Education in Ontario

Education in Ontario comprises public and private primary and secondary schools and post-secondary institutions.

Education in Ontario
Educational oversight
Minister of EducationStephen Lecce
National education budget (2017–2018)
BudgetCAN$ 23.9 billion[1]
General details
Primary languagesEnglish, French
System typeRegional school boards shares power with provincial government
Literacy
Male99%[2]
Female99%[2]
Enrollment
Total2,051,865 (2010–2011)[3]
Primary1,340,520 (2010–2011)[3]
Secondary711,134 (2010–2011)[3]
Post secondary760,731 (2010–2011)[4]
Attainment
Secondary diploma79.4%[5]
Post-secondary diploma55%[5]

By right of the constitution of Canada, Roman Catholics are entitled to their own school system.[6] Four large, overlapping publicly funded school systems provide primary and secondary education, organized into school districts: 31 English public, 29 English Catholic, 4 French public, and 8 French Catholic.[1] One Protestant separate school board operates in Penetanguishene, Ontario, the Penetanguishene Protestant Separate School Board.[7]

Post-secondary education in Ontario consists of 20 public universities, 24 public colleges and over 400 registered private career colleges.[8]

In Canada, education falls almost entirely under provincial jurisdiction. There is no federal government department or agency involved in the formation or analysis of policy regarding education for most Canadians. Schools for Indigenous people in Canada with Indian status are the only schools that are funded federally, and receive greater funding than provincial public schools.[9] Publicly funded elementary and secondary schools are administered by the Ontario Ministry of Education, while colleges and universities are administered by the Ontario Ministry of Training, Colleges and Universities. The current respective Ministers for each are Stephen Lecce and Ross Romano.

History

Timeline

Upper Canada's Grammar School Act of 1807 provided the first public funds for schools in what would become Ontario. 8 schools were opened.[10]

Erected in 1804, St. Johns Common School in St. Johns was Ontario's first non-denominational free school, and is Ontario's oldest extant schoolhouse.
  • 1804: St. Johns Common School in St. Johns became Ontario's first non-denominational free school.[11]
  • 1816: The Act of 1816 authorized local trustees to decide on hiring criteria for teachers.[12]
  • 1823: A General Board of Education was established.[13]
  • 1824: The Legislature supported "moral and religious instruction of the more indigent and remote settlements" by granting the Board of Education a budget to create Sunday schools.[14]
  • 1824: The right to decide hiring criteria for teachers was transferred from trustees to the district Board.[14]
  • 1841: With the union of Upper and Lower Canada into the Province of Canada, the position of General Superintendent of Education was created.[14]
  • 1843: With the realization that Canada West (formerly Upper Canada) and Canada East (formerly Lower Canada) had vastly different educational needs, the Act of 1841 was repealed. The Act of 1843 created the position of Chief Superintendent of Education for Canada West (which would become the Province of Ontario in 1867).[15] Egerton Ryerson is Chief Superintendent from 1844 until his retirement in 1876.[16]
  • 1847: Chief Superintendent Egerton Ryerson returns from a tour of European education systems and submits his "Report on a System of Public Elementary Instruction in Upper Canada".[17] On the religious issue, he writes that "religious differences and divisions should rather be healed than inflamed".[17]:p62
  • 1850: The Common School Act updates 1847 legislation creating school boards across Canada West. It requires that municipalities meet the funding needs stated by their local school board and allows for schools to be paid for through provincial and municipal funds alone, allowing individual boards to eliminate school fees but not making this compulsory. The Act also allows for the creation of separate schools leading to provincially funded Catholic schools and to racially segregated schools.[18]
  • 1871: The School Act makes elementary education compulsory and free up to age 12.[18] The Act also created two streams of secondary education: high schools, the lower stream, and collegiate institutes, the higher stream. Extra funding was provided for collegiate institutes "with a daily average attendance of sixty boys studying Latin and Greek under a minimum of four masters".[19]
  • 1876: The first Minister of Education was appointed,[14] after Ryerson retired after 22 years as Chief Superintendent of Education.
  • 1891: The compulsory school-leaving age is raised to 14.[20]
  • 1921: The compulsory school-leaving age is raised to 16 in urban areas with exemptions for students needed at home or already in the workplace.[20]
  • 1954: 16 becomes the compulsory school-leaving age for all students, with work exemptions.[20]
  • 1968: Release of the Hall-Dennis Report, officially titled Living and Learning.
  • 1970: Exemptions for work are removed from school legislation. All students must attend school until age 16.[20]
  • 1984: Grade 13 is replaced by OAC (Ontario Academic Credits)
  • 1997: Education funding moves to the provincial level.[21]
  • 2003: Secondary education becomes a 4-year program, with the phasing out of OAC.
  • 2013: Release of the Fullan Report, officially titled Great to Excellent.[22]

Racially segregated schools

An amendment to the 1850 Common School Act allowed for the creation of racially segregated schools.[23] This was because the Common School Act included the Separate School Clause that allowed for the separation between different religions and races. At first, this sounded like a practical idea where each school could focus on teaching their faith or culture. However, it was taken advantage of and quickly became problematic as school trustees supported racial segregation towards coloured students.[24] Racial segregation looked different depending on where it took place in Canada. Many of these schools were located in southwestern Ontario where Black individuals and families settled looking for freedom.[23] Some schools in Ontario had separate school buildings, while others attended the same school but at different times.[24] Those schools that were for Black students were characterized by markedly poorer conditions and little concern was shown for their education.[23]  Scholars identify this as a suppressed history because it contradicts narratives of Ontario and Canada as places of justice and equality.[25] However, this history includes a legacy of slavery in Canada that lasted for over 200 years as well as acts of terror perpetuated by white Ontarians such as burning the barns of Black families to the ground.[26] The last racially segregated school in Ontario did not close until 1965 [27] and in Nova Scotia until 1983, meaning that racially segregated schools existed for over one hundred years. Although Ontario and Nova Scotia were the two provinces to enact laws regarding racial segregation, many other provinces had racial segregation practices.[24]

Many asian cultures also experienced segregation in Canada in regard to education. The first wave of Chinese immigrants pursued work in British Columbia and many decided to settle permanently there with their families. In 1922, it was voted to implement full segregation of Chinese students by forcing them to attend one of the only two Chinese schools in Victoria.[28] Chinese segregation is another example of white supremacy in Canada, as British Columbia was seen as a predominantly white province and anyone who was not white, including the Chinese, were marginalized and alienated. This connects to the idea that the residents of British Columbia viewed Chinese individuals as a threat due to an assumed disease which was used to support Chinese segregation in the schooling system. From the view of Chinese students, it was a way of preventing them from learning the English language, which was a main focus in Canadian education at the time.[29] In British Columbia, the segregation of Japanese students began occurring following the war. In 1942, the government denied any and all responsibility for Japanese education, essentially denying Japanese children the right to education. The British Columbia Securities Commission (BCSC) did not want to be involved with education, however, they argued that as Canadian citizens, Japanese students should have a proper education.[30]

Residential schools in Ontario

Residential schools in Ontario were part of the larger Canadian Indian residential school system which spanned Canada. Notably, Egerton Ryerson, who is often celebrated for creating the free public education system in Ontario, was also a key architect of the residential school system. Many residential schools in Ontario were located in the North where Indigenous communities had either been forcibly relocated or pushed by encroaching colonists. However, the schools existed across the province. Increased attention has been brought to this suppressed history by the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada[31] which resulted from the settlement of a class action lawsuit between the Government of Canada, residential school survivors, churches involved in running the schools, the Assembly of First Nations, and other Indigenous groups.[32] Since the closure of the schools, different approaches have been taken to dealing with the buildings. In Brantford, the building which once housed the Mohawk Institute Residential School is now part of the Woodland Cultural Centre.[33] Residential schools were federally administered, meaning that the provincial government was not required to meet treaty obligations to Ontario First Nations for education. This saved the provincial government considerable funds and was key to funding education in the province. Reserve schools continue to be funded by the federal government today under a different funding model than provincially funded schools.

Legislation

Education in Ontario is governed by the Education Act.[34] Provincial, federal and international human rights codes and charters also have stipulations on children's learning experiences.

Ontario Human Rights Code

The Ontario Human Rights Code states:

It is public policy in Ontario to recognize the dignity and worth of every person and to provide for equal rights and opportunities without discrimination that is contrary to law, and having as its aim the creation of a climate of understanding and mutual respect for the dignity and worth of each person so that each person feels a part of the community and able to contribute fully to the development and well-being of the community and the Province.[35]

Teaching human rights

Ontario schools are required to educate students about human rights and to develop young people's understanding of what they are, how they were developed and threats that challenge them. In 2009, the Ministry of Education implemented an Equity and Inclusive Education Strategy across the province that included making human rights education part of the primary and secondary curriculum.[36] To assist educators, the Ministry worked with Ontario's Human Rights Commission and developed a guide with lessons, activities and case studies specifically designed to increase students' knowledge of human rights and to prompt discussion on such topics as discrimination, harassment and equality.[36]

Structure and funding

Types of school boards

Ontario operates four publicly funded school systems: An English-language public school system, a French-language public school system, an English- language separate school system and a French-language separate school system. The public school system was originally Protestant but is now secular. The Separate School system is Roman Catholic (open to students of all faiths at secondary level, they have the option of refusing non-Catholics at the elementary level) with the exception of the Penetanguishene Protestant Separate School Board, which runs a single Protestant school.

School Board Funding Projections (excluding capital programs) estimates more than CAD$ 20 billion will be put toward the province's 73 school board districts in the 2012–2013 school-year.[37]

  • See List of Ontario school boards

Levels in education

Preschool daycare is usually for youngsters under 4 years of age. Next comes Junior Kindergarten/J.K (for youngsters who turn 4 before December 31) and Senior Kindergarten/S.K (for youngsters who turn 5 before December 31).

Ministry of Education documents divide grades into two categories: Elementary (Grades 1–8) and Secondary (Grades 9–12). Local variances exist in the division of grades (e.g. middle school).[38]

While children must begin school if they are 6 years old on the first day of the school year,[39] the cutoff is 31 Dec:[40] A 5-year-old may start Grade 1 if he/she will turn 6 by December 31. Children typically start a grade if they will be the following age by December 31:

Grade 123456789101112
Age 67891011121314151617

There is no legal age or time constraint against attending secondary school longer than 4 years, although a limit on course credit exists. Victory lappers make up an average of 4% of all students enrolled in Ontario secondary schools each year.[41][42]

Multi-age settings

Split-grade classes are common.[43]

A pilot project groups match students by ability rather than age.

Montessori schools group students in 3-year age groups. Democratic schools have complete age-mixing.[44] Homeschooling families and unschoolers decide for themselves about age-mixing.

Roots of Empathy brings a baby into an elementary school classroom, regularly over the course of a year, to help students develop social/emotional competence and empathy.

Curriculum-based schools

Almost all Ontario public schools, and most private schools, follow the Ontario Curriculum.[45] It has specific requirements about knowledge and behaviours to be learned, while allowing flexibility in how the curriculum is delivered.

The secondary school curriculum offers three streams (or tracks): the Grades 9 and 10 curricula have the academic, applied and essentials streams. The academic courses are to prepare students for university-bound courses; the applied courses are to prepare students for college-bound courses; and the essentials courses are mainly for students, but not exclusively, with learning exceptionalities (e.g., learning disabilities, intellectually delayed, etc.). Recently, there have been parents and educational advocates pushing for de-streaming Grades 9 and 10, so students have more time to choose which pathway they would like to take.

Then the Grades 11 and 12 curricula have university-bound, college-bound and workplace-bound courses. All of the courses are to develop students' higher-order thinking skills, and every secondary school course must have a focus on skills-based learning no matter the stream; however, academic/university-bound courses tend to have a strong focus on abstract thinking and knowledge-based learning, and usually pushes students to become more independent in their learning compared with college- and workplace-bound courses. Once a student is taking a Grade 12 university-bound course, then the student is expected to be academically and intellectually challenged in order for them to build their knowledge and skills for a university post-secondary education. Even though college-bound courses are academically rigorous, there is more of a focus on skills-based learning and making the content of the course practical for everyday life. Workplace-bound courses are even more practical. Each stream has different learning expectations, so marks in each stream are not equal to one another. For example, an 85% average student in Grade 12 College English would not be considered for a university program if that student has not taken the Grade 12 University English credit.

Alternative schools

Within the public boards, alternative schools have begun to emerge. In 2009 the Africentric School opened in Toronto and in 2011 the DSBN Academy opened its doors. The Africentric school was established in part to address the 40% dropout rate of black students in the Toronto District School Board.[46] the DSBN Academy is a new school aimed at providing additional supports for students who may lack access or the resources to attend post secondary education. These alternative schools are based on social contexts that the individual school boards deem necessary for their constituents and are funded within the publicly funded school systems.[47]

In addition, alternative schools in Ontario have also come to be for religious contexts as in the case of Eden High School in St. Catharines. "Eden is a publicly funded secondary school that operates as an alternative secondary school within the District School Board of Niagara. The school offers the prescribed Ontario Ministry of Education's Secondary School program delivered in the context of a community where the educational objectives of the Ministry of Education and those of Eden's own Spiritual Life Department are respected and regarded as complementary in the training of students."[48]

Private schools

Ontario private schools must do the following:

  • Offer the Ontario curriculum or a program not of lesser educational value than the Ontario curriculum[49]
  • Meet provincial standards for such things as record keeping and facilities[50]
  • Submit annually an intention to operate a private school[51]

A private institution is considered a school if "instruction is provided at any time between the hours of 9 a.m. and 4 p.m. on any school day for five or more pupils who are of or over compulsory school age in any of the subjects of the elementary or secondary school courses of study."[52]

Private schools that meet provincial standards may offer the Ontario Secondary School Diploma.

There are approximately 700 private schools in Ontario, most represented by associations uniting schools of a common goal, view, or philosophy. Instructors are not required to be members of the Ontario College of Teachers, though many often are. More importantly, instructors are commissioned if their credentials satisfy the requirements outlined by their respective private school. As there are several types of private schools from elementary to the secondary school level, experience and training will differ for each.[53]

Funding

In 2012–2013, the total expenditure for both public and private primary and secondary education in Ontario was $26,975,997,000.[54]

Type of expenditures[54] 2008–2009 2009–2010 2010–2011 2011–2012 2012–2013
Public and private elementary and secondary education expenditures 23,750,820,000 25,171,480,000 26,422,654,000 26,718,171,000 26,975,997,000

Funding formula

The provincial government allocates funds to school boards based on factors including:[21]

  • number of students and schools
  • preponderance of special education students
  • rate of students with English or French as a second language
  • percentage of Aboriginal students
  • geographical features, such as having small schools or schools far apart

Controversies

Catholic public school funding

Ontario is the only province in Canada that funds religious schools of the Catholic faith exclusively.

This issue received media attention during the controversy surrounding gay-straight alliances, especially after Halton Catholic District School Board's Alice Anne Lemay compared gay-straight alliance groups to those of the Nazis in an effort to explain her board's decision to ban gay-straight alliances in their schools.[55] The ban on gay-straight alliances was repealed with board members voting 6–2 on the issue.[56]

The UN has cited Ontario for discrimination against non-Catholics, as UNESCO states that religion not be affiliated with any political powers.[57] They are suggesting that Ontario either fund no faith-based schools, or all of them. While Ontario's government maintains that its hands are tied in the matter (as the Constitution protects funding for the Catholic faith), many critics use the examples of Manitoba, Quebec, and Newfoundland (as provinces which have successfully navigated this obstacle) to counter their argument.[58]

A CBC poll suggested that 58.2% of Ontarians want a single publicly funded school system.[59]

About half of Ontario's government-funded District School Boards are Catholic (37 out of 72).[60]

Contrary to the belief that Catholic Schools are funded exclusively, the Canadian Constitution of 1867 gives the Provinces the responsibility of education. Because schools were religiously based at the time, it includes protections for the minority religion whether it be Catholic or Protestant. Over time the majority Protestant boards have become secular as they had not had protections of minority status. This has not always been true though as there is one Protestant school board and Protestant school left in Ontario, The Burkevale Protestant Separate School in the Penetanguishene Protestant Separate School Board.[61][62]

Organizations supporting education

There are many organizations in Ontario supporting education.[63]

People for Education provides "research, resources and connections for everyone who cares about public education". Executive Director Annie Kidder believes that "Our public schools belong to all of us. They could and should be thriving hubs of every community – hubs of learning, of support for families and of neighbourhood activity."[64]

The Society for Quality Education wants every child to succeed. The problem is that "most public schools are not using the most effective teaching methods and materials available. And, as a result, the students are not learning nearly as much as they could."[65]

Student surveys

The Ontario Student Parent & Educator Survey is an annual survey regulated by the Ontario Student Trustees Association.[66][67]

The Ministry of Education does a School Climate Survey of students at least every two years, to understand and prevent bullying, and to support a positive school climate.[68]

gollark: ~s
gollark: ~play ftl ae soundtrack
gollark: Communism WILL be harbinged.
gollark: ~play wage war - the river
gollark: ~q

See also

Sources

 This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO Strengthening the rule of law through education: a guide for policymakers, 64, UNESCO. To learn how to add open license text to Wikipedia articles, please see this how-to page. For information on reusing text from Wikipedia, please see the terms of use.

References
  1. "Education Facts". Ontario Ministry of Education. Retrieved 25 January 2014.
  2. "CIA World Factbook – Canada". US Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 21 July 2009.
  3. "Ministry of Education".
  4. "Table 1: Public postsecondary enrolments by province of study". The Daily. Statistics Canada. 23 January 2013.
  5. "Level of Educational Attainment for the Age Group 25 to 64, Percentage Distribution for Both Sexes, for Canada, Provinces and Territories". 2001 Census. Statistics Canada. 2001. Retrieved 21 July 2009.
  6. Wilson, J. Donald. "Separate School". The Canadian Encyclopedia. Retrieved 25 January 2014.
  7. "Find a School Board". Government of Ontario. Retrieved 25 February 2017.
  8. "Go to college or university in Ontario". Government of Ontario. Retrieved 25 January 2014.
  9. Milke, Marke (13 June 2015). "Milke: The Facts About Aboriginal Funding in Canada". Calgary Herald.
  10. Ross, George William (1896). The school system of Ontario (Canada) its history and distinctive features. D. Appleton and company. p. 4. Retrieved 15 April 2013.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
  11. "St. Johns Common School 1804". Brock University. Retrieved 16 June 2020.
  12. Ross (1896), p. 7.
  13. Putnam, J. Harold. Egerton Ryerson and Education in Upper Canada. Library of Alexandria. ISBN 978-1-4655-0516-3. Retrieved 15 April 2013.
  14. Ross (1896), p. 9.
  15. Ross (1896), p. 13.
  16. "Egerton Ryerson". Canadian Encyclopedia. Retrieved 27 May 2013.
  17. Egerton Ryerson; Ontario. Dept. of Education (1847). Report on a system of public elementary instruction for upper Canada. Printedby Lovell and Gibson. Retrieved 27 May 2013.
  18. Hardy, Edwin Austen (1950). Cochrane, Honora M. (ed.). Centennial Story: The Board of Education for the City of Toronto 1850–1950. Toronto, ON: Thomas Nelson and Sons (Canada) Limited.
  19. Gelman, Susan (1991). "Chapter 4: The 'Feminization' of the High School: Women Secondary Schoolteachers in Toronto: 1871–1930". In Prentice, Alison; Heaps, Ruby (eds.). Gender and Education in Ontario: An Historical Reader. Toronto, ON: Canadian Scholars' Press. pp. 72–73.
  20. Oreopoulos, Philip (2005). "Canadian Compulsory School Laws and Their Impact on Educational Attainment and Future Earnings" (PDF). Statistics Canada.
  21. "Annual Report on Ontario's Publicly Funded Schools 2013". People for Education. 27 May 2013. p. 41. Retrieved 22 June 2013.
  22. Fullan Report (PDF)
  23. McLaren, Kristin (1 May 2004). ""We had no desire to be set apart": Forced Segregation of Black Students in Canada West Public Schools and Myths of British Egalitarianism". Histoire sociale / Social History. ISSN 1918-6576.
  24. "Racial Segregation of Black People in Canada | The Canadian Encyclopedia". www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca. Retrieved 6 April 2020.
  25. Reynolds, Graham; Robson, Wanda (2016). Viola Desmond's Canada: A History of Blacks and racial segregation in the promised land. Black Point, NS: Fernwood Publishing.
  26. Smardz Frost, K.; Walls, B.; Bates Neary, H.; Armstrong, F.H. (2009). Ontario's African-Canadian Heritage: Collected writings by Fred Landon, 1918–1967. Toronto, ON: Natural Heritage Books.
  27. Bradburn, Jamie (26 February 2018). "The story of Ontario's last segregated Black school". TVO. Retrieved 14 June 2020.
  28. "Racial Segregation of Asian Canadians | The Canadian Encyclopedia". www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca. Retrieved 6 April 2020.
  29. Stanley, Timothy J. (1 October 1990). "White Supremacy, Chinese Schooling, and School Segregation in Victoria: The Case of the Chinese Students'Strike, 1922-23". Historical Studies in Education. 2 (2): 287–305. doi:10.32316/hse/rhe.v2i2.1318. ISSN 0843-5057.
  30. Roy, Patricia E. (1 October 1992). "The Education of Japanese Children in the British Columbia Interior Housing Settlements During World War Two". Historical Studies in Education. 4 (2): 211–231. doi:10.32316/hse/rhe.v4i2.969. ISSN 0843-5057.
  31. "Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada (TRC)". www.trc.ca. Retrieved 13 November 2018.
  32. "FAQs: Truth and Reconciliation Commission | CBC News". CBC. Retrieved 13 November 2018.
  33. "Woodland Cultural Centre".
  34. "Law Document English View". Ontario.ca. 24 July 2014. Retrieved 5 July 2019.
  35. Human Rights Code, R.S.O. 1990, Chapter H.19
  36. "Strengthening the rule of law through education: a guide for policymakers". 2019. ISBN 978-92-3-100308-0.
  37. School Board Fnding Projections for 2012–2013, retrieved January 2013
  38. Education Facts at the Ministry of Education
  39. Section 21(1) of the Education Act
  40. Structure at Teach in Ontario
  41. Pecoskie, Teri (9 April 2012). "A cap on the victory lap". Hamilton Spectator. Metroland Media Group Ltd. Retrieved 15 October 2012.
  42. Quick Facts – Ontario Schools, 2005–06. Retrieved 1 November 2009.
  43. "People for Education annual report 2009" (PDF). People for Education.
  44. For example, ALPHA Alternative School
  45. Ontario, Government of. "Curriculum". www.edu.gov.on.ca. Retrieved 5 July 2019.
  46. Brown & Popplewell, Louise & Brett (2008). "Board okays black-focused school". Toronto Star.
  47. TVO. "Niagara's low-income school".
  48. Eden High School. "DSBN Alternative School". Archived from the original on 13 October 2011.
  49. Sections 21.2 and 8(2) of the Education Act
  50. Private schools at Our Kids
  51. Section 16.1 of the Education Act
  52. Definition of "private school" in section 1.1 of the Education Act
  53. Ontario Private Schools. "social contexts".
  54. "Public and private elementary and secondary education expenditures". CANSIM – 478-0014 – Public and private elementary and secondary education expenditures. Statistics Canada. 7 May 2015. Retrieved 12 May 2015.
  55. "Defund Ontario's Catholic schools - Macleans.ca". www.macleans.ca. Retrieved 5 July 2019.
  56. Nolan, Daniel (18 January 2011). "Halton Catholic Board drops ban on gay-straight clubs". The Hamilton Spectator. ISSN 1189-9417. Retrieved 5 July 2019.
  57. UNESCO Religion Declarations
  58. "Fast Facts". OneSchoolSystem.org. Retrieved 5 July 2019.
  59. "Ontarians want public, Catholic schools to merge: poll". CBC News. CBC. Archived from the original on 4 November 2012. Retrieved 19 October 2014.
  60. Ontario, Government of. "Who's responsible for your child's education?". www.edu.gov.on.ca. Retrieved 5 July 2019.
  61. "Burkevale". Burkevale. Retrieved 5 July 2019.
  62. "Welcome to Protestant Separate School Board | School Board". www.pssbp.ca. Retrieved 5 July 2019.
  63. People for Education – Links
  64. People for Education – About
  65. Society for Quality Education – About Archived 21 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine
  66. "Welcome studentsurvey.ca - BlueHost.com". www.studentsurvey.ca. Retrieved 5 July 2019.
  67. People for Education
  68. Ontario, Government of. "School Climate Surveys". www.edu.gov.on.ca. Retrieved 5 July 2019.
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.