List of Republicans who oppose the 2020 Donald Trump presidential campaign

This is a list of Republicans and conservatives who have declined to endorse the re-election of incumbent Donald Trump, the 2020 Republican Party presumptive nominee for President of the United States. Among them are former Republicans who left the party in 2016 or later due to their opposition to Trump, Republicans who endorsed a different candidate, and Republican presidential primary election candidates that announced opposition to Trump as the presumptive nominee.

Federal officials

Former presidents

George W. Bush

• George W. Bush, President of the United States (2001–2009); Governor of Texas (1995–2000)[1]

Former cabinet-level officials

Colin Powell

• Chuck Hagel, U.S. Secretary of Defense (2013–2015), U.S. Senator from Nebraska (1997–2009)[2] (endorsed Joe Biden)
• John F. Kelly, United States Secretary of Homeland Security (2017), White House Chief of Staff (2017–2019)[3]
• Ray LaHood, U.S. Secretary of Transportation (2009–2013), U.S. Representative from IL-18 (1995–2009) (endorsed Joe Biden)[4]
• Jim Mattis, U.S. Secretary of Defense (2017–2019)[5]
• Colin Powell, U.S. Secretary of State (2001–2005), Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (1989–1993), United States National Security Advisor (1987–1989) (endorsed Joe Biden)[6]
• Tom Ridge, United States Secretary of Homeland Security (2003–2005); Homeland Security Advisor (2001–2003); Governor of Pennsylvania (1995–2001)[7]
• Christine Todd Whitman, Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency (2001–2003), Governor of New Jersey (1994–2001)[8] (endorsed Joe Biden)

Other executive branch officials

• Bruce Bartlett, author, historian, policy advisor to Ronald Reagan (former Republican, now Independent; previously endorsed Elizabeth Warren and then endorsed Joe Biden)[9][10]
• John Bolton, United States National Security Advisor (2018–2019)[11]
• Bill Kristol, Chief of Staff to the Vice President (1989–1993), founder of The Weekly Standard, editor of The Bulwark (endorsed Joe Biden)[12]
• Rosario Marin, Treasurer of the United States (2001–2003) (endorsed Joe Biden)[13]
• Omarosa Manigault Newman, Director of Communications for the Office of Public Liaison (2017–2018), reality television star (independent as of 2019)[14]
• Anthony Scaramucci, White House Communications Director (2017) (endorsed Joe Biden)[15]
• Miles Taylor, Homeland Security chief of staff (2017–2019) (endorsed Joe Biden)[16]

U.S. Senators

Mitt Romney

Current

• Susan Collins, U.S. Senator from Maine (1997–present) (declines to make a 2020 endorsement)[17]
• Lisa Murkowski, U.S. Senator from Alaska (2002–present)[18]
• Mitt Romney, U.S. Senator from Utah (2019–present), Governor of Massachusetts (2003–2007), 2012 nominee for President[19]
• Ben Sasse, U.S. Senator from Nebraska (2015–present)[20]

Former

• David Durenberger, Chair of the Senate Intelligence Committee (1985–1987), U.S. Senator from Minnesota (1978–1995) (endorsed Joe Biden)
• Jeff Flake, U.S. Senator from Arizona (2013–2019), U.S. Representative from AZ-06 (2003–2013) and AZ-01 (2001–2003) (endorsed Joe Biden)[21]
• Slade Gorton, U.S. Senator from Washington (1981–1987, 1989–2001)[22]
• Gordon J. Humphrey, U.S. Senator from (1979–1990) (former Republican, registered independent since 2016, endorsed Joe Biden)[23]
• John Warner, U.S. Senator from Virginia (1979–2009), Chair of the Senate Armed Services Committee (2003–2007), Chair of the Senate Rule Committee (1995–1999), United States Secretary of the Navy (1972–1974), Under Secretary of the Navy (1969–1972) (endorsed Joe Biden)[24]

U.S. Representatives

Current

Justin Amash

• Justin Amash, U.S. Representative from MI-03 (2011–present) (left Republican Party in 2019, currently a Libertarian)[25]
• Francis Rooney, U.S. Representative from FL-19 (2017–present)[26]
• Fred Upton, U.S. Representative from MI-06 (1987–present)[27]

Former

• Tom Coleman, U.S. Representative from MO-06 (1976–1993)[28]
• Ryan Costello, U.S. Representative from PA-06 (2015–2019)[29]
• Charlie Dent, U.S. Representative from PA-15 (2005–2019)[30]
• Charles Djou, U.S. Representative from HI-01 (2010–2011) (Republican until 2018, Independent since 2018)[31] (endorsed Joe Biden)
• Mickey Edwards, U.S. Representative from OK-05 (1977–1993)[32]
• Richard L. Hanna, U.S. Representative from NY-24 (2011–2013), NY-22 (2013–2017) (deceased)[33]
• Amo Houghton, U.S. Representative from NY-34 (1987–1993), NY-31 (1993–2003), and NY-29 (2003–2005) (deceased)[34]
• Bob Inglis, U.S. Representative from SC-04 (1993-1999, 2005-2011) [35]
• David Jolly, U.S. Representative from FL-13 (2014–2017), independent as of 2018[36]
• Frank LoBiondo, U.S. Representative from NJ-02 (1995–2019)[37]
• Susan Molinari, U.S. Representative from NY-14 (1990–1993) and NY-13 (1993–1997)[38] (endorsed Joe Biden)
• Reid Ribble, U.S. Representative from WI-08 (2011–2017)[39]
• Ileana Ros-Lehtinen, U.S. Representative from FL-27 (1989–2019)[40]
• Joe Walsh, U.S. Representative from IL-08 (2011–2013), 2020 candidate for president (Republican before 2020, now Independent, endorsed Joe Biden)[41]

State and territorial executive officials

Governors

Current

• Charlie Baker, Governor of Massachusetts since 2015[42]
• Larry Hogan, Governor of Maryland since 2015[43]
• Phil Scott, Governor of Vermont since 2017, Lieutenant Governor of Vermont from 2011–2017[44]

Former

John Kasich

Arnold Schwarzenegger

• Jeb Bush, 43rd Governor of Florida (1999–2007), Secretary of Commerce of Florida (1987–1988), Republican candidate for President in 2016[45]
• John Kasich, Governor of Ohio (2011–2019), U.S. Representative from OH-12 (1983–2001) (endorsed Joe Biden)[46]
• George Pataki, Governor of New York (1995–2006) and 2016 presidential candidate (Declined a 2020 endorsement)[47]
• Arnold Schwarzenegger, Governor of California (2003–2011)[48]
• Jane Swift, Governor of Massachusetts (2001–2003)[49]
• Bill Weld, Governor of Massachusetts (1991–1997) and 2016 Libertarian Party nominee for Vice President of the United States (endorsed Joe Biden)[50]

Lieutenant Governors

Current

• Karyn Polito, Lieutenant Governor of Massachusetts since 2015[51]

State and territorial representatives

Former

• Jim Cunneen, California State Representative from District 24 (1994–2000) (endorsed Joe Biden)[13]
• Chris Vance, Washington State Representative from District 31 (1991–1994), Chair of the Washington Republican Party (2001–2006),[52] Republican candidate for US Senate in 2016 (former Republican, Independent since 2017, endorsed Joe Biden)[53]

Judges

Former

• Robert F. Orr, Justice of the North Carolina Supreme Court (1994–2004)[54]

Municipal and local officials

Mayors

Current

• Michael Taylor, Mayor of Sterling Heights, MI (2014–present) (endorsed Joe Biden)[55]

Local legislators

Current

• Mark Kersey, San Diego City Council (2012–present) (former Republican, Independent since 2019)[56]

Former military

Navy

• William McRaven, four star admiral[57]

Party officials

State party chairs

Former

• Matt Borges, Chair of the Ohio Republican Party (2013–2017) (endorsed Joe Biden)[58]
• Jennifer Horn, Chair of the New Hampshire Republican Party (2013–2017), 2008 nominee for NH-02 (endorsed Joe Biden)[59]

Activists and public figures

Ann Coulter

Steve Schmidt

• Max Boot, author, consultant, military historian, columnist for The Washington Post (Republican before 2016, now Independent, endorsed Joe Biden)[60]
• Mona Charen, journalist[61]
• George Conway, attorney, co-founder of The Lincoln Project (Republican before 2018, now Independent, endorsed Joe Biden)[62]
• Ann Coulter, far-right media pundit and author[63]
• Mindy Finn, political consultant, strategist, and activist (Independent running mate for Evan McMullin in 2016)[64]
• David Frum, journalist and commentator, speechwriter for president George W. Bush[65]
• Robert Kagan, historian (independent as of 2016)[66]
• Sarah Longwell, publisher of The Bulwark, former board chair of the Log Cabin Republicans (endorsed Joe Biden)[67]
• Evan McMullin, former CIA agent, ran as an independent in 2016 (independent as of 2016)[68]
• Ana Navarro, political commentator and Republican strategist (endorsed Joe Biden)[69]
• Tom Nichols, national security affairs scholar[70]
• Steve Schmidt, chief strategist for the John McCain 2008 presidential campaign, co-founder of The Lincoln Project (Republican before 2018, now Independent, endorsed Joe Biden)[71]
• Mac Stipanovich, political activist and strategist (Republican before 2019, now Democratic, endorsed Joe Biden)[72]
• Sully Sullenberger, former U.S. Air Force captain and commercial airline pilot during the water landing of US Airways Flight 1549 (former Republican, endorsed Joe Biden)[73]
• Charlie Sykes, conservative talk show radio host, founder of The Bulwark (endorsed Joe Biden)[74]
• John Weaver, political consultant, chief strategist for the John Kasich 2016 presidential campaign, co-founder of The Lincoln Project (endorsed Joe Biden)[9]
• George Will, journalist, columnist for The Washington Post (Republican before 2016, now Independent, endorsed Joe Biden)[75]
• Rick Wilson, political strategist, media consultant, author, co-founder of The Lincoln Project (endorsed Joe Biden)[71]
• Benjamin Wittes, journalist[76]

Business executives and leaders

• Mike Fernandez, founder of MBF Healthcare Partners[77][78]
• Carly Fiorina, Chair (2000–2005), President and CEO (1999–2005) of Hewlett-Packard, 2016 Republican candidate for president, 2010 California Republican nominee for Senate (endorsed Joe Biden)[79][80]
• Cindy McCain, businesswoman and philanthropist[81]
• Meg Whitman, CEO of Quibi, CEO of Hewlett Packard Enterprise (2011–2018), CEO of eBay (1998–2008), 2010 Republican nominee for Governor of California (endorsed Joe Biden)[82]

Media personalities

Meghan McCain

• Meghan McCain, daughter of former Arizona Senator and 2008 Republican Presidential nominee John McCain, co-host of The View (endorsed Joe Biden)[83]

Organizations

• The Lincoln Project, Republican Anti-Trump PAC[84]
• Republican Voters Against Trump[85]
• Reagan Foundation, foundation of former president Ronald Reagan (1981–1989)[86]

See also

• List of Republicans who opposed the 2016 Donald Trump presidential campaign
• Endorsements in the 2020 Republican Party presidential primaries
• List of Donald Trump 2020 presidential campaign endorsements
• List of Joe Biden 2020 presidential campaign endorsements
• Never Trump movement

References

1. Justin, Raga (June 6, 2020). "George W. Bush won't support Donald Trump's reelection, report says". The Texas Tribune. Retrieved August 13, 2020.
2. Epstein, Kayla. "Obama Is Staying Silent on the 2020 Democratic Primary, but Some of His Top Advisers Are Endorsing Joe Biden". Business Insider.
3. Pengelly, Marin (June 5, 2020). "John Kelly says Americans should 'look harder at who we elect'". Retrieved August 14, 2020.
4. Lim, Naomi (December 19, 2019). "Former Republican Lawmaker Backs Biden, Bucking Trump Campaign Co-Chairman Son". The Washington Examiner. Retrieved January 17, 2020.
5. Seligman, Lara; Lippman, Daniel (June 4, 2020). "Mattis goes after Trump: The president 'tries to divide us'". Retrieved August 14, 2020.
6. Harvey, Susan; Shumaker, Lisa (June 7, 2020). "Colin Powell Endorses Joe Biden for President". Reuters. Retrieved June 7, 2020.
7. "Former Pa. Gov. Tom Ridge says Trump asking a foreign leader for a political favor is an 'abuse of power'". December 11, 2019. Retrieved August 16, 2020.
8. Heyboer, Kelly (October 31, 2020). "This ex-Gov. is waging a one-woman war on Trump from her N.J. farm". Retrieved August 14, 2020.
9. Torres, Ella (March 4, 2020). "'Return decency to the White House': GOP figures cast their votes for Biden, Warren". ABC News. Retrieved April 13, 2020.
10. Bartlett, Bruce (April 13, 2020). "Ex-Republican on Trump Coronavirus Failures: Our Lives Depend on Electing Joe Biden". USA Today.
11. Sheth, Sonam (August 10, 2020). "Exclusive: John Bolton on Trump's performance, the 2020 election, foreign interference, and COVID-19". Retrieved August 14, 2020.
12. Krawczyk, Kathryn (March 2, 2020). "Bill Kristol Declares Joe Biden 'The Simple Answer' for Beating Trump". The Week.
13. Wiley, Hannah (July 2, 2020). "These California Republicans Will Raise Money and Campaign against Trump's Reelection". The Sacramento Bee.
14. "Richard Borreca: Anti-Trump views leave Republican conservatives, such as Charles Djou, without a party". February 8, 2020. Retrieved August 18, 2020.
15. Bowden, John (March 4, 2020). "Scaramucci: 'Of Course I'll Campaign' for Biden". The Hill. Retrieved March 4, 2020.
16. Paz, Isabella Grullón; Martin, Jonathan (August 17, 2020). "All the Republicans Who Have Decided Not to Support Trump". Retrieved August 18, 2020.
17. "Susan Collins withholds support from Trump despite endorsing previous GOP presidential nominees". CNN. July 21, 2020. Retrieved August 13, 2020.
18. Kilgore, Ed (June 4, 2020). "With Murkowski 'Struggling' Over Trump Vote, He Says He'll Back Her Opponent". Retrieved August 13, 2020.
19. Justin, Raga (June 6, 2020). "George W. Bush won't support Donald Trump's reelection, report says". The Texas Tribune. Retrieved August 13, 2020.
20. Allen, Mike (April 9, 2020). "Ben Sasse emerges as GOP Trump critic ahead of November". Axios. Retrieved August 13, 2020.
21. Connolly, Griffin (April 28, 2020). "Retired Republican Senator Jeff Flake Will Vote for Biden over Trump and Says GOP Needs 'A Sound Defeat' in 2020 Election". The Independent. Retrieved April 28, 2020.
22. Brunner, Jim (October 31, 2019). "House justified in impeaching Trump, says former U.S. Sen. Slade Gorton, who famously supported Nixon's resignation". Retrieved August 16, 2020.
23. "Gordon Humphrey Endorses Joe Biden". New England Cable News. January 8, 2020. Retrieved January 29, 2020.
24. Schapiro, Jeff E. (March 1, 2020). "Former Sen. John Warner Endorses Joe Biden". Richmond Times-Dispatch.
25. "Amash says Jorgensen will show America a better way". Jo20. July 10, 2020. Retrieved July 18, 2020.
26. Martin, Jonathan (June 6, 2020). "Vote for Trump? These Republican Leaders Aren't on the Bandwagon". The New York Times. Retrieved August 13, 2020.
27. Bravendee, Robin (March 16, 2020). "Upton may face toughest race in decades, hasn't 'thought about' endorsing Trump". Retrieved August 17, 2020.
28. Coleman, Tom (May 13, 2020). "Ex-congressman: Val Demings the right choice for vice president". Retrieved August 18, 2020. Text " Commentary" ignored (help)
29. Glueck, Katie (February 11, 2019). "These are the Democrats winning the 'Never Trump' Republican primary". Retrieved August 15, 2020.
30. Quinn, Melissa (April 19, 2018). "GOP Rep. Charlie Dent: 'I'm not prepared' to back Trump in 2020". Retrieved August 17, 2020.
31. Borreca, Richard (July 19, 2020). "Richard Borreca: Anti-Trump views leave Republican conservatives, such as Charles Djou, without a party". Retrieved August 18, 2020.
32. Vogel, Kenneth P. (May 24, 2018). "Concerned by Trump, Some Republicans Quietly Align With Democrats". Retrieved August 15, 2020.
33. Harding, Robert (October 23, 2018). "Why ex-GOP Rep. Richard Hanna endorsed Anthony Brindisi, a Democrat, for Congress". Retrieved August 17, 2020.
34. Zremski, Jerry (July 25, 2018). "91 and out of Congress, former Rep. Amo Houghton is 'scared for the country'". Retrieved August 18, 2020.
35. Connor, Eric (October 31, 2019). "Inglis draws parallels to Third Reich in arguing for SC to have GOP presidential primary". Retrieved August 19, 2020.
36. Glueck, Katie (February 11, 2019). "These are the Democrats winning the 'Never Trump' Republican primary". Retrieved August 15, 2020.
37. Leibovich, Mark (November 9, 2018). "A Pre-Trump Republican Rides the Blue Wave Out to Sea". Retrieved August 17, 2020.
38. Paz, Isabella Grullón; Martin, Jonathan (August 17, 2020). "All the Republicans Who Have Decided Not to Support Trump". Retrieved August 18, 2020.
39. Schneider, Doug (April 26, 2018). "Ex-Rep. Reid Ribble says he's a conservative but 'rarely identifies' as Republican anymore". Retrieved August 17, 2020.
40. Nicol, Ryan (May 30, 2018). "Ileana Ros-Lehtinen praises possible Democratic replacement". Retrieved August 17, 2020.
41. Siu, Benjamin; King, Lauren (March 18, 2020). "Biden Projected to Win Arizona, Florida and Illinois Democratic Primaries". ABC News. Retrieved March 18, 2020. Former long-shot Trump challenger and one-time Republican congressman Joe Walsh announced on Twitter Tuesday he voted for a Democrat for the first time for president, casting his ballot for Joe Biden. Walsh's home state of Illinois is voting today.
42. Lucas, Peter (July 4, 2020). "What Charlie Baker faces should he seek a third term". Retrieved August 13, 2020.
43. Nelson, Steven (July 26, 2020). "Larry Hogan: Trump cabinet member urged me to run in Republican primaries". Retrieved August 13, 2020.
44. "Scott says he won't vote for Trump". July 7, 2020. Retrieved August 13, 2020.
45. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/06/us/politics/trump-biden-republicans-voters.html
46. Pelzer, Jeremy (July 20, 2020). "Ex-Gov. John Kasich slated to speak at the Democratic National Convention for Joe Biden". Cleveland.
47. Levine, Jon (July 18, 2020). "Ex-Gov. George Pataki warns COVID-19, poor leadership have Big Apple on the brink". Retrieved August 14, 2020.
48. Kurtz, Judy (October 8, 2019). "Schwarzenegger on voting Trump 2020: 'I doubt it'". Retrieved August 16, 2020.
49. Jonas, Michael (June 16, 2019). "A Swift return". Retrieved August 16, 2020.
50. Woodall, Hunter (October 24, 2019). "Former Mass. Gov. Bill Weld: I'd Vote For Biden 'In A Heartbeat' Against Trump". CBS Boston.
51. Ebben, Paula (September 20, 2019). "Lt. Gov. Karyn Polito On 2020 Election, Political Future". Retrieved August 14, 2020.
52. "Our Campaigns - WA Republican Party Chair - Convention Race - Mar 14, 2001". www.ourcampaigns.com.
53. Vance, Chris (April 17, 2020). "2020 Could Usher in a New Era of One-Party Dominance". Retrieved August 15, 2020.
54. Glueck, Katie (February 11, 2019). "These are the Democrats winning the 'Never Trump' Republican primary". Retrieved August 15, 2020.
55. Sargent, Greg (March 10, 2020). "GOP mayor in pro-Trump county explains his surprise vote for Biden p". Retrieved August 18, 2020.
56. "San Diego City Councilman Mark Kersey endorses Mike Bloomberg for President". March 1, 2020. Retrieved August 18, 2020.
57. Paz, Isabella Grullón; Martin, Jonathan (August 17, 2020). "All the Republicans Who Have Decided Not to Support Trump". Retrieved August 18, 2020.
58. Treene, Alayna; Swan, Jonathan (June 17, 2020). "Scoop: Republican Operatives Launch Pro-Biden Super PAC". Axios. Retrieved June 17, 2020.
59. "Spoiler? Amash's 3rd-Party Presidential Bid Raises Concerns". The New York Times. Associated Press. April 30, 2020. Retrieved May 5, 2020.
60. Boot, Max (April 15, 2020). "Republicans Who Don't Like Trump Have No Excuses: Endorse Biden". The Washington Post. Retrieved April 16, 2020.
61. Vogel, Kenneth P. (May 24, 2018). "Concerned by Trump, Some Republicans Quietly Align With Democrats". Retrieved August 15, 2020.
62. Epstein, Kayla (March 3, 2020). "George Conway, Kellyanne Conway's Husband, Tweets Photo of His Max Donation to Joe Biden's Campaign". Business Insider.
63. Morton, Victor. "Ann Coulter turns on Trump: 'Most disloyal actual retard that has ever set foot in the Oval Office'". Retrieved August 14, 2020.
64. Vogel, Kenneth P. (May 24, 2018). "Concerned by Trump, Some Republicans Quietly Align With Democrats". Retrieved August 15, 2020.
65. Vogel, Kenneth P. (May 24, 2018). "Concerned by Trump, Some Republicans Quietly Align With Democrats". Retrieved August 15, 2020.
66. Vogel, Kenneth P. (May 24, 2018). "Concerned by Trump, Some Republicans Quietly Align With Democrats". Retrieved August 15, 2020.
67. Longwell, Sarah (March 9, 2020). "'Never Trump' Republicans Will Support Biden, Not Sanders". The New York Times.
68. Vogel, Kenneth P. (May 24, 2018). "Concerned by Trump, Some Republicans Quietly Align With Democrats". Retrieved August 15, 2020.
69. "'CNN Republican commentator Ana Navarro: "Damn right, I donated to Joe Biden"". CNN Commentary. May 8, 2020.
70. Glueck, Katie (February 11, 2019). "These are the Democrats winning the 'Never Trump' Republican primary". Retrieved August 15, 2020.
71. Conway, George; Galen, Reed; Schmidt, Steve; Weaver, John; Wilson, Rick (April 15, 2020). "We've Never Backed a Democrat for President. But Trump Must Be Defeated". The Washington Post.
72. Stipanovich, Mac (March 4, 2020). "Why This Former Republican Voted for Joe Biden". Tampa Bay Times. Retrieved April 7, 2020.
73. "Sullenberger Joins Joe Biden at Henderson Rally". Las Vegas Review-Journal. February 14, 2020. Retrieved February 21, 2020.
74. Bruni, Frank (July 11, 2020). "The Republicans Who Want to Destroy Trump". The New York Times.
75. Will, George (April 29, 2020). "Only One of These Candidates Is Actually Able to Stand up to China". The Washington Post.
76. Vogel, Kenneth P. (May 24, 2018). "Concerned by Trump, Some Republicans Quietly Align With Democrats". Retrieved August 15, 2020.
77. Fineout, Gary (September 18, 2019). "'I'm very scared about our future': Florida billionaire pitches jungle primary to fight political extremism". Retrieved August 15, 2020.
78. Glueck, Katie (February 11, 2019). "These are the Democrats winning the 'Never Trump' Republican primary". Retrieved August 15, 2020.
79. Forgey, Quint (June 25, 2020). "Fiorina Says She'll Vote for Biden over Trump". Politico. Retrieved June 25, 2020.
80. Dovere, Edward-Isaac (June 25, 2020). "She Wanted to Be a Republican President. She's Voting for Biden". The Atlantic. Retrieved June 25, 2020.
81. Justin, Raga (June 6, 2020). "George W. Bush won't support Donald Trump's reelection, report says". The Texas Tribune. Retrieved August 13, 2020.
82. Schleifer, Theodore (May 27, 2020). "Tech Billionaires Are Plotting Sweeping, Secret Plans to Boost Joe Biden". Vox. Retrieved July 3, 2020.
83. Respers France, Lisa (April 23, 2020). "Meghan McCain Says Her Pick for President Shouldn't Be a Surprise". CNN. Retrieved April 23, 2020.
84. "Republican Groups Backing Biden Get Attention. Their Impact On Voters Is Less Clear". July 9, 2020. Retrieved August 15, 2020.
85. Warren, Michael (May 28, 2020). "New GOP group launches $10 million campaign to get Republicans to vote for Biden over Trump". CNN. Retrieved August 18, 2020.
86. Quinn, Melissa (July 27, 2020). "Trump targets Reagan Foundation after it asks campaign, RNC to stop using former president's likeness". Retrieved August 14, 2020.