Viridiplantae

Viridiplantae (literally "green plants")[5] are a clade of eukaryotic organisms that comprise approximately 450,000–500,000 species and play an important roles in both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.[6] They are made up of the green algae, which are primarily aquatic, and the land plants (embryophytes), which emerged within them.[7][8][9] Green algae traditionally excludes the land plants, rendering them a paraphyletic group. Since the realization that the embryophytes emerged from within the green algae, some authors are starting to include them.[10][11][12][13][14] They have cells with cellulose in their cell walls, and primary chloroplasts derived from endosymbiosis with cyanobacteria that contain chlorophylls a and b and lack phycobilins.

For an explanation of very similar terms, see plant and green algae.

Viridiplantae
An assortment of thallophyte Viridiplantae in a rock pool, Taiwan
Scientific classification
Domain: Eukaryota
(unranked): Diaphoretickes
(unranked): Archaeplastida
(unranked): Viridiplantae
Cavalier-Smith, 1981
Subgroups
Synonyms
  • Plantae Copeland, 1938, 1956[1][2]
  • Euchlorophyta Whittaker, 1969[3]
  • Chlorophyta sensu van den Hoek & Jahns, 1978[4]
  • Chlorobionta Jeffrey 1982, emend. Bremer 1985, emend. Lewis and McCourt 2004
  • Chlorobiota Kendrick and Crane 1997
  • Chloroplastida Adl et al., 2005
  • Viridiplantae Cavalier-Smith 1981[5]
  • Phyta Barkley 1939 emed. Holt & Uidica 2007
  • Cormophyta Endlicher, 1836
  • Cormobionta Rothmaler, 1948
  • Euplanta Barkley, 1949
  • Telomobionta Takhtajan, 1964
  • Embryobionta Cronquist et al., 1966
  • Metaphyta Whittaker, 1969

In some classification systems, the group has been treated as a kingdom,[15] under various names, e.g. Viridiplantae, Chlorobionta, or simply Plantae, the latter expanding the traditional plant kingdom to include the green algae. Adl et al., who produced a classification for all eukaryotes in 2005, introduced the name Chloroplastida for this group, reflecting the group having primary chloroplasts with green chlorophyll. They rejected the name Viridiplantae on the grounds that some of the species are not plants, as understood traditionally.[16] The Viridiplantae are made up of two clades: Chlorophyta and Streptophyta as well as the basal Mesostigmatophyceae and Chlorokybophyceae.[17][18] Together with Rhodophyta and glaucophytes, Viridiplantae are thought to belong to a larger clade called Archaeplastida or Primoplantae.

A taxonomic evaluation of eukaryotes based on myosin distribution showed the Viridiplantae lost class-I myosins.[19]

Phylogeny and classification

Leliaert et al. 2012

Simplified phylogeny of the Viridiplantae, according to Leliaert et al. 2012.[20]

  • Viridiplantae
  • core chlorophytes

Cladogram

Below is a consensus reconstruction of green algal relationships, mainly based on molecular data.[22][20][21][23][12][24][25][18][26][27]

Viridiplantae/
 
 

Mesostigmatophyceae

 
 
 

Spirotaenia

 
 

Chlorokybophyceae

 
 
 
 
Chlorophyta
 
 
 
 
Tetraphytina
Chlorophytina
 
 
 

Ulvophyceae

 
 

Chlorophyceae

 
 
 

Trebouxiophyceae

 
 
 

Chlorodendrophyceae

 
 
 

Pedinophyceae

 
 
 

Prasinophytes Clade VIIA

 
 
 
 

Prasinophytes Clade VIIC

 
 

Pycnococcaceae

 
 
 
 

Nephroselmidophyceae

 
 
 
 

Mamiellophyceae

 
 

Pyramimonadales

 
 
 
Palmophyllophyceae
 

Palmophyllales

 
 

Prasinococcales

 
 
 
Streptophyta/
 

Klebsormidiophyceae

 
Phragmoplastophyta
 

Charophyceae

 
 
 
 
 

Mesotaeniaceae

 
 

Zygnematophyceae

 
 
 

Embryophytes (land plants)

 
 
 

Coleochaetophyceae

 
 
 
Charophyta
 
Green Algae

More conventionally, Mesostigmatophyceae, Spirotaenia, and Cholokybophyceae are basal Streptophyta.

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References
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  2. Copeland HF (1956). The Classification of Lower Organisms. Palo Alto: Pacific Books. p. 6.
  3. Whittaker RH (January 1969). "New concepts of kingdoms or organisms. Evolutionary relations are better represented by new classifications than by the traditional two kingdoms" (PDF). Science. 163 (3863): 150–60. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.403.5430. doi:10.1126/science.163.3863.150. PMID 5762760. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-11-17. Retrieved 2015-01-31.
  4. van den Hoek C, Jahns HM (1978). Einführung in die Phykologie (in German). Stuttgart: Georg Thieme Verlag. ISBN 9783135511016.
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  6. Leebens-Mack JH, Barker MS, Carpenter EJ, Deyholos MK, Gitzendanner MA, Graham SW, et al. (One Thousand Plant Transcriptomes Initiative) (October 2019). "One thousand plant transcriptomes and the phylogenomics of green plants". Nature. 574 (7780): 679–685. doi:10.1038/s41586-019-1693-2. PMC 6872490. PMID 31645766.
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  8. Becker B (2007). Function and evolution of the vacuolar compartment in green algae and land plants (Viridiplantae). International Review of Cytology. 264. pp. 1–24. doi:10.1016/S0074-7696(07)64001-7. ISBN 9780123742636. PMID 17964920.
  9. Kim E, Graham LE (July 2008). Redfield RJ (ed.). "EEF2 analysis challenges the monophyly of Archaeplastida and Chromalveolata". PLOS One. 3 (7): e2621. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0002621. PMC 2440802. PMID 18612431.
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  11. "Charophycean Green Algae Home Page". www.life.umd.edu. Retrieved 2018-02-24.
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  15. "Viridiplantae". Retrieved 2009-03-08.
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  17. Simon A, Glöckner G, Felder M, Melkonian M, Becker B (February 2006). "EST analysis of the scaly green flagellate Mesostigma viride (Streptophyta): implications for the evolution of green plants (Viridiplantae)". BMC Plant Biology. 6: 2. doi:10.1186/1471-2229-6-2. PMC 1413533. PMID 16476162.
  18. Sánchez-Baracaldo P, Raven JA, Pisani D, Knoll AH (September 2017). "Early photosynthetic eukaryotes inhabited low-salinity habitats". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 114 (37): E7737–E7745. doi:10.1073/pnas.1620089114. PMC 5603991. PMID 28808007.
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  21. Marin B (September 2012). "Nested in the Chlorellales or independent class? Phylogeny and classification of the Pedinophyceae (Viridiplantae) revealed by molecular phylogenetic analyses of complete nuclear and plastid-encoded rRNA operons". Protist. 163 (5): 778–805. doi:10.1016/j.protis.2011.11.004. PMID 22192529.
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