Naturism

Naturism is a lifestyle of non-sexual nudity, and the cultural movement which advocates and defends that lifestyle. Both may also be referred to as nudism. Though the two terms are largely interchangeable, nudism emphasizes the practice of nudity, whereas naturism highlights an attitude favoring harmony with nature and respect for the environment, into which that practice is integrated.[1] That said, naturists come from a range of philosophical and cultural backgrounds; there is no single naturist ideology. Naturism may be practiced individually, within a familial or social context, or in public.

For other uses, see Naturism (disambiguation).
Main article: Nudity
A group of naturists at a nude beach in Crimea, 2008

Ethical or philosophical nudism has a long history, with many advocates of the benefits of enjoying nature without clothing. At the turn of the 20th century, organizations emerged to promote social nudity and to establish private campgrounds and resorts for that purpose. Since the 1960s, with the acceptance of public places for clothing-optional recreation, individuals who do not identify themselves as naturists or nudists have been able to casually participate in nude activities. Nude recreation opportunities vary widely around the world, from isolated places known mainly to locals to officially-designated nude beaches and parks.

Definition and lexicology

The XIV Congress of the International Naturist Federation (Agde, France, 1974) defined naturism as:

a way of life in harmony with nature characterised by the practice of communal nudity with the intention of encouraging self-respect, respect for others and for the environment.[2]

Many contemporary naturists and naturist organisations advocate that the practice of social nudity should not be linked with sexual activity. Some recent studies show that naturism can help growing self-esteem[3], thus having a positive impact on living a well balanced sexuality too. For various social, cultural, and historical reasons, the lay public, the media, and many contemporary naturists and their organisations have or present a simplified view of the relationship between naturism and sexuality. Current research has begun to explore this complex relationship.[4]

The International Naturist Federation explains:

"Each country has its own kind of naturism, and even each club has its own special character, for we too, human beings, have each our own character which is reflected in our surroundings."[1][lower-alpha 1]

The usage and definition of these terms varies geographically and historically.[lower-alpha 2] Naturism and nudism have the same meaning in the United States,[6] but there is a clear distinction between the two terms in Great Britain.[lower-alpha 3]

In naturist parlance, the terms "textile" or "textilist" refer to non-naturist persons, behaviours or facilities (e.g. "the textile beach starts at the flag", "they are a mixed couple – he is naturist, she is textile"). "Textile" is the predominant term used in the UK ("textilist" is unknown in British naturist magazines, including H&E naturist), although some naturists avoid it due to perceived negative or derogatory connotations. "Textilist" is said to be used interchangeably with "textile", but no dictionary definition to this effect exists, nor are there any equivalent examples of use in mainstream literature such as those for textile.[8]

Naturist places and events
See also: Nude recreation

Naturist facilities
See also: Naturist resort and Nude recreation § Nude events
Nude woman and man at 2007 Fremont Solstice Parade

At naturist organised events or venues, clothing is usually optional. At naturist swimming pools or sunbathing places, however, complete nudity is expected (weather permitting). This rule is sometimes a source of controversy among naturists. Staff at a naturist facility are usually required to be clothed due to health and safety regulations.[9]

Facilities for naturists are classified in various ways. A landed or members' naturist club is one that owns its own facilities. Non-landed (or travel) clubs meet at various locations, such as private residences, swimming pools, hot springs, landed clubs and resorts, or rented facilities. Landed clubs can be run by members on democratic lines or by one or more owners who make the rules. In either case, they can determine membership criteria and the obligations of members. This usually involves sharing work necessary to maintain or develop the site.[10]

Families bathing nude at a hot spring in Taiwan

The international naturist organizations were mainly composed of representatives of landed clubs.[1] Nudist colony is no longer a favored term, and can be used by naturists to address landed clubs that have rigid non-inclusive membership criteria.

A holiday centre is a facility that specializes in providing apartments, chalets and camping pitches for visiting holidaymakers. A center is run commercially, and visitors are not members and have no say in the management. Most holiday centers expect visitors to hold an INF card (that is, to belong to an INF-affiliated organization), but some have relaxed this requirement, relying on the carrying of a trade card. Holiday centers vary in size. Larger holiday centres may have swimming pools, sports pitches, an entertainment program, kids' clubs, restaurants and supermarkets. Some holiday centres allow regular visitors to purchase their own chalets, and generations of the same families may visit each year.[6] Holiday centres are more tolerant of clothing than members-only clubs; total nudity is usually compulsory in the swimming pools and may be expected on the beaches, while on the football pitches, or in the restaurants in the evening, it is rare.[6]

A naturist resort is, to a European, a private property with accomodation and facilities where naturism is the norm. Centre Helio Marine in Vendays Montalivet, Aquitaine, France (the first naturist resort, extablished in 1950); the naturist village of Charco del Palo on Lanzarote, Canary Islands; Vera Playa in Spain;[11] and Vritomartis Resort[12] in Greece are examples.

In US usage, a naturist resort can mean a holiday centre.[13]

Freikörperkultur (FKK)—literally translated as 'free body culture'—is the name for the general movement in Germany. The abbreviation is recognised also outside of Germany and can be found on informal signs indicating the direction to a remote naturist beach.

Nude beaches
A group of naturists at a nude beach in Crimea, 2008
Main article: Nude beach

In some European countries, such as Denmark,[14] all beaches are clothing optional, while in others like Germany and experimentally in France,[15] there are naturist sunbathing areas in public parks, e.g., in Munich[16] and Berlin.[17] Beaches in some holiday destinations, such as Crete, are also clothing-optional, except some central urban beaches.[18] There are two centrally located clothes-optional beaches in Barcelona.[19] Sweden allows nudity on all beaches.[20]

In a survey by The Daily Telegraph, Germans and Austrians were most likely to have visited a nude beach (28%), followed by Norwegians (18%), Spaniards (17%), Australians (17%), and New Zealanders (16%). Of the nationalities surveyed, the Japanese (2%) were the least likely to have visited a nude beach.[21] This result may indicate the lack of nude beaches in Japan; however, the Japanese are open with regard to family bathing nude at home and at onsen (hot springs).[22]

Festival naturism

From Woodstock to Edinburgh, and Nambassa in the southern hemisphere communal nudity is commonly recorded at music and counterculture festivals.

The Nambassa hippie festivals held in New Zealand in the late 1970s is an example of non-sexual naturism. Of the 75,000 patrons who attended the 1979 Nambassa 3 day counterculture Festival an estimated 35% of festival attendees spontaneously chose to remove their clothing,[23] preferring complete or partial nudity.[24]

Naturist couple at the Nambassa festival, New Zealand, 1981

A few camps organize activities in the nude, including the famous[25] oil wrestling by camp Gymnasium.[26]

Organized by the Federación Nudista de México (Mexican Nudist Federation)[27] since 2016 when Zipolite beach nudity was legalized,[28] FESTIVAL NUDISTA ZIPOLITE[27] occurs annually on the first weekend of February.

Naked participant at Burning Man 2016 posing[29] as Leonardo da Vinci's Vitruvian Man.

Nudist festivals are held to celebrate particular days of the year, and in many such events nude bodypainting is also common, such as Neptune Day Festival held in Koktebel, Crimea to depict mythological events.[30][31]

Summer naturism

The prevalence of naturism tends to increase during the summer months especially when the temperature is higher with some regions hosting first-time naturists and people who have recently started to practice the naturist lifestyle.[32] Some studies have observed that among some of these naturists, they are clothed during other seasons, thus making them seasonal naturists.[33]

History
Main article: Nudity in History

Nudity in social contexts has been practised in various forms by many cultures at all time periods.[34] In modern Western society, social nudity is most frequently encountered in the contexts of bathing, swimming and in saunas, whether in single-sex groups, within the family or with mixed-sex friends, but throughout history and in many tropical cultures until now, nudity is a norm at many sports events and competitions.[35]

The first known use of the word naturisme occurred in 1778. A French-speaking Belgian, Jean Baptiste Luc Planchon (1734–1781), used the term to advocate nudism as a means of improving the hygiène de vie or healthy living.[lower-alpha 4]

The earliest known naturist club in the western sense of the word was established in British India in 1891. The 'Fellowship of the Naked Trust' was founded by Charles Edward Gordon Crawford, a widower, who was a District and Sessions Judge for the Bombay Civil Service. The commune was based in Matheran and had just three members at the beginning; Crawford and two sons of an Anglican missionary, Andrew and Kellogg Calderwood.[37] The commune fell apart when Crawford was transferred to Ratnagiri; he died soon after in 1894.[38]

Max Koch's Freilicht, 1897

In 1902, a series of philosophical papers was published in Germany by Dr. Heinrich Pudor, under the pseudonym Heinrich Scham, who coined the term Nacktkultur. In 1906 he went on to write a three volume treatise with his new term as its title, which discussed the benefits of nudity in co-education and advocated participating in sports while being free of cumbersome clothing.[39] Richard Ungewitter (Nacktheit, 1906, Nackt, 1908, etc.) proposed that combining physical fitness, sunlight, and fresh air bathing, and then adding the nudist philosophy, contributed to mental and psychological fitness, good health, and an improved moral-life view.[39] Major promoters of these ideas included Adolf Koch and Hans Suren. Germany published the first journal of nudism between 1902 and 1932.[40]

The wide publication of those papers and others, contributed to an explosive worldwide growth of nudism, in which nudists participated in various social, recreational, and physical fitness activities in the nude. The first organized club for nudists on a large scale, Freilichtpark (Free-Light Park), was opened near Hamburg in 1903 by Paul Zimmerman.[39] In 1919, German doctor Kurt Huldschinsky discovered that exposure to sunlight helped to cure rickets in many children, causing sunlight to be associated with improved health.[41]

Naturist family on Lake Senftenberg in 1983.

In France in the early 20th century, the brothers Gaston and André Durville, both of them physicians, studied the effects of psychology, nutrition, and environment on health and healing. They became convinced of the importance of natural foods and the natural environment on human well-being and health. They named this concept French: naturisme. The profound effect of clean air and sunlight on human bodies became evident to them and so nudity became a part of their naturism.[42]

Naturism became a more widespread phenomenon in the 1920s, in Germany, the United Kingdom, France and other European countries and spread to the United States where it became established in the 1930s.

By 1951, the national federations united to form the International Naturist Federation or INF.[9] Some naturists preferred not to join clubs, and after 1945, pressure was put to designate beaches for naturist use. From the middle of the 20th century, with changing leisure patterns, commercial organisations began opening holiday resorts to attract naturists who expected the same – or better – standards of comfort and amenity offered to non-naturists. More recently, naturist holiday options have expanded to include cruises.[39]

Writers

Naturism was part of a literary movement in the late 1800s (see the writings of André Gide) which also influenced the art movements of the time specifically Henri Matisse and other Fauve painters. This movement was based on the French concept of joie de vivre, the idea of reveling freely in physical sensations and direct experiences and a spontaneous approach to life.[43]

  • Heinrich Pudor wrote on methods to improve social hygiene in his book Nackende Menschen und Jauchzen der Zukunft (Naked people and the future of Mankind) and then Nacktkultur (Nude Culture). It prescribes an austere lifestyle and nudity.[44]
  • Paul Zimmermann opened the Freilicht Park in Lübeck which was open to those who subscribed to Nacktkultur principles.[44]
  • Richard Ungewitter wrote Die Nacktheit (Nakedness) which sold 90,000 copies, prescribed a similar Utopian lifestyle, where everyone would be nude, eat only vegetables and abstain from alcohol and tobacco. In his Utopia, everyone was to be Germanic with blue eyes and blonde hair.[44]
  • Adolf Koch, a left-wing primary-school teacher, sought to use social nudity to free the people from 'authority fixated conditioning which held proletarians in deference of their masters: parental authority, paternalism of the church, the mass media and organs of law and order. He used Organic-Rhythmic exercises in Berlin schools in the 1920s. In 1932 there were about 100,000 Germans involved with Naturism, of which 70,000 were in Koch's Körperschülen schools.[44]
  • Hans Surén taught nude gymnastics to soldiers for five years, and on being forced to leave the army, he wrote in 1924, Mensch und die Sonne (Men and the Sun) which ran to 61 reprints.[44]
  • American writers Walt Whitman[45] and Henry David Thoreau[45] both wrote of nudity within the natural environment.

Health

There are documented psychological benefits of naturist activities, including greater life satisfaction, more positive body image, and higher self-esteem.[46] Social nudity leads to acceptance in spite of differences in age, body shape, fitness, and health.[47]

Religion
Main article: Nudity in religion
See also: Gymnosophist, Gymnosophy, American Gymnosophical Association, and Christian naturism

Christian naturism contains various members associated with most denominations. Although beliefs vary, a common theme is that much of Christianity has misinterpreted the events regarding the Garden of Eden, and God was displeased with Adam and Eve for covering their bodies with fig leaves.[48]

In Europe
Main article: List of social nudity places in Europe

In most European countries, nudity is not explicitly forbidden. Whether it is tolerated on beaches which are not marked as official nudist beaches varies greatly. The only country with substantially different laws is Denmark, where beach nudity is explicitly allowed on all beaches, except for two in the far west of the country.[14]

Belgium

Organized naturism in Belgium began in 1924 when engineer Joseph-Paul Swenne founded the Belgian League of Heliophilous Propaganda (usually abbreviated to Hélios) in Uccle near Brussels. This was followed four years later by De Spar, founded by Jozef Geertz and hosted on the country estate of entrepreneur Oswald Johan de Schampelaere. Belgian naturism was influenced in equal part by French naturism and German Freikörperkultur.[49] Today Belgian naturists are represented by the Federatie van Belgische Naturisten (FBN).[50]

Woman on the beach at Valalta, Croatia

Croatia

Croatia is world-famous for naturism, which accounts for about 15% of its tourism industry. It was also the first European country to develop commercial naturist resorts.[51] During a 1936 Adriatic cruise, King Edward VIII and Wallis Simpson stopped at a beach on the island of Rab where King Edward obtained a special permission from the local government to swim naked, thereby designating it the world's first official nude beach.[52]

Finland
Finnish Sauna (1802)

In Finnish culture, nudism is considered to be a relatively normal way to live. It is not uncommon to see entire families spending time together naked. Families may be naked while bathing in a sauna, swimming in a pool, or playing on a beach, and it's not unusual to see children playing naked in a family yard for example. Nudity as a whole is considered less taboo than many other countries.[53][54][55][56][57]

France
Main article: Naturism in France

Marcel Kienné de Mongeot is credited with starting naturism in France in 1920. His family had suffered from tuberculosis, and he saw naturism as a cure and a continuation of the traditions of the ancient Greeks. In 1926, he started the magazine Vivre intégralement (later called Vivre) and the first French naturist club, Sparta Club at Garambouville, near Evreux. The court action that he initiated, established that nudism was legal on private property that was fenced and screened.[9]

Randonue in Les Concluses, Gard, 2008

Drs. André and Gaston Durville bought a 70 hectare site on the Île du Levant where they established the village of Héliopolis. The village was open to the public. In 1925 Dr François Fougerat de David de Lastours wrote a thesis on heliotherapy, and in that year opened the Club gymnique de France. In 1936, the naturist movement was officially recognised.[9]

Albert and Christine Lecocq were active members of many of these clubs, but after disagreements left and In 1944 Albert and Christine Lecocq founded the Club du Soleil with members in 84 cities. In 1948 they founded the FFN, in 1949 they started the magazine, Vie au Soleil, and in 1950 opened the CHM Montalivet, the world's first naturist holiday centre, where the INF was formed.[9]

Germany
Main article: Naturism in Germany
See also: Freikörperkultur
Naked woman on a market street in Germany, 2005.

German naturism was part of the Lebensreform movement and the Wandervogel youth movement of 1896, from Steglitz, Berlin which promoted ideas of fitness and vigour. At the same time doctors of the Natural Healing Movement were using heliotherapy, treating diseases such as TB, rheumatism and scrofula with exposure to sunlight.[44]

Nacktkultur, a term coined in 1903 by Heinrich Pudor, flourished.[58] Nacktkultur connected nudity, vegetarianism and social reform. It was practised in a network of 200 members clubs. The movement gained prominence in the 1920s as offering a health giving life-style with Utopian ideals. Germany published the first naturist journal between 1902 and 1932.[40] It became politicised by radical socialists who believed it would lead to classlessness and a breaking down of society. It became associated with pacificism.[59]

In 1926, Adolf Koch established a school of naturism in Berlin; encouraging a mixing of the sexes, open air exercises, and a programme of "sexual hygiene". In 1929, the Berlin school hosted the first International Congress on Nudity.[58]

After the war, East Germans were free to practice naturism, chiefly at beaches rather than clubs (private organizations being regarded as potentially subversive). Naturism became a large element in DDR politics. The Proletarische Freikörperkulturbewegung subsection of the Workers Sports Organisation had 60,000 members.[44] Today, following reunification there are many clubs, parks and beaches open to naturists.[1] though nudity has become less common in the former eastern zone.[60] Germans are typically the most commonly seen foreigners at nude beaches in France and around Europe.[61]

Greece

Public nudity is prohibited in Greece and there are no official nude beaches.[62][63] There are, however, numerous unofficial nude beaches especially on the islands frequented by tourists, like Crete,[64] Mykonos or Karpathos but also on smaller islands like Skopelos or Skiathos[65] where nudity is tolerated, usually at the more remote ends or secluded areas of beaches.[66]

On the other hand, toplessness is not illegal and is widely practiced by locals and tourists alike as there are no cultural taboos against it.[67][68]

Italy

Public nudity is generally prohibited in Italy as a civil offence and can be punished with high fines,[69] with the exception of the official naturist beaches and places where's a tradition of naturist attendance, as shown by a recent absolution sentence.[70] Furthermore, in the recent decade, some regions have created laws to help the naturist tourism industry,[71] and actually there are thirteen official naturist beaches in all Italy, where nudity is officially guaranteed by administrative acts. On all other public beaches in Italy, police can potentially impose substantial fines.[72]

On the other hand, female toplessness has been officially legalized (in a nonsexual context) in all public beaches and swimming pools throughout the country (unless otherwise specified by region, province or municipality by-laws) on 20 March 2000, when the Supreme Court of Cassation (through sentence No. 3557) has determined that the exposure of the nude female breast, after several decades, is now considered a "commonly accepted behavior", and therefore, has "entered into the social costume".[73]

Netherlands

The oldest Dutch naturist association is Zon en Leven ("Sun and Life"), founded in 1946 with the aim of promoting healthy physical and mental development and a natural way of life.[74] The national association is Naturisten Federatie Nederland (NFN), which in 2017 adopted the new brand name Bloot Gewoon! ("Simply Naked") in an effort to become more accessible to casual naturists and strengthen the acceptance of nude recreation.[75]

In general, Dutch people are very tolerant of beach nudity, as long as it does not impact on others, or involve inappropriate staring or sexual behaviour. Topless sunbathing is permitted on most beaches except where prohibited by signage.[76]

Portugal
Main article: Naturism in Portugal

The Federação Portuguesa de Naturismo (Portuguese Naturist Federation) or FPN was founded on 1 March 1977 in Lisbon.[77][78] In the 21th century, naturism is considered a tolerated practice, whereas there are many officially-designated nudist beaches.[79]

Poland
Nude men at the Przystanek Woodstock festival, 2014

In today's Poland naturism is practiced in number of the seaside and inland beaches. Most Polish beaches are actually clothing-optional rather than naturist. One such beach is Międzyzdroje-Lubiewo.[80]

Slovenia

Beginnings of naturism in Slovenia started in the year 1852, when a 29 year old Swiss physician Arnold Rikli visited Bled for the first time. In the following years he started to promote healthy way of living, because he considered water, air and light[81] to be the source for his healing therapy. He continued to build spa centers which included light therapy and hydrotherapy treatment.[82]

Spain
Nudist man and textile woman on a beach in Spain.

Public nudity in Spain is not illegal since there is no law banning its practice. Spanish legislation foresees felony for exhibitionism but restricts its scope to obscene exposure in front of children or mentally impaired individuals, i.e. with sexual connotation.[83]

There are, however, some municipalities (like San Pedro del Pinatar) where public nudity has been banned by means of by-laws. Other municipalities (like Barcelona, Salou, Platja de Palma and Sant Antoni de Portmany) have used similar provisions to regulate partial nudity, requiring people to cover their torsos on the streets. Some naturist associations have appealed these by-laws on the grounds that a fundamental right (freedom of expression, as they understand nudism to be self-expression) cannot be regulated with such a mechanism. Some courts have ruled in favour of nudist associations.[84][85]

Nudism in Spain is normally practised by the seaside, on beaches or small coves with a tradition of naturism. In Vera (Andalusia), there is a wide residential area formed by nudist urbanisations. Nudist organisations may organise some activities elsewhere in inner territory.[86]

Legal provisions regarding partial nudity (or toplessness) are analogous to those regarding full nudity, but social tolerance towards toplessness is higher. The law does not require women to cover their breasts in public swimming, or on any beach in Spain.[87] The governments of the municipalities of Galdakao and L'Ametlla del Vallès legalized female toplessness on their public pools in March 2016 and June 2018, respectively.[88][89]

United Kingdom
Main article: British Naturism

In the United Kingdom, the first official nudist club was established in Wickford, Essex in 1924. According to Michael Farrar, writing for British Naturism the club adopted the name "Moonella Group" from the name of the owner of the ground, Moonella, and called its site The Camp. Moonella, who was still living in 1965 but whose identity remains to be discovered, had inherited a house with land in 1923 and made it available to certain members of the New Gymnosophy Society. This society had been founded a few years before by H.C. Booth, M.H. Sorensen and Rex Wellbye under the name of the English Gymnosophical Society. It met for discussions at the Minerva Cafe at 144 High Holborn in London, the headquarters of the Women's Freedom League. Those who were permitted to join the Moonella Group were carefully selected, and the club was run by an "aristocracy" of the original members, all of whom had "club names" to preserve their anonymity. The club closed in 1926 because of building on adjacent land.[90][91]

By 1943 there were a number of these so-called "sun clubs" and together they formed the British Sun Bathers Association or BSBA. In 1954 a group of clubs unhappy with the way the BSBA was being run split off to form the Federation of British Sun Clubs or FBSC. In 1961, the BSBA Annual Conference agreed that the term nudist was inappropriate and should be discarded in favour of naturist.[90] The two organisations rivalled each other before eventually coming together again in 1964 as the Central Council for British Naturism or CCBN. This organisation structure has remained much the same but it is now called British Naturism which is often abbreviated to BN.[90]

The first official nude beach was opened at Fairlight Glen in Covehurst Bay near Hastings in 1978 (not to be confused with Fairlight Cove, which is 2 km to the east) followed later by the beaches at Brighton and Fraisthorpe. Bridlington opened in April 1980.[90]

In Oceania
Further information: List of social nudity places in Oceania

Australia
Naturist swimmers in Australia

Australia's first naturist club was founded in Sydney in 1931 by the French-born anarchist and pacifist Kleber Claux.[92] In 1975, the southern half of Maslin Beach, south of Adelaide was declared Australia's first official nude beach.[93] The beach is almost 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) long, so the area reserved for nude bathing is away from other beach users.

New Zealand
Further information: Naturism in New Zealand

Nudist clubs (known as "sun clubs") were established in Dunedin and Auckland in early 1938; the Auckland Sun Group went into recess shortly afterwards due to the outbreak of World War II. In 1958 the allied nudist clubs of New Zealand established the New Zealand Sunbathing Association, later renamed the New Zealand Naturist Federation. The Federation today includes 17 affiliated clubs with a total membership, in 2012, of 1,600 people. In 2016 the Federation in conjunction with Tourism New Zealand hosted the World Congress of the International Naturist Federation at the Wellington Naturist Club, marking the second time the Congress had ever been held in the Southern Hemisphere.[94][95][96]

Outside formal naturist organizations, social nudity is practised in a variety of contexts in New Zealand culture. It is a feature of many summer music festivals, including Convergence,[97] Kiwiburn, Luminate,[98] Rhythm & Vines, and Splore,[99] in a tradition going back to Nambassa in the late 1970s.[100][101] It is also associated with the culture of rugby, most prominently in the nude rugby match held in Dunedin each winter from 2002 to 2014 (and sporadically thereafter) as pre-match entertainment for the first professional rugby game of the season,[102] and in the mock public holiday "National Nude Day", an event in which viewers of the TV2 talk show SportsCafe were invited – chiefly by former rugby player Marc Ellis, the show's most irrepressibly comic presenter – to send in photos and video of themselves performing daily activities in the nude.[103][104][105]

Whilst a large proportion of New Zealanders today are tolerant of nudity, especially on beaches,[106] there remains a contingent who consider it obscene.[107] Naturists who engage in casual public nudity, even in places where this is lawful, run the risk of having the police called on them by disapproving people.[108] Legally, nudity is permissible on any beach where it is "known to occur",[109] in consequence of which New Zealand has no official nude beaches. The "indecent exposure" provision of the Summary Offences Act is in practice reserved for cases of public sexual gratification,[110] but public nudity may still be prosecuted under the "offensive behaviour" provision.[111]

In North America

Canada
See also: List of social nudity places in North America § Canada
Nudist hiker in British Columbia

In Canada, individuals around the country became interested in nudism, skinny-dipping, and physical culture in the early part of the 20th century. After 1940 they had their own Canadian magazine, Sunbathing & Health, which occasionally carried local news. Canadians had scattered groups in several cities during the 1930s and 1940s, and some of these groups attracted enough interest to form clubs on private land.[10] The most significant clubs were the Van Tan Club, formed in 1939, and continues today in North Vancouver, BC.,[10] and, in Ontario, the Sun Air Club.

Canadians who served in the military during the Second World War met like-minded souls from across the country, and often visited clubs while in Europe. They were a ready pool of recruits for post-war organizers. A few years later, the wave of post-war immigration brought many Europeans with their own extensive experience, and they not only swelled the ranks of membership, but often formed their own clubs, helping to expand nudism from coast to coast.[10]

Most of those clubs united in the Canadian Sunbathing Association, which affiliated with the American Sunbathing Association in 1954. Several disagreements between eastern and western members of the CSA resulted in the breakup of CSA into the Western Canadian Sunbathing Association (WCSA) and the Eastern Canadian Sunbathing Association (ECSA) in 1960. The ECSA endured much in-fighting over the next decade and a half, leading to its official demise in 1978. The WCSA continues today as the American Association for Nude Recreation – Western Canadian Region (www.aanr-wc.com), a region of the American Association for Nude Recreation (AANR) which itself was formerly known as the ASA.[10]

In 1977 the Fédération québécoise de naturisme (FQN) was founded in Quebec, by Michel Vaïs, who had experienced European naturism at Montalivet. In 1985 the Federation of Canadian Naturists (FCN) was formed with the support of the FQN. In 1988 the FQN and FCN formed the FQN-FCN Union as the official Canadian representative in the International Naturist Federation (INF).[10]

Mexico
View of the far west end of Zipolite Beach, Oaxaca, Mexico

Federación Nudista de México[112] is a members organization with both individual and organization members. It promotes social nudity in Mexico, and it is recognized by the International Naturist Federation as the official national naturist organization in that country.

As of 2016, Playa Zipolite is Mexico's first and only legal public nude beach.[113] A "free beach" and unofficially nudist for more than 50 years,[114] this beach is reputed to be the best place for nudism in the country. The numerous nude sunbathers, and the long tradition, make it safe for nudism and naturism. Annually since 2016, on the first weekend of February, Zipolite has hosted Festival Nudista Zipolite[115] that in 2019 attracted 7,000-8,000 visitors.[116]

United States
Florida Young Naturists
See also: American Association for Nude Recreation and List of social nudity places in the United States

Kurt Barthel founded the American League for Physical Culture in 1929 and organized the first nudist event. In about 1930 they organized the American Gymnosophical Association. Barthel founded America's first official nudist camp, Sky Farm in New Jersey, in May, 1932.[117] Around 1932, AGA established the Rock Lodge Club as a nudist facility in Stockholm, New Jersey and Ilsley Boone, a Dutch Reformed minister, formed the Christian naturism movement. Naturism began expanding nationwide.[118][119][120][121] Nudism venues were teetotal until 1970.[122]

The American Association for Nude Recreation (AANR) is the national naturist organization. Arnd Krüger compared nudists in Germany and the United States and came to the conclusion that in Germany the racial aspects (Zuchtwahl) were important for the breakthrough (e.g. the Commanding General of the Army served as patron for nudists events), while in the U.S. nudism was far more commercial and had thus more difficulties.[123]

In 2008, Florida Young Naturists held their first Naked Bash, which has since been repeated multiple times per year and has grown into one of the largest young naturist gatherings in the world.[124]

In 2009, a campaign to promote Nudism in the United States occurred with an effort by AANR to record the largest simultaneous Skinny Dip at several U.S. Clubs and beaches, occurring on July 11 of that year.[125]

In 2010, a new organization formed called Young Naturists and Nudists America which was mostly focused around the younger generation as well as social issues, such as body image.[126] Young Naturists and Nudists America closed in 2017.[127]

In Asia
Sunrise on the beach, Taitung County, Taiwan

Indonesia

In the seventies, nudity on Bali's remote and deserted beaches was common but with the massive growth of tourism, this practice has disappeared. In 2002, nudity was declared illegal on Petitenget Beach, the last beach in Seminyak that tolerated discreet nudity. Individuals began to practice nudity in private villas and resorts. Laki Uma Villa, the first naturist facility to open, was for gay men only. Bali au Naturel, the first adult-only nudist resort for both genders, opened its doors in 2004. It subsequently expanded from 3 to 15 rooms and added from two more swimming pools.[128] Indonesia has an underground naturist community, who defy the laws against public nudity there.[129]

Thailand

Nudism was successfully introduced in 2012 by The Thailand Naturist Association in Pattaya (Chan Resort), and six more nudist resorts have been created all over Thailand. Barefeet Resort in Bangkok, Lemon Tree in Phuket, Oriental Village in Chiangmai, Phuan Naturist Village in Huay Yai, and Peace Blue Naturist resort in Phukett all members of the Naturist Association of Thailand as well as other international naturist organizations.[130]

Naturist media

Magazines

Magazines published by, for or purportedly about naturists can be grouped:

  • Magazines published by an "official" national organisation, such as BN (British Naturism), Going Natural/Au naturel (FCN/FQN), Nude & Natural Magazine TNS, gonatural (New Zealand Naturist Federation).
  • Independent magazines published for naturists, such as Naturally, H&E naturist and TAN (acronym of The Australian Naturist).
  • Magazines that print photographs only or primarily of young female professional models, which are disapproved of by many naturists and non-naturists alike.

Magazines in the second and, occasionally, third grouping feature naturist editorial and advertising, while some naturists argue over which magazines belonged in which of these categories – these views may change as publishers and editors change. Many clubs and groups have benefitted from magazines which, while not exclusively or even predominantly naturist in character, made naturist information available to many who would not otherwise have been aware of it.[10] (These days, the information and advertising provided online, and the wide availability of free online porn, has meant the disappearance of old-style 'skin' magazines presenting significant glamour content masquerading as or alongside naturist content. Naturist magazines have to appeal strongly to naturists to succeed – they cannot sit on the fence between naturism and glamour.) Some naturists still feel that the worthwhile editorial content in some magazines is not a fair balance for the disapproved-of photographic content.[10]

Photography, films and videos

Some naturist clubs have been willing to allow filming by the media on their grounds, though content that proved not to be of genuine naturism can end up being parodied by the media as the norm.[131]

Some commercial 'naturist' DVDs are dominated by imagery of naked children. Such material can be marketed in ways that appear to appeal directly to paedophile inclinations, and ownership of these DVDs (and their earlier video cassette incarnations) has resulted in successful British prosecutions for possession of indecent images of children.[132][133][134] One case was appealed, unsuccessfully, to the European Court of Human Rights.[135] The precedents set by the court cases mean that possession in Britain of any naturist image of a child is, potentially, grounds for prosecution.

Photo shoots, including major high-profile works by Spencer Tunick, are done in public places including beaches.[lower-alpha 5][136]

gollark: I have a pretty thuwedy one.
gollark: The aeon or thuwedred, I mean.
gollark: <@480213740499894283> Sure! I can try now. Which?
gollark: I've got an inbred messy 29G aeon with fragments of prize checker and a 14G thuwed for some weird reason.
gollark: There are gazillions of alt omens.

See also

Footnotes
  1. The Hannover based Bund für freies Lebensgestaltung wrote: "Naturism is a new lifestyle caring for the body, the soul and the spirit in society. We live the ideal of freedom, conscious of its limits, taking up our responsibility. The expression of our will is nudity, our admission of sincerity".
  2. In his book, Cinema Au Naturel,[5] author Mark Storey states, "two related terms that we will continually run across are nudist and naturist. Although, the meanings of the two terms are virtually identical, they often have different connotations for those who prefer one to the other. In America people who believe that it is physically, socially, emotionally, and perhaps spiritually healthy to go about fully nude individually and in groups of mixed sex whenever weather permits and others are not offended generally refer to themselves as "nudists". In Europe such people more often than not refer to themselves as "naturists".
  3. The English version of the Agde definition was translated differently in Guide Mondial de Naturisme 96 97.[7] Naturism (American "nudism") is a way of life in harmony with nature characterised by the practice of communal nudity with the intention of encouraging self-respect, respect for others and the environment.
  4. "Le naturisme est la doctrine qui consiste à laisser agir la nature plutot que d'intervenir de manière artificielle".[36]
  5. Nudists who visit public nude beaches may be photographed without their knowledge. In the United States and in most democratic countries, the photographers have the law on their side in these situations because no individual has an expectation of privacy in a public place and photographers are not required to obtain the naturists' consent before photographing them or disseminating their images.

Notes
  1. Choin 2002.
  2. Deschênes, Stéphane (4 January 2016). "The Official INF-FNI Definition of Naturism" (PDF). INF-FNI. International Naturist Federation. Retrieved 11 January 2016.
  3. West, Keon (2018-03-01). "Naked and Unashamed: Investigations and Applications of the Effects of Naturist Activities on Body Image, Self-Esteem, and Life Satisfaction". Journal of Happiness Studies. 19 (3): 677–697. doi:10.1007/s10902-017-9846-1. ISSN 1573-7780.
  4. Smith & King 2009.
  5. Storey 2003, p. 11.
  6. Montananaturist.org.
  7. Anon 1997.
  8. Mars-Jones 1991, p. 152.
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References

Monographs

Journal articles

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  • Barcan, Ruth (2004). ""Regaining what Mankind has Lost through Civilisation:" Early Nudism and Ambivalent Moderns". Fashion Theory. 8 (1): 63–82. doi:10.2752/136270404778051870. ISSN 1362-704X.
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  • Makarova, Veronika (2013). "Doukhobor 'freedom seeker' nudism: Exploring the sociocultural roots". Culture and Religion. 14 (2): 131–145. doi:10.1080/14755610.2012.706228. ISSN 1475-5610.
  • McLellan, Josie (2007). "State Socialist Bodies: East German Nudism from Ban to Boom*". The Journal of Modern History. 79 (1): 48–79. doi:10.1086/517544. ISSN 0022-2801.
  • Morris, N. J. (2009). "Naked in nature: naturism, nature and the senses in early 20th century Britain". Cultural Geographies. 16 (3): 283–308. doi:10.1177/1474474009105049. ISSN 1474-4740.
  • Okami, Paul; Olmstead, Richard; Abramson, Paul R.; Pendleton, Laura (1998). "Early Childhood Exposure to Parental Nudity and Scenes of Parental Sexuality ("Primal Scenes"): An 18-Year Longitudinal Study of Outcome". Archives of Sexual Behavior. 27 (4): 361–384. doi:10.1023/A:1018736109563. ISSN 0004-0002. PMID 9681119.
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  • Schrank, S. (2012). "Naked Houses: The Architecture of Nudism and the Rethinking of the American Suburbs". Journal of Urban History. 38 (4): 635–661. doi:10.1177/0096144211434988. ISSN 0096-1442.
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  • Smith, Glenn; King, Michael (2009). "Naturism and sexuality: Broadening our approach to sexual wellbeing". Health & Place. 15 (2): 439–446. doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2008.08.002. ISSN 1353-8292. PMID 18926761.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
  • Smith, H. W. (1980). "A modest test of cross-cultural differences in sexual modesty, embarrassment and self-disclosure". Qualitative Sociology. 3 (3): 223–241. doi:10.1007/BF00987137. ISSN 0162-0436.
  • Warren, H. C. (1933). "Social nudism and the body taboo". Psychological Review. 40 (2): 160–183. doi:10.1037/h0073466. ISSN 0033-295X.
  • Weinberg, Martin S. (1965). "Sexual Modesty, Social Meanings, and the Nudist Camp". Social Problems. 12 (3): 311–318. doi:10.2307/798936. ISSN 0037-7791. JSTOR 798936.
  • Woodall, Ellen E. (2003). "The American Nudist Movement: From Cooperative to Capital, the Song Remains the Same". The Journal of Popular Culture. 36 (2): 264–284. doi:10.1111/1540-5931.00006. ISSN 0022-3840.
  • Lempa, Heikki (2012). "Turning to Nature in Germany: Hiking, Nudism, and Conservation, 1900–1940 (review)". Journal of the History of Sexuality. 21 (2): 350–352. doi:10.1353/sex.2012.0032. ISSN 1535-3605.

Newspaper articles

Websites

Bibliography
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