Sunflower oil

Sunflower oil is the non-volatile oil pressed from the seeds of sunflower (Helianthus annuus). Sunflower oil is commonly used in food as a frying oil, and in cosmetic formulations as an emollient. The world's total production of sunflower oil in 2014 was nearly 16 million tonnes, with Ukraine and Russia as the largest producers.[1]

Unrefined sunflower oil with sunflower inflorescence

High-oleic sunflower oil

Sunflower oil is primarily composed of linoleic acid, a polyunsaturated fat, and oleic acid, a monounsaturated fat. Through selective breeding and manufacturing processes, oils of differing proportions of the fatty acids are produced.[2] The expressed oil has light amber color with a mild flavor. The oil contains a large amount of vitamin E.

As of 2017, genome analysis[3] and development of hybrid sunflowers to increase oil production are under development to meet greater consumer demand for sunflower oil and its commercial varieties.[4][5]

Composition

Sunflower oil is mainly triglycerides (fats), typically derived from the fatty acids linoleic acid and oleic acid

Sunflower oil is mainly a triglyceride.[6] The British Pharmacopoeia lists the following profile:[7]

• Palmitic acid (saturated): 5%
• Stearic acid (saturated): 6%
• Oleic acid (monounsaturated omega-9): 30%
• Linoleic acid (polyunsaturated omega-6): 59%

Four types of sunflower oils with differing concentrations of fatty acids are produced through plant breeding and industrial processing: high-linoleic, high-oleic, mid-oleic, and high-stearic combined with high-oleic.[2][8]

• High-linoleic, 69% linoleic acid
• High-oleic, 82% oleic acid
• Mid-oleic, 65% oleic acid
• High-stearic with high-oleic, 18% stearic acid and 72% oleic acid[8]

In an analysis of the sunflower genome to reveal plant metabolism producing its oil, phytosterols were identified,[3] as confirmed in another analysis of sunflower oil components, including polyphenols, squalene, and terpenoids.[9]

Production and trade

In 2014, world production of sunflower oil was 15.8 million tonnes, led by Ukraine (4.4 million tonnes), Russia (4.1 million tonnes), Argentina (0.9 million tonnes), Bulgaria (0.8 million tonnes) and Turkey (0.7 million tonnes).[1]

Nutrition

Sunflower oil, high oleic (70% and over)

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy	3,699 kJ (884 kcal)
Carbohydrates	0 g
Fat	100 g
Saturated	9.748 g
Monounsaturated	83.594 g
Polyunsaturated	3.798 g
Protein	0 g
Vitamins	Quantity %DV^†
Vitamin E	274% 41.08 mg
Vitamin K	5% 5.4 μg
Units μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams IU = International units
^†Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults. Source: USDA Nutrient Database

Sunflower oil, standard

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy	3,699 kJ (884 kcal)
Carbohydrates	0 g
Fat	100 g
Saturated	10.3 g
Monounsaturated	19.5 g
Polyunsaturated	65.7 g
Protein	0 g
Vitamins	Quantity %DV^†
Vitamin E	274% 41.08 mg
Vitamin K	5% 5.4 μg
Units μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams IU = International units
^†Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults. Source: USDA Nutrient Database

Sunflower oil (NuSun), mid oleic

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy	3,699 kJ (884 kcal)
Carbohydrates	0 g
Fat	100 g
Saturated	9.009 g
Monounsaturated	57.344 g
Polyunsaturated	28.962 g
Protein	0 g
Vitamins	Quantity %DV^†
Vitamin E	274% 41.08 mg
Vitamin K	5% 5.4 μg
Units μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams IU = International units
^†Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults. Source: USDA Nutrient Database

Several varieties of sunflower oil seeds have been developed by standard plant breeding methods, mainly to vary the amounts of oleic acid and linoleic acid which, respectively, are the predominant monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats in sunflower oil.[10] Sunflower oil is a rich source of vitamin E (tables).

Physical properties

Sunflower oil is liquid at room temperature. The refined oil is clear and slightly amber-colored with a slightly fatty odour.

Smoke point (refined)	232 °C	450 °F[11]
Smoke point (unrefined)	107 °C	225 °F[11]
Density (25 °C)	918.8 kg/m^3[12]
Refractive index (25 °C)	≈1.4735[12]
Saponification value	188-194
Iodine value	120-145
Unsaponifiable matter	1.5-2.0%
Viscosity (25 °C), unrefined	0.04914  kg/(m*s)[13]

Preparation and storage

Because sunflower oil is primarily composed of less-stable polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fatty acids, it can be particularly susceptible to degradation by heat, air, and light, which trigger and accelerate oxidation. Keeping sunflower oil at low temperatures during manufacture and storage can help minimize rancidity and nutrient loss—as can storage in bottles that are made of either darkly-colored glass, or, plastic that has been treated with an ultraviolet light protectant.

Methods of extraction

Sunflower oil can be extracted using chemical solvents (e.g., hexane), or expeller pressing (i.e., squeezed directly from sunflower seeds by crushing them).[14] "Cold-pressing" (or expeller pressing) sunflower seeds under low-temperature conditions is a method that does not use chemical solvents to derive sunflower seed oil.

Refined versus unrefined

Refining sunflower oil through solvent extraction, de-gumming, neutralization, and bleaching can make it more stable and suitable for high-temperature cooking, but doing so will also remove some of the oil's nutrients, flavor, color (resulting in a pale-yellow), free fatty acids, phospholipids, polyphenols, and phytosterols. Also, some of the polyunsaturated fatty acids will be converted into trans fat due to the high temperatures involved in the process[15][16]. Unrefined sunflower oil is less heat-stable (and therefore well-suited to dishes that are raw, or cooked at low temperatures), but it will retain more of its original nutrient content, flavor, and color (light-amber).

Uses

In food preparation

Refined sunflower oil is used for low-to-extremely-high-temperature cooking. As a frying oil, it behaves as a typical vegetable triglyceride. Unrefined sunflower oil is a traditional salad dressing in Eastern European cuisines.[17] Sunflower oil is also an ingredient in sunflower butter.

Methods for cooking snack foods, such as potato chips or French fries, may use sunflower oil.[18][19]

Seed meal

Extraction of sunflower oil leaves behind the crushed seeds, typically referred to as seed meal, which is rich in protein and dietary fiber and used as an animal feed, fertilizer or fuel.[20]

Supplements

Taking sunflower oil dietary supplements is not an effective treatment for eczema.[21]

As fuel

Sunflower oil can be used to run diesel engines when mixed with diesel in the tank. Due to the high levels of unsaturated fats, there is higher viscosity in cold temperatures.[22]

Properties

Properties of vegetable oils[23][24]

Type	Processing treatment	Saturated fatty acids	Monounsaturated fatty acids		Polyunsaturated fatty acids				Smoke point
			Total[23]	Oleic acid (ω-9)	Total[23]	α-Linolenic acid (ω-3)	Linoleic acid (ω-6)	ω-6:3 ratio
Almond oil
Avocado[25]		11.6	70.6	52-66[26]	13.5	1	12.5	12.5:1	250 °C (482 °F)[27]
Brazil nut[28]		24.8	32.7	31.3	42.0	0.1	41.9	419:1	208 °C (406 °F)[29]
Canola[30]		7.4	63.3	61.8	28.1	9.1	18.6	2:1	238 °C (460 °F)[29]
Cashew oil
Chia seeds
Cocoa butter oil
Coconut[31]		82.5	6.3	6	1.7				175 °C (347 °F)[29]
Corn[32]		12.9	27.6	27.3	54.7	1	58	58:1	232 °C (450 °F)[33]
Cottonseed[34]		25.9	17.8	19	51.9	1	54	54:1	216 °C (420 °F)[33]
Flaxseed/Linseed[35]		9.0	18.4	18	67.8	53	13	0.2:1	107 °C (225 °F)
Grape seed		10.5	14.3	14.3	74.7	-	74.7	very high	216 °C (421 °F)[36]
Hemp seed[37]		7.0	9.0	9.0	82.0	22.0	54.0	2.5:1	166 °C (330 °F)[38]
Vigna mungo
Mustard oil
Olive[39]		13.8	73.0	71.3	10.5	0.7	9.8	14:1	193 °C (380 °F)[29]
Palm[40]		49.3	37.0	40	9.3	0.2	9.1	45.5:1	235 °C (455 °F)
Peanut[41]		20.3	48.1	46.5	31.5	0	31.4	very high	232 °C (450 °F)[33]
Pecan oil
Perilla oil
Rice bran oil
Safflower[42]		7.5	75.2	75.2	12.8	0	12.8	very high	212 °C (414 °F)[29]
Sesame[43]	?	14.2	39.7	39.3	41.7	0.3	41.3	138:1
Soybean[44]	Partially hydrogenated	14.9	43.0	42.5	37.6	2.6	34.9	13.4:1
Soybean[45]		15.6	22.8	22.6	57.7	7	51	7.3:1	238 °C (460 °F)[33]
Walnut oil
Sunflower (standard)[46]		10.3	19.5	19.5	65.7	0	65.7	very high	227 °C (440 °F)[33]
Sunflower (< 60% linoleic)[47]		10.1	45.4	45.3	40.1	0.2	39.8	199:1
Sunflower (> 70% oleic)[48]		9.9	83.7	82.6	3.8	0.2	3.6	18:1	232 °C (450 °F)[49]
Cottonseed[50]	Hydrogenated	93.6	1.5		0.6	0.2	0.3	1.5:1
Palm[51]	Hydrogenated	88.2	5.7		0
The nutritional values are expressed as percent (%) by weight of total fat.

References

1. "Sunflower oil production in 2014; Crops processed/Regions/Production quantity (pick list)". United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation, Statistics Division (FAOSTAT). 2017. Retrieved 16 February 2017.
2. "Four types of sunflower oil". National Sunflower Association. 2018. Retrieved 19 November 2018.
3. Badouin, H; Gouzy, J; Grassa, C. J; Murat, F; Staton, S. E; Cottret, L; Lelandais-Brière, C; Owens, G. L; Carrère, S; Mayjonade, B; Legrand, L; Gill, N; Kane, N. C; Bowers, J. E; Hubner, S; Bellec, A; Bérard, A; Bergès, H; Blanchet, N; Boniface, M. C; Brunel, D; Catrice, O; Chaidir, N; Claudel, C; Donnadieu, C; Faraut, T; Fievet, G; Helmstetter, N; King, M; et al. (2017). "The sunflower genome provides insights into oil metabolism, flowering and Asterid evolution". Nature. 546 (7656): 148–152. Bibcode:2017Natur.546..148B. doi:10.1038/nature22380. PMID 28538728.
4. Rauf S, Jamil N, Tariq SA, Khan M, Kausar M, Kaya Y (2017). "Progress in modification of sunflower oil to expand its industrial value". J Sci Food Agric. 97 (7): 1997–2006. doi:10.1002/jsfa.8214. PMID 28093767.
5. Christov M (2012). "Contribution of interspecific hybridization to sunflower breeding" (PDF). Helia. 35 (57): 37–46. doi:10.2298/hel1257037c.
6. Alfred Thomas (2002). "Fats and Fatty Oils". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. doi:10.1002/14356007.a10_173. ISBN 3527306730.
7. British Pharmacopoeia Commission (2005). "Ph Eur monograph 1371". British Pharmacopoeia 2005. Norwich, England: The Stationery Office. ISBN 0-11-322682-9.
8. "Sunflower oil fatty acid profile" (PDF). National Sunflower Association. 2018. Retrieved 19 November 2018.
9. Alicia Ayerdi Gotor; Larbi Rhazi (2016). "Effects of refining process on sunflower oil minor components: a review". Oilseeds and Fats, Crops and Lipids. 23 (2): D207. doi:10.1051/ocl/2016007.
10. Skorić D, Jocić S, Sakac Z, Lecić N (2008). "Genetic possibilities for altering sunflower oil quality to obtain novel oils". Can J Physiol Pharmacol. 86 (4): 215–21. doi:10.1139/Y08-008. PMID 18418432.CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link)
11. Chu, Michael (2004-06-10). "Smoke Points of Various Fats - Kitchen Notes". Cooking For Engineers. Retrieved 2013-02-07.
12. Irina NITA, Anisoara NEAGU, Sibel GEACAI, Anca DUMITRU and Anca STERPU: "Study of the behavior of some vegetable oils during the thermal treatment," Technology and Chemical Engineering Department, Ovidius University, bd. Mamaia 124, Constanta, 900527, Romania http://www.univ-ovidius.ro/anale-chimie/chemistry/2010-1/full/1_nita.pdf Archived 2011-06-28 at the Wayback Machine
13. Esteban B, Riba J-R, Baquero G, Rius A, Puig R (2012). "Temperature dependence of density and viscosity of vegetable oils" (PDF). Biomass and Bioenergy. 42: 164–71. doi:10.1016/j.biombioe.2012.03.007. hdl:2117/16423.CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link)
14. Cox, Jeff (April 1979). "The Sunflower Seed Huller and Oil Press". Organic Gardening. Rodale Press. Retrieved 26 June 2013.
15. Kemény, Z.; Recseg, K.; Hénon, G.; Kővári, K.; Zwobada, F. (2001). "Deodorization of vegetable oils: Prediction of trans polyunsaturated fatty acid content". Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society. 78 (9): 973–979. doi:10.1007/s11746-001-0374-0.
16. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327256645_Cis-trans_isomerization_of_unsaturated_fatty_acids_in_edible_oils_to_prepare_trans_fat
17. Peter Vatrooshkin (2012). Easier Than a Steamed Turnip: Simple and Delicious Meatless Russian Recipes. Plutagora LLC. pp. 21–22, 26–28, 30. ISBN 9781938407017.
18. "How we make Lays Classic potato chips". Frito-Lay North America, Inc. 2017. Retrieved 16 February 2017.
19. "The best chips you have ever tasted". BBC Food Recipes. 2017. Retrieved 16 February 2017.
20. Lomascolo, A; Uzan-Boukhris, E; Sigoillot, J. C.; Fine, F (2012). "Rapeseed and sunflower meal: A review on biotechnology status and challenges". Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. 95 (5): 1105–14. doi:10.1007/s00253-012-4250-6. PMID 22752367.
21. Bath-Hextall FJ, Jenkinson C, Humphreys R, Williams HC (2012). "Dietary supplements for established atopic eczema". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (Systematic review). 2 (2): CD005205. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD005205.pub3. PMID 22336810.
22. Johnson, JJ. Meyer, RF. Krall, JM. Shroyer, JP. Schlegel, AJ. Falk, JS and Lee, CD. 2005. Agronomic Practices. In High Plains Sunflower Production Handbook. Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS [accessed 2014 October 22].
23. "US National Nutrient Database, Release 28". United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. All values in this table are from this database unless otherwise cited.
24. "Fats and fatty acids contents per 100 g (click for "more details"). Example: Avocado oil (user can search for other oils)". Nutritiondata.com, Conde Nast for the USDA National Nutrient Database, Standard Release 21. 2014. Retrieved 7 September 2017. Values from Nutritiondata.com (SR 21) may need to be reconciled with most recent release from the USDA SR 28 as of Sept 2017.
25. "Avocado oil, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
26. Feramuz Ozdemir; Ayhan Topuz (May 2003). "Changes in dry matter, oil content and fatty acids composition of avocado during harvesting time and post-harvesting ripening period" (PDF). Elsevier. Retrieved 15 January 2020.
27. Marie Wong; Cecilia Requejo-Jackman; Allan Woolf (April 2010). "What is unrefined, extra virgin cold-pressed avocado oil?". Aocs.org. The American Oil Chemists’ Society. Retrieved 26 December 2019.
28. "Brazil nut oil, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
29. Katragadda, H. R.; Fullana, A. S.; Sidhu, S.; Carbonell-Barrachina, Á. A. (2010). "Emissions of volatile aldehydes from heated cooking oils". Food Chemistry. 120: 59–65. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.09.070.
30. "Canola oil, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
31. "Coconut oil, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
32. "Corn oil, industrial and retail, all purpose salad or cooking, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
33. Wolke, Robert L. (May 16, 2007). "Where There's Smoke, There's a Fryer". The Washington Post. Retrieved March 5, 2011.
34. "Cottonseed oil, salad or cooking, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
35. "Linseed/Flaxseed oil, cold pressed, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
36. Garavaglia J, Markoski MM, Oliveira A, Marcadenti A (2016). "Grape Seed Oil Compounds: Biological and Chemical Actions for Health". Nutrition and Metabolic Insights. 9: 59–64. doi:10.4137/NMI.S32910. PMC 4988453. PMID 27559299.
37. Callaway J, Schwab U, Harvima I, Halonen P, Mykkänen O, Hyvönen P, Järvinen T (April 2005). "Efficacy of dietary hempseed oil in patients with atopic dermatitis". The Journal of Dermatological Treatment. 16 (2): 87–94. doi:10.1080/09546630510035832. PMID 16019622. S2CID 18445488.
38. "Smoke points of oils" (PDF).
39. "Olive oil, salad or cooking, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
40. "Palm oil, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
41. Vegetable Oils in Food Technology (2011), p. 61. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFVegetable_Oils_in_Food_Technology2011 (help)
42. "Safflower oil, salad or cooking, high oleic, primary commerce, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
43. "Soybean oil". FoodData Central. fdc.nal.usda.gov.
44. "Soybean oil, salad or cooking, (partially hydrogenated), fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
45. "Soybean oil, salad or cooking, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
46. "Sunflower oil, 65% linoleic, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 15 November 2018.
47. "Sunflower oil, less than 60% of total fats as linoleic acid, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
48. "Sunflower oil, high oleic - 70% or more as oleic acid, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
49. "Smoke Point of Oils". Baseline of Health. Jonbarron.org. 2012-04-17. Retrieved 2016-05-28.
50. "Cottonseed oil, industrial, fully hydrogenated, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
51. "Palm oil, industrial, fully hydrogenated, filling fat, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.