived from the original on 7 November 2012.
  50. "解放军报还原中国航母舰载机触舰复飞瞬间（图）". 中国新闻网. Beijing. 4 November 2012. Archived from the original on 23 November 2012. Retrieved 24 November 2012.
  51. "J-15 successfully landed on China's carrier Liaoning". Xinhua News Agency. 25 November 2012. Archived from the original on 3 September 2014. Retrieved 17 December 2014.
  52. "More photos of the two J-15s landing and taking off on Liaoning". 新华网 (in Chinese). Beijing. 25 November 2012. Archived from the original on 28 November 2012. Retrieved 26 November 2012.
  53. Lei, Zhao (26 November 2012). "Jets land on China's 1st aircraft carrier". China Daily. Archived from the original on 17 December 2014. Retrieved 17 December 2014.
  54. "Navy soars as nation mourns". China Daily. 30 November 2012. Archived from the original on 30 December 2013. Retrieved 29 December 2013.
  55. LaGrone, Sam (19 June 2013). "China Carrier Starts Second Round of Jet Tests". USNI News. United States Naval Institute. Archived from the original on 3 December 2013. Retrieved 14 December 2014. The Chinese are being trained in carrier aviation—the most complicated military aviation operations—by a cadre of Brazilian carrier pilots.
  56. Waldron, Greg (4 July 2013). "China certifies first aircraft carrier pilots". Flightglobal. Archived from the original on 13 October 2014. Retrieved 26 August 2014.
  57. LaGrone, Sam (8 September 2014). "Two PLA Pilots Have Died Testing Fighters for Chinese Carrier". USNI News. United States Naval Institute. Archived from the original on 11 October 2014. Retrieved 17 December 2014.
  58. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 7 September 2014. Retrieved 7 September 2014.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  59. "China denies reports of pilots killed in J-15 tests". Archived from the original on 13 January 2015. Retrieved 13 January 2015.
  60. "军方否认2名殉职飞行员系在航母测试中牺牲". 7 September 2014. Archived from the original on 4 February 2015. Retrieved 13 January 2015.
  61. "中央军委主席习近平签署命令 给1个单位、1名个人授予荣誉称号". Archived from the original on 28 September 2014. Retrieved 13 January 2015.
  62. Annual Report to Congress: Military and Security Developments Involving the People.s Republic of China 2013 (PDF) (Report). Office of the Secretary of Defense. 2013. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 September 2015. Retrieved 23 October 2013.
  63. "Chinese Carrier's Purported Air Wing Deemed Plausible but Limited". Defense News. 7 September 2014. Retrieved 17 December 2014.
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.