Interpretatio graeca

Interpretatio graeca (Latin, "Greek translation") or "interpretation by means of Greek [models]" is a discourse[1] used to interpret or attempt to understand the mythology and religion of other cultures; a comparative methodology using ancient Greek religious concepts and practices, deities, and myths, equivalencies, and shared characteristics.

The goddess Isis (seated right) welcoming the Greek heroine Io into Egypt, as depicted in a Roman wall painting from Pompeii

The phrase may describe Greek efforts to explain others' beliefs and myths, as when Herodotus describes Egyptian religion in terms of perceived Greek analogues, or when Dionysius of Halicarnassus and Plutarch document Roman cults, temples, and practices under the names of equivalent Greek deities. Interpretatio graeca may also describe non-Greeks' interpretation of their own belief systems by comparison or assimilation with Greek models, as when Romans adapt Greek myths and iconography under the names of their own gods.

Interpretatio romana is comparative discourse in reference to ancient Roman religion and myth, as in the formation of a distinctive Gallo-Roman religion. Both the Romans and the Gauls reinterpreted Gallic religious traditions in relation to Roman models, particularly Imperial cult.

Jan Assmann considers the polytheistic approach to internationalizing gods as a form of "intercultural translation":

The great achievement of polytheism is the articulation of a common semantic universe. ... The meaning of a deity is his or her specific character as it unfolded in myths, hymns, rites, and so on. This character makes a deity comparable to other deities with similar traits. The similarity of gods makes their names mutually translatable. … The practice of translating the names of the gods created a concept of similarity and produced the idea or conviction that the gods are international.[2]

Pliny the Elder expressed the "translatability" of deities as "different names to different peoples" (nomina alia aliis gentibus).[3] This capacity made possible the religious syncretism of the Hellenistic era and the pre-Christian Roman Empire.

Examples

A Roman fresco from Herculaneum depicting Hercules (from Etruscan Hercle and ultimately Greek Heracles) and Achelous (patron deity of the Achelous River in Greece) from Greco-Roman mythology, 1st century AD

Herodotus was one of the earliest authors to engage in this form of interpretation. In his observations regarding the Egyptians, he establishes Greco-Egyptian equivalents that endured into the Hellenistic era, including Amon/Zeus, Osiris/Dionysus, and Ptah/Hephaestus. In his observations regarding the Scythians, he equates their queen of the gods, Tabiti, to Hestia, Papaios and Api to Zeus and Gaia respectively, and Argimpasa to Aphrodite Urania, whilst also claiming that the Scythians worshipped equivalents to Herakles and Ares, but which he doesn't name.

Some pairs of Greek and Roman gods, such as Zeus and Jupiter, are thought to derive from a common Indo-European archetype (Dyeus as the supreme sky god), and thus exhibit shared functions by nature. Others required more expansive theological and poetic efforts: though both Ares and Mars are war gods, Ares was a relatively minor figure in Greek religious practice and deprecated by the poets, while Mars was a father of the Roman people and a central figure of archaic Roman religion.

Some deities dating to Rome's oldest religious stratum, such as Janus and Terminus, had no Greek equivalent. Other Greek divine figures, most notably Apollo, were adopted directly into Roman culture, but underwent a distinctly Roman development, as when Augustus made Apollo one of his patron deities. In the early period, Etruscan culture played an intermediary role in transmitting Greek myth and religion to the Romans, as evidenced in the linguistic transformation of Greek Heracles to Etruscan Her[e]cle to Roman Hercules.

Interpretatio romana

The phrase interpretatio romana was first used by the Imperial-era historian Tacitus in the Germania.[4] Tacitus reports that in a sacred grove of the Nahanarvali, "a priest adorned as a woman presides, but they commemorate gods who in Roman terms (interpretatione romana) are Castor and Pollux."[5] Elsewhere,[6] he identifies the principal god of the Germans as Mercury, perhaps referring to Wotan.[7]

Gilt bronze head from the cult statue of Sulis Minerva from the Temple at Bath

Some information about the deities of the ancient Gauls (the continental Celts), who left no written literature other than inscriptions, is preserved by Greco-Roman sources under the names of Greek and Latin equivalents. A large number of Gaulish theonyms or cult titles are preserved, for instance, in association with Mars. As with some Greek and Roman divine counterparts, the perceived similarities between a Gallic and a Roman or Greek deity may reflect a common Indo-European origin.[8] Lugus was identified with Mercury, Nodens with Mars as healer and protector, Sulis with Minerva. In some cases, however, a Gallic deity is given an interpretatio romana by means of more than one god, varying among literary texts or inscriptions. Since the religions of the Greco-Roman world were not dogmatic, and polytheism lent itself to multiplicity, the concept of "deity" was often expansive, permitting multiple and even contradictory functions within a single divinity, and overlapping powers and functions among the diverse figures of each pantheon. These tendencies extended to cross-cultural identifications.[9]

In the Eastern empire, the Anatolian storm god with his double-headed axe became Jupiter Dolichenus, a favorite cult figure among soldiers.

Application to the Jewish religion

Roman scholars such as Varro interpreted the monotheistic god of the Jews into Roman terms as Caelus or Jupiter Optimus Maximus. Some Greco-Roman authors seem to have understood the Jewish invocation of Yahweh Sabaoth as Sabazius.[10] In a similar vein, Plutarch gave an example of a symposium question 'Who is the god of the Jews?,' by which he meant:'What is his Greek name?' as we can deduct from the first speaker at the symposium, who maintained that the Jews worshiped Dionysus, and that the day of Sabbath was a festival of Sabazius. We don't know what the other speakers thought, because the text is incomplete.[11]

From the Roman point of view, it was natural to apply the above principle also to the Jewish God Jehovah and equate him with Jupiter. However, the Jews – unlike other peoples living under Roman rule – rejected out of hand any such attempt, regarding such an identification as the worst of sacrilege. This complete divergence of views was one of the factors contributing to the frequent friction between the Jews and the Roman Empire – for example, the Emperor Hadrian's decision to rebuild Jerusalem under the name of Aelia Capitolina, a city dedicated to Jupiter, precipitated the bloodbath of the Bar Kokhba revolt.

In late antiquity mysticism, the sun god Helios is sometimes equated to the Judeo-Christian God.[12]

Greco-Mediterranean equivalents

The following is a list of Greek, Roman, Etruscan, Egyptian, and Phoenician equivalents, based on usage among the ancients themselves, supported by the analyses of modern scholars. "Equivalent" should not be taken to mean "the same god". For instance, when the myths or even cult practices of a particular Roman deity were influenced by the Etruscan or Greek tradition, some minor deities may have had an independent origin and a tradition that is culturally distinctive.


Greek	Greek (Romanized)	Roman	Roman (Anglicized)	Etruscan	Egyptian	Phoenician	Parthian (Hellenistic period)	Functions
Ἄδωνις	Adonis			Atunis	Osiris	Adōn/Tammuz		agriculture; resurrection
Ἀμφιτρίτη	Amphitrite	Salacia			Hatmehit			sea goddess
Ἀνάγκη	Ananke	Necessitas						force, constraint, necessity
Ἄνεμοι	Anemoi	Venti					Vayu-Vata	winds
Ἀφροδίτη	Aphrodite	Venus		Turan	Hathor, Isis	Astarte	Anahita	beauty; sex; love
Ἀπόλλων (Apollōn) / Φοῖβος (Phoibos)	Apollo / Phoebus			Aplu	Horus / Ra	Resheph	Mithra	light; prophecy; healing; plagues; music; poets
Ἄρης	Ares	Mars		Laran	Anhur		Verethragna	war
Ἄρτεμις	Artemis	Diana		Artume	Bast	Kotharat	Drvaspa	hunting, the hunt; wilderness, wild animals; virginity, childbirth; Diana: lit. heavenly or divine
Ἀσκληπιός (Asklēpios)	Asclepius	Aesculapius / Vejovis	Vejove	Vetis	Imhotep	Eshmun		healing
Ἀθηνᾶ (Athēnā), Ἀθήνη (Athēnē)	Athena / Athene	Minerva		Menrva	Neith, Isis	Anat	Anahita	wisdom; strategy; the arts and crafts; weaving
Ἄτλας (Átlas)	Atlas			Aril				holder of the celestial spheres
Ἄτροπος	Atropos	Morta		Leinth				Atropos: lit. inflexible; death
Βορέας	Boreas	Aquilo		Andas				North Wind or Devouring One
Καλλιόπη (Kalliopē)	Calliope							"beautifully voiced"; muse of eloquence and epic poetry
Χάος (Kháos)	Chaos				Nu			chasm, vast void, abyss; the formless, primordial state of existence
Χάος (Kháos)	Chaos				Naunet
Χάριτες (Kharites)	Charites	Gratiae	Graces					grace; splendor; festivity; charity
Χάρων (Kharōn)	Charon			Charun			fierce, flashing, feverish gaze (eyes)
Χλωρίς (Khlōris)	Chloris	Flora						Chloris: lit. greenish-yellow, pale green, pale, pallid, fresh; Flora: lit. flower
Κλωθώ (Klōthō)	Clotho	Nona						spinning; thread
Κρόνος (Kronos)	Cronus	Saturnus	Saturn	Satre	Geb	El		Time
Κυβέλη (Kybelē)	Cybele	Magna Mater						Magna Mater: lit. Great Mother
Δημήτηρ	Demeter	Ceres		Zerene	Isis		Ashi	grains, agricultural fertility; Demeter: lit. Earth Mother
Διόνυσος (Dionysos) / Βάκχος (Bakkhos)	Dionysus / Bacchus	Liber / Bacchus		Fufluns	Osiris			wine and winemaking; revelry; ecstasy; Liber: lit. the free one
Εἰλείθυια	Eileithyia / Ilithyia	Lucina		Ilithiia	Meskhenet			childbirth, midwifery
Ἐνυώ	Enyo	Bellona		Enie	Sekhmet			war
Ἠώς	Eos	Aurora / Matuta		Thesan	Tefnut			dawn
Ἔρεβος (Érebos)	Erebus	Scotus						darkness
Ἐρινύες	Erinyes	Dirae / Furiae	Furies					Furies
Ἔρις	Eris	Discordia		Eris	Anat			strife
Ἔρως	Eros	Cupido / Amor	Cupid	Erus				sexual love
Eὐτέρπη	Euterpe			Euturpa / Euterpe				"she who delights"; muse of music (especially flute music) and song; later, also of lyric poetry
Εὖρος (Euros)	Eurus	Vulturnus						East Wind
Γαῖα	Gaia / Gaea	Terra / Tellus		Cel			Zam	the earth
ᾍδης (Hāidēs) / Πλούτων (Ploutōn)	Hades / Pluto	Dis Pater / Pluto / Orcus		Aita	Anubis / Osiris	Mot	Angra Mainyu	the underworld. Hades: lit. the unseen
Ἥβη (Hēbē)	Hebe	Iuventas	Juventas		Renpet			youth
Ἑκάτη (Hekatē)	Hecate	Trivia			Heqet			will; Hecate: trans. she who has power far off [13]
Ἥλιος	Helios	Sol		Usil	Ra			sun
Ἡμέρα	Hemera	Dies						day
Ἥφαιστος (Hḗphaistos)	Hephaestus	Vulcanus	Vulcan	Sethlans	Ptah		Atar	metalwork, forges; fire, lava
Ἥρα	Hera	Iuno	Juno	Uni	Mut, Hathor	Shala	Armaiti	marriage, family
Ἡρακλής (Hēraklē̂s)	Heracles	Hercules		Hercle	Heryshaf	Melqart	Rostam (Heracles)	Heracles: lit. glory of Hera
Ἑρμῆς	Hermes	Mercurius	Mercury	Turms	Anubis, Thoth		Shamash	transitions; boundaries; thieves; travelers; commerce; Hermes: poss. "interpreter"; Mercurius: related to Latin "merx" (merchandise), "mercari" (to trade), and "merces" (wages)
Ἕσπερος (Hesperos)	Hesperus	Vesper						evening, supper, evening star, west[14]
Ἕστία	Hestia	Vesta						hearth, fireplace, domesticity
Ὑγίεια	Hygeia	Salus						health; cleanliness
Ὕπνος	Hypnos	Somnus						sleep
Εἰρήνη (Eirēnē)	Irene	Pax						peace
Ἶρις	Iris	Arcus / Iris			Nut			rainbow
Ἰανός		Ianus	Janus	Culsans				beginnings; transitions; motion; doorways
Λάχεσις (Lakhesis)	Lachesis	Decima						Lachesis: lit. disposer of lots; luck
Λητώ	Leto	Latona						Demureness; mothers
Μοῖραι (Moirai)	Moirai / Moerae	Parcae / Fatae	Fates					Apportioners
Μοῦσαι (Mousai)	Musae	Camenae	Mus					Music; inspiration
Νίκη	Nike	Victoria		Meanpe				victory
Νότος (Notos)	Notus	Auster						South Wind
Νύξ (Nyx)	Nyx	Nox			Nephthys			night
Ὀδυσσεύς	Odysseus	Ulixes / Ulysses	Ulysses	Uthste				hero
Παλαίμων (Palaimōn)	Palaemon	Portunus						keys, doors; ports, harbors
Πᾶν	Pan	Faunus			Min			nature, the wild
Περσεφόνη	Persephone	Proserpina	Proserpine	Persipnei				poss. "to emerge"
Φάων	Phaon			Phaun / Faun / Phamu				mortal boatman given youth and beauty by Aphrodite
Φήμη	Pheme	Fama						fame; rumor
Φωσφόρος (Phōsphoros)	Phosphorus	Lucifer				Attar		lit. light bearer
Ποσειδῶν	Poseidon	Neptunus	Neptune	Nethuns			Apam Napat	sea; water; horses; earthquakes
Πρίαπος (Priapos)	Priapus	Mutunus Tutunus / Mutinus Titinus						fertility; livestock; gardens; male genitalia
Προμηθεύς	Prometheus			Prumathe				forethought
Ῥέα	Rhea	Opis / Magna Mater (See Cybele, above)	Ops		Nut	Asherah		Rhea: lit. flowing. Ops: lit. wealth, abundance, resources.
Σελήνη	Selene	Luna		Losna	Isis		Mah	moon
Σελήνη	Selene	Luna		Tiur	Isis		Mah	moon
Σειληνός	Silenos	Silvanus		Selvans				Silvanus: lit. of the woods
Θάνατος	Thanatos	Mors		Leinth	Anubis	Mot		death
Θάνατος	Thanatos	Mors		Charun	Anubis	Mot		death
Θέμις	Themis	Iustitia	Justitia / Justice		Maat			law of nature
Τύχη (Tykhē)	Tyche	Fortuna	Fortune	Nortia				luck, fortune
Τυφῶν ("Typhon")	Typhoeus	Typh			Set			"whirlwinds, storms, chaos, darkness"
Οὐρανός (Ouranos)	Uranus	Caelus					Asman	sky
		Vertumnus		Voltumna				the seasons; change
Ζέφυρος (Zephyros)	Zephyrus / Zephyr	Favonius						West Wind; Favonius: lit. favorable
Ζεύς	Zeus	Iuppiter / Iovis	Jupiter / Jove	Tinia	Amun / Horus	Dagon / Hadad	Ohrmazd / Ahura Mazda	Sky Father

In art

Examples of deities depicted in syncretic compositions by means of interpretatio graeca or romana:

Jupiter Ammon (terracotta of Hellenistic style, 1st century AD)
Syncretized figure from the Eastern provinces, perhaps a Genius (1st century BC – 1st century AD)
Isis holding sistrum and oinochoe (Roman marble, reign of Hadrian)
Isis, Serapis, the child Harpocrates and Dionysos (relief from Roman Africa, late 2nd century AD)
Worshipper before Zeus–Serapis–Ohrmazd (Bactria, 3rd century AD)

gollark: Maybe I *should* pointlessly *add* particles.js *to* some *of* my *website*.

gollark: But you DO THINGS.

gollark: Lyric is going on about demoting and/or banning me.

gollark: I feel like you may not understand other people's viewpöints.

gollark: Suuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuure.

References

Characterized as "discourse" by Mark S. Smith, God in Translation: Deities in Cross-Cultural Discourse in the Biblical World (Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2008, 2010), p. 246.
Moses the Egyptian: The Memory of Egypt in Western Monotheism (Harvard University Press, 1997), pp. 44–54 (quotation p. 45), as cited by Smith, God in Translation, p. 39.
Pliny, Natural History 2.5.15.
Tacitus, Germania 43.
"Praesidet sacerdos muliebri ornatu, sed deos interpretatione romana Castorem Pollucemque memorant."
Tacitus, Germania 9.
Robert Leo Odom, ''Sunday in Roman Paganism'' (TEACH 2003 ISBN 978-1-57258242-2), pp. 251-252. Books.google.com. 2003-01-01. ISBN 9781572582422. Retrieved 2013-01-24.
John T. Koch, "Interpretatio romana," in Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia (ABC-Clio, 2006), p. 974.
Koch, "Interpretatio romana," in Celtic Culture, pp. 974–975; Assmann, Moses the Egyptian, p. 45.
(Valerius Maximus), epitome of Nine Books of Memorable Deeds and Sayings, i. 3, 2, see EXEMPLUM 3. [Par.]
Plutarch. Symposiacs, iv, 6.
Eleni Pachoumi, The Religious and Philosophical Assimilation of Helios in the Greek Papyri
"Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, ἕκα^τος". Perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 2013-01-24.
Collins Latin Dictionary plus Grammar, p. 231. ISBN 0-06-053690-X)