West Kalimantan

West Kalimantan (Indonesian: Kalimantan Barat) is a province of Indonesia. It is one of five Indonesian provinces in Kalimantan, the Indonesian part of the island of Borneo. Its capital city is Pontianak. The province has an area of 147,307 km² with a recorded population of 4,395,983 at the 2010 Census.[1] Ethnic groups include the Dayak, Malay, Chinese, Javanese, Bugis, and Madurese. The latest official estimate (2019) is 5,045,700.[3] The borders of West Kalimantan roughly trace the mountain ranges surrounding the watershed of the Kapuas River, which drains most of the province. The province shares land borders with Central Kalimantan to the southeast, East Kalimantan to the east, and the Malaysian territory of Sarawak to the north.

West Kalimantan
Province of Indonesia
Flag
Coat of arms
Location West Kalimantan in Indonesia
Coordinates: 0°0′N 110°30′E
Capital
and largest city		Pontianak
Established1 January 1957
Government
 • BodyWest Kalimantan Provincial Government
 • GovernorSutarmidji
 • Vice GovernorRia Norsan
Area
 • Total147,307 km2 (56,876 sq mi)
Area rank3rd in Indonesia
Highest elevation
2,278 m (7,474 ft)
Population
 (mid 2019)[1]
 • Total5,045,700
 • Rank15th in Indonesia
 • Density34/km2 (89/sq mi)
Demographics
 • Ethnic groups34.93% Dayak
33.84% Malay
9.74% Javanese
8.17% Chinese
6.27% Madurese
3.13% Buginese
3.91% others[2]
 • Religion51.2% Islam
23.9% Roman Catholicism
12.4% Protestantism
12.2% Buddhism
1.68% Confucianism
0.06% Hinduism
 • LanguagesIndonesian (official), Bukar Sadong, Hakka, Iban, Kendayan, Jangkang, Pontianak Malay, Sambas Malay, Teochew, etc.
Time zoneUTC+7 (Indonesia Western Time)
ISO 3166 codeID-KB
HDI 0.669 (medium)
HDI rank30th in Indonesia(2018)
Websitekalbarprov.go.id

West Kalimantan is an area that could be dubbed "The Province of a Thousand Rivers". The nickname is aligned with the geographical conditions that have hundreds of large and small rivers that which can be and often are navigable. Several major rivers are still the main route for freight to the hinterland, despite road infrastructure now reaching most districts.

Although a small part of West Kalimantan region is sea water, West Kalimantan has dozens of large and small islands (mostly uninhabited) spread along the Karimata Strait and Natuna Sea that borders the province of Riau Islands. The total population in the province, according to the 2000 census totaled 4,073,430 inhabitants (1.85% of Indonesia's population) but by 2019 it had reached 5,045,700.

History

The history of West Kalimantan can be traced back to the 17th century. Dayaks were the main inhabitants of the province before the 17th century. The Malays are the native muslims of West Kalimantan and established their own sultanate. Similar to most parts of Borneo, many of the Malays in West Kalimantan were also partly descended from the Malayalised Dayaks. The high Chinese population in this province was due to a republic founded by Chinese miners called Lanfang Republic (蘭芳共和國: Republik Lanfang), an autonomous state under Pontianak and Sambas Sultanate.[4] The government of Lanfang Republic was ended in West Kalimantan after the Dutch occupation in 1884.

Dayak people were feared for their headhunting practices

West Kalimantan was under Japanese occupation from 1942 to 1945, when Indonesia declared its Independence. During the Japanese occupation, more than 21,000 people in Pontianak (including sultans, men, women and children) were kidnapped, tortured and massacred by Japanese troops during the Pontianak incidents. All the Malay Sultans on Kalimantan were executed and the Malay elite was devastated by the Japanese.

The massacre occurred from 23 April 1943 to 28 June 1944 and most of the victims were buried in several giant wells in Mandor (88 km from Pontianak). Allied forces occupying the area after the war found several thousand bones, and more than 60 years after the massacre, several secret graves of the victims were found in Mandor and the surrounding areas.

After the end of war, the Japanese officers in Pontianak were arrested by allied troops and brought in front of an international military tribune. During the trial, it was revealed that the plan to start the rebellion did not exist and instead was only an imaginary plan created by Japanese officers who wanted to get promoted.

A monument called Makam Juang Mandor was created to commemorate this tragic event.

Historical population
YearPop.±%
1971 2,019,936—    
1980 2,486,068+23.1%
1990 3,229,153+29.9%
1995 3,635,730+12.6%
2000 4,034,178+11.0%
2005 4,052,345+0.5%
2010 4,395,983+8.5%
2015 4,783,209+8.8%
2019 5,045,700+5.5%
Source: Badan Pusat Statistik 2019

On 12 May 1947, the autonomous region of West Kalimantan was established. It was led by Syarif Hamid II of Pontianak, who supported the Dutch endeavor to establish a federal United States of Indonesia (RUSI), of which West Kalimantan would be one component. Following the 5 April 1950 arrest of Sultan Hamid for complicity in a coup attempt against the RUSI government led by Royal Netherlands East Indies Army (KNIL) officer Raymond Westerling, there were demands from the public for a merger into the Republic of Indonesia, which took place on 22 April. On 15 August, The West Kalimantan autonomous region became part of Kalimantan Province, and two days later, the RUSI ceased to exist, and was replaced with a unitary Republic of Indonesia.[5][6][7][8]

West Kalimantan was the site of substantial fighting during the Indonesia-Malaysia confrontation under the Sukarno government in the mid-1960s. After Suharto deposed Sukarno in 1965, the confrontation was quickly resolved. Domestic conflict continued, however, for another ten years between the new military Suharto government and fighters organized during the confrontation and backed by the banned Indonesian Communist Party (PKI).(see Indonesian killings of 1965–66)

During the 1930s the Dutch colonial powers initiated a "transmigration plan" to move people from heavily populated islands such as Java, to the less populated islands of Irian Jaya and Kalimantan. In the 1960s the Indonesian government granted the Madurese rights to clear forests for palm oil cultivation. This conflicted with the local Dayak tribes' traditional way of life. The tensions between the two ethnic groups resulted in major eruptions of violence in 1996, the Sambas riots in 1999 and the Sampit conflict in 2001, resulting in thousands of deaths.[9][10][11]

Geography

Boundary

West Kalimantan Province is located in the western part of the island of Borneo, or in between the lines 2°08'N and 3°05'S and between 108°0'E and 114°10'E. The province is traversed by the Equator (latitude 0°), precisely through the city of Pontianak. West Kalimantan has a tropical climate, with often high temperatures accompanied by high humidity.

Other specific characteristics is that the West Kalimantan region including one of the provinces in Indonesia which is directly adjacent to another country on land, namely the State of Sarawak, East Malaysia. Even with this position, West Kalimantan is currently the only province in Indonesia that have officially had access road to get in and out of a neighboring country. West Kalimantan and Sarawak have open roads approximately 400 km long, spanning Pontianak-Entikong-Kuching (Sarawak, Malaysia) and can be reached about six to eight hours of travel. In the northern part of the province, there are four regencies that directly borders Malaysia, namely Sambas, Sanggau, Sintang and Kapuas Hulu, which stretch along the Kalingkang Mountains-Kapuas Hulu.

Most areas of West Kalimantan is a low-lying land with an area of 146 807 km2, or 7.53 percent of the total Indonesian or 1.13 times the size of the island of Java. This region stretches straight from north to south along more than 600 km and about 850 km from West to East. Judging from the size of the territory, West Kalimantan is Indonesia's third largest province by area, after Papua (421,891 km2) and Central Kalimantan (152 600 km2). The largest regency is Ketapang (35,809 km2 or 24.39 percent) followed by Kapuas Hulu (29 842 km2 or peresen 20:33), and Sintang (21 635 km or 14.74 percent), while the rest spread over the nine other regencies.

Topology

In general, West Kalimantan land is low-lying and has hundreds of rivers are safe when navigable, slightly hilly which extend from west to east along the valley Kapuas and Natuna Sea / Strait Karimata. Most of the land area is swampy mix of peat and mangrove forests. The land area is flanked by two mountain ranges, namely, Kalingkang Mountains in the North and the Schwaner Mountains in the south along the border with the province of Central Kalimantan. Judging from the soil texture, the majority of West Kalimantan area consists of the soil type PMK (podsolet red-yellow), which covers an area of about 10.5 million hectares, or 17.28 percent of the total area of 14.7 million hectares. Next, the ground OGH (orgosol, gley and humus) and the alluvial soil of about 2.0 million hectares, or 10.29 percent sprawled across Dati II, but most likely in the coastal district.

Influenced by the vast lowlands, the heights of the mountains are relatively low as well as non-active. The highest mountain is Mount Baturaya in District Serawai, Sintang which has an altitude of 2,278 meters above sea level, far lower than Mount Semeru (East Java, 3,676 meters) or Mount Kerinci (Jambi, 3,805 meters).

Mount Lawit located in Kapuas Hulu, district. Embaloh Hulu and more formerly known in West Kalimantan, only occupies the third highest because it has a high 1,767 meters, while the second highest is Mount Batusambung (Subdistrict Ambalau) with a height of up to 1,770 meters.

Lakes and Rivers

West Kalimantan is an area that could be called "The Thousand Rivers Province". The nickname is in line with the geographical conditions that have hundreds of large and small rivers, among others, can be and often are navigable. Several major rivers is still the lifeblood and main line to transport the countryside, although the road infrastructure has been able to reach most districts.

The main large rivers are the Kapuas River, which is also the longest river in Indonesia (1,086 km), which along 942 km are navigable. The great rivers are: Melawi, (navigable 471 km), Pawan (197 km), Kendawangan (128 km), Jelai (135 km), Sekadau (117 km), Sambas (233 km ), and Landak (178 km).

Although rivers have very prominent numbers in West Kalimantan, there are only two significant lakes in the province. Both lakes are Lake Sentarum and Lake Luar I that are in Kapuas Hulu. Lake Sentarum, has an area of 117,500 hectares, which sometimes is almost dry in the dry season, and Lake Luar I, which has an area of approximately 5,400 hectares. Both of these lakes have potential as a tourist attraction.

Administrative divisions

West Kalimantan is subdivided into two cities (kota) and twelve regencies (kabupaten). In 2003 Sekadau Regency was cut out of Sanggau Regency, and Melawi Regency was cut out of Sintang Regency, while in 2007 North Kayong Regency was cut out of Ketapang Regency, and Kubu Raya Regency was cut out of Mempawah Regency. About 29 percent of the province's population lives in the Pontianak area. The capitals and populations of the regencies and cities are:

#NameCapitalArea in km2Population
2010 Census[12]		Population
2015 Census[13]		HDI[14]
2014 Estimates
1Pontianak CityPontianak107.80554,764606,7210.766 (High)
2Singkawang CitySingkawang504.00186,462207,1440.698 (Medium)
3Bengkayang RegencyBengkayang5,075.48215,277238,1370.644 (Medium)
4Ketapang RegencyKetapang31,240.74427,460474,9830.632 (Medium)
5Kubu Raya RegencySungai Raya6,958.22500,970544,9490.645 (Medium)
6Landak RegencyNgabang8,915.10329,649357,172 0.635 (Medium)
7North Kayong Regency
(Kayong Utara)		Sukadana4,568.2695,594105,2780.585 (Low)
8Mempawah Regency*Mempawah2,797.88234,021251,5480.627 (Medium)
9Sambas RegencySambas6,716.52496,120522,8650.632 (Medium)
#Western group3,040,3173,308,797
1Kapuas Hulu RegencyPutussibau29,842.00222,160245,5340.629 (Medium)
2Melawi RegencyNanga Pinoh10,640.80178,645195,6670.628 (Medium)
3Sanggau RegencySanggau12,857.80408,468444,0950.620 (Medium)
4Sekadau RegencySekadau5,444.20181,634193,2260.619 (Medium)
5Sintang RegencySintang21,638.20364,759395,8900.631 (Medium)
#Eastern group (Kapuas Raya)1,355,6661,474,412
#TotalsPontianak147,307.004,395,9834,783,2090.648 (Medium)

Notes:

  • above excludes a Special Enclave (Daerah Kantong), with 5,469 population in 2010.

Proposed new province of Kapuas Raya

On 25 October 2013, the Indonesian House of Representatives (DPR) began reviewing draft laws on the establishment of 57 prospective regencies and 8 new provinces; one of the proposed provinces is Kapuas Raya (Great Kapuas) in West Kalimantan. If the bill is approved, this will make Kapuas Raya the fourth largest province in Indonesia after Papua, East Kalimantan and Central Kalimantan, as the total area of Kapuas Raya, encompassing five regencies, will measure 80,432 square km, or 54.79 percent of the current size of West Kalimantan. Ever since 2005, the five regencies in the eastern part of West Kalimantan (Sanggau, Sekadau, Sintang, Melawi and Kapuas Hulu) have floated a concept to establish Kapuas Raya due to the distance issues from the respective regencies to the province capital Pontianak. The distance between the farthest regency of Kapuas Hulu and Mempawah is 661 km, followed by Melawi (439 km), Sintang (395 km), Sekadau (315 km) and Sanggau (267 km).[15]

Ecology
Danau Sentarum National Park is a wetland of international importance located in the north of the province

There are three National Parks in the province: Danau Sentarum, Gunung Palung and Betung Kerihun. Currently, illegal logging for trees such as dipterocarp and plantations of palm oil and pulpwood threaten many rare species in the province due to the effects of habitat destruction.[16] Peat bog fires and droughts or flooding during ENSO episodes also threaten the area and are worsened by ongoing deforestation.

Dr. Hotlin Ompusunggu has received the 2011 Whitley Award for her conservation work in West Kalimantan. She has been fighting against illegal logging by trade off with low-cost quality dental and medical treatment to 60,000 villagers on condition they involve in reforestation and conservation work.[17]

Demographics
The "Dayak-Malay" brotherhood monument in West Kalimantan Provincial Museum, Pontianak, Indonesia. Forming 34.93% and 33.84% respectively, the Dayak and the Malays are the two largest native community in the province.

Ethnic groups

The largest ethnic groups in West Kalimantan are the Dayak (34.93%) and Malays (33.84%). The Dayaks are tribes in the hinterland, while the ethnic Malay majority live in the coastal areas. The third largest ethnic group is the Javanese (9.74%), who live mainly in areas of transmigration. In fourth place are the ethnic Chinese (8.17%), who are largely found in urban areas such as Singkawang and Pontianak. Next in fifth place are the Madurese (6.27%), who live mainly in Pontianak and Kubu Raya. The next largest ethnic groups (sixth to tenth) are the Bugis (3.13%), Sundanese (1.13%), Batak (0.60%), Daya (0.52%) and Banjar (0.33%), while others constitute 1.33%.[18]

Language

Indonesian is a language commonly used by people in West Kalimantan. Besides language interface, namely Pontianak Malay, Sambas Malay and Senganan language distribution by region. Likewise, there are various types of Dayak languages, According to the Institute's research Dayakologi 188 dialects are spoken by the Dayak and Chinese languages such as Teochew and Khek/Hakka. Dialects which are intended to Dayak tribe's language is so much resemblance to Malay, only the most different at the end of words such as makan (Malay), makatn (Kanayatn), makai (Iban) and makot (Melahui).

Especially for Ot Danum language, the language may be said to stand alone and is not a dialect of other Dayak groups. Dialect, however, lies in some sub Uut Danum Dayak tribe itself. As the sub-tribe language Dohoi for example, to say eat only consist of a minimum of 16 vocabulary, ranging from the most delicate to the most rugged. For example, ngolasut (was fine), germ (general), dekak (for older or respected), ngonahuk (rough), monirak (the rough) and Macuh (for the spirits of the dead).

Malay in West Kalimantan consists of several subgroups, including Pontianak Malay, Sambas, Mempawah, Matam and Ketapang. The Sanggau, Sintang and Sekadau Malay spoken in the northern part of the province itself has the same dialect with the language Sarawak Malay; meanwhile Pontianak Malay spoken in the capital is more closely related to the standard Malaysian Malay and Riau Malay.

Religion
Religion in West Kalimantan (2010 Census)[19]
religion percent
Islam
 
 59.22%
Roman Catholicism
 
 22.94%
Protestantism
 
 11.38%
Buddhism
 
 5.41%
Confucianism
 
 0.68%
Not Asked
 
 0.23%
Others
 
 0.07%
Hinduism
 
 0.06%
Not Stated
 
 0.01%

According to the 2010 census majority of people embraced Islam in West Kalimantan (59.22%). Muslim majority areas in West Kalimantan is inhabited coastal regions are majority Malays as Sambas, Mempawah, Ketapang, North Kayong, Kubu Raya, Kapuas Hulu and Pontianak. In Melawi and Singkawang approximately 50% of the population are Muslims.

Islam is also practiced by Javanese, Madurese and Bugis located in West Kalimantan. In rural areas inhabited by the Dayak predominantly Christian as in Bengkayang, Landak, Sanggau, Sintang and Sekadau. The Chinese in the West Kalimantan mostly adheres to Buddhism and Christianity (Catholic / Protestant).[19]

Culture

Traditional Dance

Tari Monong / Manang is a traditional dance of West Kalimantan society. This dance is a healing dance. When there are people who are sick but do not heal, usually the family will hold Tari Monong / Manang. The dancer will act as a shaman healer who issued a special spell. Thus, the patient will be motivated to get better. Tari Zapin Tembung is a type of is a social dance in the communities of West Kalimantan. Tari Menoreh Getah is traditional dance which describes the motion of life of rural communities in West Kalimantan that meet their daily needs. Based on the idea that dance is worked by elements of dance movement Malay and Dayak in West Kalimantan. Tari Mandau is a dance which symbolise of the fighting spirit of the Dayak community in defense of the dignity and status.

Traditional Clothes

West Kalimantan men wore traditional clothing in the form of headgear decorated with feathers of hornbills, sleeveless shirt (vest), knee-length trousers and fabric that serves as a belt. Usually, West Kalimantan men also wore jewelry, such as a beaded necklace. Women usually wear cloth covering the chest, as well as layers of fabrics which serves as setagen and woven fabrics. Jewelry worn in the form of hornbill feathers as a headdress, beaded necklace and bracelet on the arm. This custom clothing comes from the Dayak tribe.

The classical attire for the Malays in West Kalimantan includes Telok Belanga (for men) and Baju Kurong (for women). Wearing Baju Telok Belanga and Baju Kurong is especially popular during weddings and other traditional functions. Songket weaving is also popular, especially in Sambas (located in northwestern part of the province).

Traditional Weapon

Mandau is a traditional weapon commonly used by people in West Kalimantan. Mandau is a kind of machete and some Mandau are used for everyday purposes. Other weapons are a shield, blowgun, spear, and sickle. Mandau is used for the purposes of war, decorated with human hair as a symbol of courage. The shield, which is called Kelikit has a size of a full-sized man with ornate carvings in black and red. Other weapons are blowpipe with arrows tipped with poison sap of a tree called ipoh.

Traditional Houses
Masjid Jami' Pontianak, originally built in 1771 on the banks of Kapuas River. It was the first structure built to commemorate the foundation of Pontianak Sultanate (the area would later become the capital city of West Kalimantan Province). A prime example of the local Malay-Muslim architecture, the religious monument has also received influence by Middle Eastern, European and Javanese architecture.

One of the cultural house in West Kalimantan is called "Rumah Panjang" (longhouse) because its size length and made of wood. This house is the residence of the Dayak tribe, the function of this custom home is actually a place to stay for a couple of heads of families and also usually used for meetings. They can also be found in other provinces of Kalimantan as well as the neighboring Sarawak in Malaysia. "Rumah Radakng" which is also a kind of longhouse located in Pontianak and the surrounding area. This house has a length of approximately 380 meters high and 7 meters including the most luxurious custom home in West Kalimantan in the meantime. "Rumah Batok" is a traditional house that is owned by the Dayak tribe Badayuh, this house has a unique shape because it has a round shape and height of up to approximately 12 meters to the top. Malay traditional house is a house owned by ethnic Malays, which is located in the city of Pontianak. This traditional houses are usually used as a place of deliberation, performing arts, wedding place citizens and other events.

Festivals

Robo-robo tradition. Robo-robo derived from the Robo or Rabu (Wednesday). Robo-Robo tradition held on the last Wednesday of Safar based on the Islamic Calendar, which symbolizes a blessing. According to the story, this rite is a warning or trail the arrival of Prince Mas Surya Negara of the Kingdom Matan (Martapura) to the Kingdom of Mempawah (Pontianak). The ritual begins when the King, Queen Mempawah, sons and daughters and the retainer and the guard departed from Castle Village, Mempawah use bidar boat, the boat kingdom of Amantubillah Palace. The ship will sail to the mouth of the River Mempawah located in the village of Kuala Mempawah with the distance of about one hour. At the river mouth will do some sort of ceremony "welcome" to the sea as when Opu Daeng Menambon arrived at the river mouth for the first time. Robo-robo itself was intended as a warning Haulan series of important events began on Monday night to Tuesday, the last month of Safar to commemorate the death of Opu Daeng Manambun. For the citizens of Bugis descent in the ordinance, robo-robo usually celebrated with family meals at home. Not only at home, eating together also carried students in various schools both elementary to high school on Wednesday morning.

Notes
  1. "Jumlah Penduduk Provinsi Kalimantan Barat Menurut Kabupaten/Kota dan Jenis Kelamin, 2010 (jiwa)" (in Indonesian). Central Bureau of Statistics. 26 February 2018. Archived from the original on 28 December 2019. Retrieved 28 December 2019.
  2. Ananta, Aris; Arifin, Evi Nurvidya; Hasbullah, M Sairi; Handayani, Nur Budi; Pramono, Agus (2015). Demography of Indonesia's Ethnicity. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. p. 108. ISBN 978-981-4519-87-8.
  3. Badan Pusat Statistik, Jakarta, 2019.
  4. tirto.id. tirto.id https://tirto.id/republik-lanfang-republik-pertama-di-nusantara-cwtg. Archived from the original on 11 May 2020. Retrieved 16 March 2020. Missing or empty |title= (help)CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
  5. Reid, Anthony J.S (1974), The Indonesian National Revolution, 1945–1950, Hawthorn, Victoria, Australia: Longman, p. 110, ISBN 0-582-71047-2
  6. Ricklefs, M.C. (2001) [1981]. A History of Modern Indonesia Since c.1300 (3rd ed.). Palgrave. pp. 373–374. ISBN 978-0-230-54685-1.
  7. Kahin, George McTurnan (1952), Nationalism and Revolution in Indonesia, Cornell University Press, pp. 455–456
  8. Feith, Herbert (2008) [1962]. The Decline of Constitutional Democracy in Indonesia. Singapore: Equininox Publishing (Asia) Pte Ltd. p. 99. ISBN 978-979-3780-45-0. Archived from the original on 20 October 2013. Retrieved 30 March 2020.
  9. "Armed Conflicts Report. Indonesia – Kalimantan". Archived from the original on 26 February 2020. Retrieved 26 May 2011.
  10. Pike, John. "Dayak". globalsecurity.org. Archived from the original on 10 October 2019. Retrieved 3 April 2018.
  11. "THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DAYAK AND MADURA IN RETOK by Yohanes Supriyadi". akademidayak.com. Archived from the original on 24 March 2012. Retrieved 3 April 2018.
  12. Biro Pusat Statistik, Jakarta, 2011.
  13. Badan Pusat Statistik, Jakarta, 2018.
  14. "Indeks-Pembangunan-Manusia-2014". Archived from the original on 2 February 2017. Retrieved 14 February 2017.
  15. Jakarta Post, 14 November 2013
  16. McVeigh, Tracy (28 January 2011). "Greed and demand doom rainforest". Archived from the original on 9 February 2011. Retrieved 28 January 2011.
  17. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 17 May 2011. Retrieved 17 May 2011.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  18. Ananta, Aris; Arifin, Evi Nurvidya; Hasbullah, M. Sairi; Handayani, Nur Budi; Pramono, Agus (December 2015). Demography of Indonesia's Ethnicity (in Indonesian). Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. doi:10.1355/9789814519885. ISBN 978-981-4519-87-8. Retrieved 28 December 2019.
  19. "Population by Region and Religion in Indonesia". BPS. 2010. Archived from the original on 3 December 2017. Retrieved 22 June 2017.
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References
  • J. Braithwaite, V. Braithwaite, M. Cookson & L. Dunn, Anomie and Violence: Non-truth and Reconciliation in Indonesian Peacebuilding (ANU E-Press: 2010)
  • Davidson, Jamie S. and Douglas Kammen (2002). Indonesia's unknown war and the lineages of violence in West Kalimantan. Indonesia 73:53.
  • Yuan, Bing Ling (1999). Chinese Democracies – A Study of the Kongsis of West Borneo (1776–1884).
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