Psycho (1960 film)

Psycho is a 1960 American psychological horror thriller film directed and produced by Alfred Hitchcock, and written by Joseph Stefano. It stars Anthony Perkins, Janet Leigh, John Gavin, Vera Miles, and Martin Balsam, and was based on the 1959 novel of the same name by Robert Bloch. The film centers on an encounter between a secretary, Marion Crane (Leigh), who ends up at a secluded motel after stealing money from her employer, and the motel's owner-manager, Norman Bates (Perkins), and its aftermath.[8]

This article is about the 1960 film. For the 1998 remake, see Psycho (1998 film). For the sequels, see Psycho (franchise).

Psycho
Theatrical release poster by Macario Gómez Quibus[1]
Directed by	Alfred Hitchcock
Produced by	Alfred Hitchcock
Screenplay by	Joseph Stefano
Based on	Psycho by Robert Bloch
Starring	Anthony Perkins Vera Miles John Gavin Martin Balsam John McIntire Janet Leigh
Music by	Bernard Herrmann
Cinematography	John L. Russell
Edited by	George Tomasini
Production company	Shamley Productions
Distributed by	Paramount Pictures[N 1]
Release date	June 16, 1960 (1960-06-16) (DeMille Theatre) September 8, 1960 (1960-09-08) (United States) [3][4]
Running time	109 minutes
Country	United States[5]
Language	English
Budget	$806,947[6]
Box office	$50 million[7]

Psycho was seen as a departure from Hitchcock's previous film North by Northwest, having been filmed on a low budget, in black-and-white, and by a television crew. The film initially received mixed reviews, but outstanding box-office returns prompted critical reevaluation. Psycho was nominated for four Academy Awards, including Best Supporting Actress for Leigh and Best Director for Hitchcock.

Psycho is now considered one of Hitchcock's best films[9] and praised as a major work of cinematic art by international film critics and scholars. Often ranked among the greatest films of all time, it set a new level of acceptability for violence, deviant behavior and sexuality in American films,[10] and is widely considered to be the earliest example of the slasher film genre.

After Hitchcock's death in 1980, Universal Studios began producing follow-ups: three sequels, a remake, a made-for-television spin-off, and a prequel television series set in the 2010s. In 1992, the Library of Congress deemed the film "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant" and selected it for preservation in the National Film Registry.[11][12]

Plot

During a lunchtime tryst in a Phoenix, Arizona hotel, real-estate secretary Marion Crane and her boyfriend, Sam Loomis, discuss how they cannot afford to get married because of Sam's debts. After lunch, Marion returns to work, where a client leaves a $40,000 (equivalent to $351,000 in 2019) cash payment on a property. Marion's boss asks her to deposit the money in the bank and allows her to leave work early after she complains of a headache. Once home, she decides to steal the money and drive to Fairvale, California, where Sam lives.

En route to Fairvale, Marion stops her car on the side of the road and falls asleep. She is awakened the next morning by a California Highway Patrol officer who follows Marion after questioning her and growing suspicious about her nervous behavior. Marion stops at a Bakersfield, California automobile dealership and trades in her car, with its Arizona license plates, for a new one with California tags. The officer spots Marion at the car dealership and eyes her suspiciously as she abruptly drives away.

During a heavy rainstorm, Marion stops for the night at the Bates Motel and she hides the money inside a newpaper. The proprietor, Norman Bates, invites her to share a light dinner after she checks in. She accepts his invitation but overhears an argument between Norman and his mother about bringing a woman into their Gothic home, which sits perched above the motel. Instead they eat in the motel parlor, where he tells her about his life with his mother, who is mentally ill and forbids him to have a life apart from her.

Moved by Norman's story, Marion decides to drive back to Phoenix in the morning to return the stolen money, which she hides in a folded newspaper on the nightstand. As she showers, a shadowy figure stabs her to death. After seeing blood, Norman panics and runs to Marion's room, where he discovers her body. He cleans up the crime scene, putting Marion's corpse and her possessions – including (unbeknownst to him) the stolen money – into the trunk of her car and sinking it in the swamps near the motel.

A week later, Marion's sister Lila arrives in Fairvale and confronts Sam about Marion's whereabouts. Private investigator Milton Arbogast approaches them and confirms that Marion is wanted for stealing the $40,000. Arbogast sleuths the local motels and discovers Marion spent a night at the Bates Motel. He questions Norman, whose stammering and inconsistent answers arouse his suspicion. After Norman implies that Marion met his mother, Arbogast asks to speak with her, but Norman refuses to allow it. Arbogast updates Sam and Lila about his search for Marion and promises to phone again soon. He goes to the Bates' home in search of Norman's mother; as he reaches the top of the stairs, a shadowy figure stabs him to death.

When Lila and Sam do not hear from Arbogast, Sam visits the motel. Sam sees a figure in the house who he assumes is Mrs. Bates, but she ignores his knocking. Lila and Sam visit the local deputy sheriff, who informs them that Mrs. Bates died in a murder-suicide ten years ago. The sheriff concludes that Arbogast lied to Sam and Lila so he could pursue Marion and the money. Convinced that some ill has befallen Arbogast, Lila and Sam drive to the motel. Norman carries his mother from her room and hides her in the fruit cellar.

At the motel, Sam distracts Norman by engaging in conversation while Lila cases the property and sneaks inside the house. After Sam grills him, Norman becomes agitated, knocks Sam out, and rushes to the house. Lila hides in the cellar, where she finds Mrs. Bates in a chair. Lila turns her around and discovers she is a mummified corpse. Lila screams as Norman runs into the cellar, holding a chef's knife and wearing his mother's clothes and a wig. Before Norman can attack Lila, Sam – having regained consciousness – subdues him.

At the courthouse, a psychiatrist explains that Norman murdered Mrs. Bates and her lover ten years ago out of jealousy. Unable to bear the guilt, he stole her corpse and began to treat it as if she were still alive. He recreated his mother in his own mind as an alternate personality, dressing in her clothes and talking to himself in her voice. This "Mother" personality is as jealous and possessive as Mrs. Bates was while alive: whenever Norman feels attracted to a woman, "Mother" kills her. As "Mother", Norman killed two missing young girls before stabbing Marion and Arbogast to death. The psychiatrist says the "Mother" personality has taken permanent hold of Norman's mind. While Norman sits in a holding cell, "Mother's" voice-over protests that the murders were Norman's doing. Marion's car is towed from the swamp.

Cast

Anthony Perkins' performance as Norman Bates won him considerable critical praise.

• Anthony Perkins as Norman Bates
• Janet Leigh as Marion Crane
• Vera Miles as Lila Crane
• John Gavin as Sam Loomis
• Martin Balsam as Private Investigator Milton Arbogast
• John McIntire as Deputy Sheriff Al Chambers
• Simon Oakland as Dr. Richmond
• Frank Albertson as Tom Cassidy
• Pat Hitchcock as Caroline
• Vaughn Taylor as George Lowery
• Lurene Tuttle as Mrs. Chambers
• John Anderson as California Charlie
• Mort Mills as Highway Patrol Officer
• Virginia Gregg, Paul Jasmin, and Jeanette Nolan as the voice of Norma "Mother" Bates (uncredited). The three voices were used interchangeably, except for the last speech, which was performed by Gregg.[13]

Production

Development

Psycho is based on Robert Bloch's 1959 novel of the same name, loosely inspired by the case of convicted Wisconsin murderer and grave robber Ed Gein.[14] Both Gein (who lived just 64 kilometres (40 mi) from Bloch) and the story's protagonist Norman Bates were solitary murderers in isolated rural locations. Each had deceased, domineering mothers, had sealed off a room in their home as a shrine to her, and dressed in women's clothes. However, unlike Bates, Gein is not strictly considered a serial killer, having been charged with murder only twice.[15]

The Psycho set on the Universal Studios Lot, featuring a Ford Custom 300 similar to that driven by Janet Leigh in the film, is now part of the studio tour at the Universal Studios Hollywood theme park.

Peggy Robertson, Hitchcock's long-time assistant, read Anthony Boucher's positive review of the novel in his "Criminals at Large" column and decided to show the book to her employer; however, studio readers at Paramount Pictures already rejected its premise for a film.[16] Hitchcock acquired rights to the novel for $9,500[17] and reportedly ordered Robertson to buy all copies to preserve the novel's surprises.[16] Hitchcock, who had come to face genre competitors whose works were critically compared to his own, was seeking new material to recover from two aborted projects with Paramount: Flamingo Feather and No Bail for the Judge. He disliked stars' salary demands and trusted only a few people to choose prospective material, including Robertson.[18]

Paramount executives balked at Hitchcock's proposal and refused to provide his usual budget.[19] In response, Hitchcock offered to film Psycho quickly and cheaply in black and white using his Alfred Hitchcock Presents television series crew. Paramount executives rejected this cost-conscious approach, claiming their sound stages were booked, but the industry was in a slump. Hitchcock countered he personally would finance the project and film it at Universal-International using his Shamley Productions crew if Paramount would distribute. In lieu of his usual $250,000 director's fee, he proposed a 60% stake in the film negative. This combined offer was accepted, and Hitchcock went ahead in spite of naysaying from producer Herbert Coleman and Shamley Productions executive Joan Harrison.[20]

Novel adaptation

James P. Cavanagh, a writer on the Alfred Hitchcock Presents television series, wrote the original screenplay.[21] Hitchcock felt the script dragged and read like a television short horror story,[22] an assessment shared by an assistant.[21] Though Stefano had worked on only one film before, Hitchcock agreed to meet with him; despite Stefano's inexperience, the meeting went well and he was hired.[21]

The screenplay is relatively faithful to the novel, with a few notable adaptations by Hitchcock and Stefano. Stefano found the character of Norman Bates—who, in the book, is middle-aged, overweight, and more overtly unstable—unsympathetic, but became more intrigued when Hitchcock suggested casting Anthony Perkins.[22] Stefano eliminated Bates' drinking,[23] which evidently necessitated removing Bates' "becoming" the mother personality when in a drunken stupor. Also gone is Bates' interest in spiritualism, the occult and pornography.[24] Hitchcock and Stefano elected to open the film with scenes in Marion's life and not introduce Bates at all until 20 minutes into the film rather than open with Bates reading a history book as Bloch does.[23] Writer Joseph W. Smith notes that "Her story occupies only two of the novel's 17 chapters. Hitchcock and Stefano expanded this to nearly half the narrative".[25] He likewise notes there is no hotel tryst between Marion and Sam in the novel. For Stefano, the conversation between Marion and Norman in the hotel parlor in which she displays a maternal sympathy towards him makes it possible for the audience to switch their sympathies towards Norman Bates after Marion's murder.[26] When Lila Crane is looking through Norman's room in the film, she opens a book with a blank cover whose contents are unseen; in the novel, these are "pathologically pornographic" illustrations. Stefano wanted to give the audience "indications that something was quite wrong, but it could not be spelled out or overdone."[26] In his book of interviews with Hitchcock, François Truffaut notes that the novel "cheats" by having extended conversations between Norman and "Mother" and stating what Mother is "doing" at various given moments.[27]

The first name of the female protagonist was changed from Mary to Marion because a real Mary Crane existed in Phoenix.[28] Also changed is the novel's budding romance between Sam and Lila. Hitchcock preferred to focus the audience's attention on the solution to the mystery,[29] and Stefano thought such a relationship would make Sam Loomis seem cheap.[26] Instead of having Sam explain Norman's pathology to Lila, the film uses a psychiatrist.[30] (Stefano was in therapy dealing with his relationship with his own mother while writing the script.)[31] The novel is more violent than the film; for instance, Marion is beheaded in the shower as opposed to being stabbed to death.[21] Minor changes include changing Marion's telltale earring found after her death to a scrap of paper that failed to flush down the toilet. This provided some shock effect because toilets almost never were seen in American cinema in the 1960s.[32] The location of Arbogast's death was moved from the foyer to the stairwell. Stefano thought this would make it easier to conceal the truth about "Mother" without tipping that something was being hidden.[33] As Janet Leigh put it, this gave Hitchcock more options for his camera.[30]

Pre-production

Paramount, whose contract guaranteed another film by Hitchcock, did not want Hitchcock to make Psycho. Paramount was expecting No Bail for the Judge starring Audrey Hepburn, who became pregnant and had to bow out, leading Hitchcock to scrap the production. Their official stance was that the book was "too repulsive" and "impossible for films", and nothing but another of his star-studded mystery thrillers would suffice.[17][34] They did not like "anything about it at all" and denied him his usual budget.[17][34] In response Hitchcock financed the film's creation through his own Shamley Productions, shooting at Universal Studios under the Revue television unit.[19][35] The original Bates Motel and Bates house set buildings, which were constructed on the same stage as Lon Chaney Sr.'s The Phantom of the Opera, are still standing at the Universal Studios backlot in Universal City near Hollywood and are a regular attraction on the studio's tour.[36][37] As a further result of cost cutting, Hitchcock chose to film Psycho in black and white, keeping the budget under $1 million.[38] Other reasons for shooting in black and white were his desire to prevent the shower scene from being too gory and his admiration for Les Diaboliques's use of black and white.[39][40]

To keep costs down, and because he was most comfortable around them, Hitchcock took most of his crew from his television series Alfred Hitchcock Presents, including the cinematographer, set designer, script supervisor, and first assistant director.[41] He hired regular collaborators Bernard Herrmann as music composer, George Tomasini as editor, and Saul Bass for the title design and storyboarding of the shower scene. In all, his crew cost $62,000.[42]

Through the strength of his reputation, Hitchcock cast Leigh for a quarter of her usual fee, paying only $25,000 (in the 1967 book Hitchcock/Truffaut, Hitchcock said that Leigh owed Paramount one final film on her seven-year contract which she had signed in 1953).[43] His first choice, Leigh agreed after having only read the novel and making no inquiry into her salary.[28] Her co-star, Anthony Perkins, agreed to $40,000.[42] Both stars were experienced and proven box-office draws.[44]

Paramount did distribute the film, but four years later Hitchcock sold his stock in Shamley to Universal's parent company (MCA) and his remaining six films were made at and distributed by Universal Pictures.[35] After another four years, Paramount sold all rights to Universal.[35]

Filming

The film, independently produced and financed by Hitchcock, was shot at Revue Studios,[45] the same location as his television show. Psycho was shot on a tight budget of $807,000,[46] beginning on November 11, 1959, and ending on February 1, 1960.[47][48] Filming started in the morning and finished by six p.m. or earlier on Thursdays (when Hitchcock and his wife would dine at Chasen's).[49] Nearly the whole film was shot with 50 mm lenses on 35 mm cameras. This provided an angle of view similar to human vision, which helped to further involve the audience.[50]

Before shooting began in November, Hitchcock dispatched assistant director Hilton A. Green to Phoenix to scout locations and shoot the opening scene. The shot was supposed to be an aerial shot of Phoenix that slowly zoomed into the hotel window of a passionate Marion and Sam. Ultimately, the helicopter footage proved too shaky and had to be spliced with footage from the studio.[51] Another crew filmed day and night footage on Highway 99 between Gorman and Fresno, California for projection when Marion drives from Phoenix. Footage of her driving into Bakersfield to trade her car is also shown. They also provided the location shots for the scene in which she is discovered sleeping in her car by the highway patrolman.[51] In one street scene shot in downtown Phoenix, Christmas decorations were discovered to be visible; rather than re-shoot the footage, Hitchcock chose to add a graphic to the opening scene marking the date as "Friday, December the Eleventh".[52]

Green also took photos of a prepared list of 140 locations for later reconstruction in the studio. These included many real estate offices and homes such as those belonging to Marion and her sister.[51] He also found a girl who looked just like he imagined Marion and photographed her whole wardrobe, which would enable Hitchcock to demand realistic looks from Helen Colvig, the wardrobe supervisor.[51] The look of the Bates house was modeled on Edward Hopper's painting The House by the Railroad,[53] a fanciful portrait of the Second Empire Victorian home at 18 Conger Avenue in Haverstraw, New York.[54]

Both the leads, Perkins and Leigh, were given freedom to interpret their roles and improvise as long as it did not involve moving the camera.[55] An example of Perkins' improvisation is Norman's habit of eating candy corn.[56]

Throughout filming, Hitchcock created and hid various versions of the "Mother corpse" prop in Leigh's dressing room closet. Leigh took the joke well, and she wondered whether it was done to keep her on edge and thus more in character or to judge which corpse would be scarier for the audience.[57]

During shooting, Hitchcock was forced to uncharacteristically do retakes for some scenes. The final shot in the shower scene, which starts with an extreme close-up on Marion's eye and pulls up and out, proved difficult for Leigh because the water splashing in her face made her want to blink, and the cameraman had trouble as well because he had to manually focus while moving the camera.[55] Retakes were required for the opening scene because Hitchcock felt that Leigh and Gavin were not passionate enough.[58] Leigh had trouble saying "Not inordinately" for the real estate office scene, requiring additional retakes.[59] Lastly, the scene in which "Mother" is discovered required a complicated coordinating of the chair turning around, Vera Miles (as Lila Crane) hitting the light bulb, and a lens flare, which proved to be the sticking point. Hitchcock forced retakes until all three elements were to his satisfaction.[60]

According to Hitchcock, a series of shots with Arbogast going up the stairs in the Bates house before he is stabbed were done by assistant director Hilton A. Green, working with storyboard artist Saul Bass' drawings only while Hitchcock was incapacitated with the common cold. However, upon viewing the dailies of the shots, Hitchcock was forced to scrap them. He claimed they were "no good" because they did not portray "an innocent person but a sinister man who was going up those stairs".[61] Hitchcock later re-shot the scene, though a little of the cut footage made its way into the film. Filming the murder of Arbogast proved problematic owing to the overhead camera angle necessary to hide the film's twist. A camera track constructed on pulleys alongside the stairway together with a chairlike device had to be constructed and thoroughly tested over a period of weeks.[62]

Alfred Hitchcock's cameo is a signature occurrence in most of his films. In Psycho, he can be seen through a window—wearing a Stetson hat—standing outside Marion Crane's office.[63] Wardrobe mistress Rita Riggs has said that Hitchcock chose this scene for his cameo so that he could be in a scene with his daughter (who played one of Marion's colleagues). Others have suggested that he chose this early appearance in the film in order to avoid distracting the audience.[64]

Shower scene

The murder of Leigh's character in the shower is the film's pivotal scene and one of the best-known in all of cinema. As such, it spawned numerous myths and legends. It was shot from December 17–23, 1959, after Leigh had twice postponed the filming, firstly for a cold and then her period.[65] Seventy-seven different camera angles were used.[66] The finished scene runs three minutes and includes 50 cuts.[67] Most of the shots are extreme close-ups, except for medium shots in the shower directly before and directly after the murder. The combination of the close shots with their short duration makes the sequence feel more subjective than it would have been if the images were presented alone or in a wider angle, an example of the technique Hitchcock described as "transferring the menace from the screen into the mind of the audience".[68]

The shadowy figure from the shower scene

To capture the straight-on shot of the shower head, the camera had to be equipped with a long lens. The inner holes on the shower head were blocked and the camera placed a sufficient distance away so that the water, while appearing to be aimed directly at the lens, actually went around and past it.[69]

The soundtrack of screeching violins, violas, and cellos was an original all-strings piece by composer Bernard Herrmann titled "The Murder". Hitchcock originally intended to have no music for the sequence (and all motel scenes),[70] but Herrmann insisted he try his composition. Afterward, Hitchcock agreed it vastly intensified the scene, and nearly doubled Herrmann's salary.[71][72][73] The blood in the scene is reputed to have been Bosco chocolate syrup,[74] which shows up better on black-and-white film, and has more realistic density than stage blood.[75] The sound of the knife entering flesh was created by plunging a knife into a casaba melon.[76][77]

There are varying accounts whether Leigh was in the shower the entire time or a body double was used for some parts of the murder sequence and its aftermath. In an interview with Roger Ebert and in the book Alfred Hitchcock and the Making of Psycho, Leigh stated she was in the scene the entire time and Hitchcock used a stand-in only for the sequence in which Norman wraps Marion's body in a shower curtain and places it in the trunk of her car.[78] The 2010 book The Girl in Alfred Hitchcock's Shower by Robert Graysmith contradicts this, identifying Marli Renfro as Leigh's body double for some of the shower scene's shots.[79] Graysmith also stated that Hitchcock later acknowledged Renfro's participation in the scene.[80] Rita Riggs, who was in charge of the wardrobe, claims it was Leigh in the shower the entire time, explaining that Leigh did not wish to be nude and so she devised strategic items including pasties, moleskin, and bodystockings, to be pasted on Leigh for the scene.[81] Riggs and Leigh went through strip tease magazines that showed all the different costumes, but none of them worked because they all had tassels on them. Riggs says that this is when she and Leigh became acquainted.[82]

As you know, you could not take the camera and just show a nude woman, it had to be done impressionistically. So, it was done with little pieces of film, the head, the feet, the hand, etc. In that scene there were 78 pieces of film in about 45 seconds.

— Alfred Hitchcock, FilMagicians, Alfred Hitchcock interview on Psycho (1964), retrieved December 9, 2018

A popular myth emerged that, in order for Leigh's scream in the shower to sound realistic, ice-cold water was used. Leigh denied this on numerous occasions, saying the crew was accommodating, supplying hot water throughout the week-long shoot.[83] All of the screams are Leigh's.[13]

Another myth concerns Saul Bass, the graphic designer who created many of the title sequences of Hitchcock's films and storyboarded some of Psycho's scenes, claiming he had directed the shower scene. This was refuted by several figures associated with the film, including Leigh, who stated: "absolutely not! I have emphatically said this in any interview I've ever given. I've said it to his face in front of other people ... I was in that shower for seven days, and, believe me, Alfred Hitchcock was right next to his camera for every one of those seventy-odd shots."[84] Hilton A. Green, the assistant director, also refutes Bass' claim: "There is not a shot in that movie that I didn't roll the camera for. And I can tell you I never rolled the camera for Mr. Bass."[84] Roger Ebert, a longtime admirer of Hitchcock's work, summarily dismissed the rumor, stating, "It seems unlikely that a perfectionist with an ego like Hitchcock's would let someone else direct such a scene."[85]

Commentators such as Stephen Rebello and Bill Krohn have argued in favor of Bass' contribution to the scene in his capacity as visual consultant and storyboard artist.[86] Along with designing the opening credits, Bass is termed "Pictorial Consultant" in the credits. When interviewing Hitchcock in 1967, François Truffaut asked about the extent of Bass' contribution, to which Hitchcock replied that in addition to the titles, Bass had provided storyboards for the Arbogast murder (which he claimed to have rejected), but made no mention of Bass providing storyboards for the shower scene.[87] According to Bill Krohn's Hitchcock At Work, Bass' first claim to have directed the scene was in 1970, when he provided a magazine with 48 drawings used as storyboards as proof of his contribution.[88]

Krohn's analysis of the production of Psycho in his book Hitchcock at Work, while refuting Bass' claims for directing the scene, notes that these storyboards did introduce key aspects of the final scene—most notably, the fact that the killer appears as a silhouette, and details such as the close-ups of the slashing knife, Leigh's desperate outstretched arm, the shower curtain being torn off its hooks, and the transition from the hole of the drainage pipe to Marion Crane's dead eyes. Krohn notes that this final transition is highly reminiscent of the iris titles that Bass created for Vertigo.[88]

Krohn's research also notes that Hitchcock shot the scene with two cameras: one a BNC Mitchell, the other a handheld French Éclair camera which Orson Welles had used in Touch of Evil (1958). In order to create an ideal montage for the greatest emotional impact on the audience, Hitchcock shot a lot of footage of this scene which he trimmed down in the editing room. He even brought a Moviola on the set to gauge the footage required. The final sequence, which his editor George Tomasini worked on with Hitchcock's advice, however did not go far beyond the basic structural elements set up by Bass' storyboards.[88]

According to Donald Spoto in The Dark Side of Genius, Hitchcock's wife, Alma Reville, spotted a blooper in one of the last screenings of Psycho before its official release: after Marion was supposedly dead, one could see her blink. According to Patricia Hitchcock, talking in Laurent Bouzereau's "making of" documentary, Alma spotted that Leigh's character appeared to take a breath. In either case, the postmortem activity was edited out and was never seen by audiences.[21] Although Marion's eyes should be dilated after her death, the contact lenses necessary for this effect would have required six weeks of acclimation to wear them, so Hitchcock decided to forgo them.[89]

It is often claimed that, despite its graphic nature, the shower scene never once shows a knife puncturing flesh.[90][91][92] However, a frame by frame analysis of the sequence shows one shot in which the knife appears to penetrate Leigh's abdomen, but the effect may have been created by lighting and reverse motion.[93] Leigh herself was so affected by this scene when she saw it, that she no longer took showers unless she absolutely had to; she would lock all the doors and windows and would leave the bathroom and shower door open.[94] She never realized until she first watched the film "how vulnerable and defenseless one is".[21]

Leigh and Hitchcock fully discussed what the scene meant:

Marion had decided to go back to Phoenix, come clean, and take the consequence, so when she stepped into the bathtub it was as if she were stepping into the baptismal waters. The spray beating down on her was purifying the corruption from her mind, purging the evil from her soul. She was like a virgin again, tranquil, at peace.

— [84]

Film theorist Robin Wood also discusses how the shower washes "away her guilt". He comments upon the "alienation effect" of killing off the "apparent center of the film" with which spectators had identified.[95]

The scene was the subject of Alexandre O. Philippe's 2017 documentary 78/52, the title of which references the number of cuts and set-ups, respectively, that Hitchcock used to shoot it.[96][97]

Soundtrack

Score

Hitchcock insisted that Bernard Herrmann write the score for Psycho despite the composer's refusal to accept a reduced fee for the film's lower budget.[98] The resulting score, according to Christopher Palmer in The Composer in Hollywood (1990) is "perhaps Herrmann's most spectacular Hitchcock achievement."[99] Hitchcock was pleased with the tension and drama the score added to the film,[100] later remarking "33% of the effect of Psycho was due to the music."[101] and that "Psycho depended heavily on Herrmann's music for its tension and sense of pervading doom."[102] The singular contribution of Herrmann's score may be inferred from the unusual penultimate placement of the composer's name in the film's opening credit sequence, as it is followed only by Hitchcock's directing credit.

Herrmann used the lowered music budget to his advantage by writing for a string orchestra rather than a full symphonic ensemble,[98] contrary to Hitchcock's request for a jazz score.[103] He thought of the single tone color of the all-string soundtrack as a way of reflecting the black-and-white cinematography of the film.[104] The strings play con sordini (muted) for all the music other than the shower scene, creating a darker and more intense effect. Film composer Fred Steiner, in an analysis of the score to Psycho, points out that string instruments gave Herrmann access to a wider range in tone, dynamics, and instrumental special effects than any other single instrumental group would have.[105]

The main title music, a tense, hurtling piece, sets the tone of impending violence, and returns three times on the soundtrack.[106][107] Though nothing shocking occurs during the first 15–20 minutes of the film, the title music remains in the audience's mind, lending tension to these early scenes.[106] Herrmann also maintains tension through the slower moments in the film through the use of ostinato.[101]

There were rumors that Herrmann had used electronic means, including amplified bird screeches to achieve the shocking effect of the music in the shower scene. The effect was achieved, however, only with violins in a "screeching, stabbing sound-motion of extraordinary viciousness."[108] The only electronic amplification employed was in the placing of the microphones close to the instruments, to get a harsher sound.[108] Besides the emotional impact, the shower scene cue ties the soundtrack to birds.[108] The association of the shower scene music with birds also telegraphs to the audience that it is Norman, the stuffed-bird collector, who is the murderer rather than his mother.[108]

Herrmann biographer Steven C. Smith writes that the music for the shower scene is "probably the most famous (and most imitated) cue in film music,"[104] but Hitchcock was originally opposed to having music in this scene.[108] When Herrmann played the shower scene cue for Hitchcock, the director approved its use in the film. Herrmann reminded Hitchcock of his instructions not to score this scene, to which Hitchcock replied, "Improper suggestion, my boy, improper suggestion."[109] This was one of two important disagreements Hitchcock had with Herrmann, in which Herrmann ignored Hitchcock's instructions. The second one, over the score for Torn Curtain (1966), resulted in the end of their professional collaboration.[110] A survey conducted by PRS for Music, in 2009, showed that the British public consider the score from 'the shower scene' to be the scariest theme from any film.[111]

To honor the fiftieth anniversary of Psycho, in July 2010, the San Francisco Symphony[112] obtained a print of the film with the soundtrack removed, and projected it on a large screen in Davies Symphony Hall while the orchestra performed the score live. This was previously mounted by the Seattle Symphony in October 2009 as well, performing at the Benaroya Hall for two consecutive evenings.

Recordings

Several CDs of the film score have been released, including:

• The October 2, 1975 recording with Bernard Herrmann conducting the National Philharmonic Orchestra [Unicorn CD, 1993].[113]
• The 1997 Varèse Sarabande CD features a re-recording of the complete score performed by the Royal Scottish National Orchestra and conducted by Joel McNeely .[114][115]
• The 1998 Soundstage Records SCD 585 CD claims to feature the tracks from the original master tapes. However, it has been asserted that the release is a bootleg recording.[114]
• The 2011 Doxy Records DOY650 (Italy) 180 gram LP release of the complete original score conducted by Herrmann.

No.	Title	Length
1.	"Prelude"
2.	"The City"
3.	"Marion"
4.	"Marion & Sam"
5.	"Temptation"
6.	"Flight"
7.	"Patrol Car"
8.	"The Car Lot"
9.	"The Package"
10.	"The Rainstorm"
11.	"Hotel Room"
12.	"The Window"
13.	"The Parlor"
14.	"The Madhouse"
15.	"The Peephole"
16.	"The Bathroom"
17.	"The Murder"
18.	"The Body"
19.	"The Office"
20.	"The Curtain"
21.	"The Water"
22.	"The Car"
23.	"The Swamp"
24.	"The Search (A)"
25.	"The Shadow"
26.	"Phone Booth"
27.	"The Porch"
28.	"The Stairs"
29.	"The Knife"
30.	"The Search (B)"
31.	"The First Floor"
32.	"Cabin 10"
33.	"Cabin 1"
34.	"The Hill"
35.	"The Bedroom"
36.	"The Toys"
37.	"The Cellar"
38.	"Discovery"
39.	"Finale"

Controversy

Hitchcock enforced a "no late admission" policy during the theatrical release of Psycho, which was unusual for the time.

Psycho is a prime example of the type of film that appeared in the United States during the 1960s after the erosion of the Production Code. It was unprecedented in its depiction of sexuality and violence, right from the opening scene in which Sam and Marion are shown as lovers sharing the same bed, with Marion in a bra.[116] In the Production Code standards of that time, unmarried couples shown in the same bed would have been taboo.[117]

Another controversial issue was the gender bending element. Perkins, who was allegedly a homosexual,[118] and Hitchcock, who previously made Rope, were both experienced in the film's transgressive subject matter. The viewer is unaware of the Bates' gender bending, until, at the end of the movie, it is revealed that Bates crossdresses as his mother during the attempted murder of Lila. At the station, Sam asks why Bates was dressed that way. The police officer, ignorant of Bates' split personality, bluntly utters that Bates is a transvestite. The psychiatrist corrects him and says, "Not exactly". He explains that Bates believes that he is his own mother when he dresses in her clothes.[119]

According to the 1990 book Alfred Hitchcock and the Making of Psycho, the censors in charge of enforcing the Production Code wrangled with Hitchcock because some of them insisted they could see one of Leigh's breasts. Hitchcock held onto the print for several days, left it untouched, and resubmitted it for approval. Each of the censors reversed their positions: those who had previously seen the breast now did not, and those who had not, now did. They passed the film after the director removed one shot that showed the buttocks of Leigh's stand-in.[120] The board was also upset by the racy opening, so Hitchcock said that if they let him keep the shower scene he would re-shoot the opening with them on the set. Because board members did not show up for the re-shoot, the opening stayed.[120]

Another cause of concern for the censors was that Marion was shown flushing a toilet, with its contents (torn-up note paper) fully visible. No flushing toilet had appeared in mainstream film and television in the United States at that time.[121][122][123]

Internationally, Hitchcock was forced to make minor changes to the film, mostly to the shower scene. In Britain, the BBFC requested cuts to stabbing sounds and visible nude shots, and in New Zealand the shot of Norman washing blood from his hands was objected to. In Singapore, though the shower scene was left untouched, the murder of Arbogast, and a shot of Norman's mother's corpse were removed.[124]

The most controversial move was Hitchcock's "no late admission" policy for the film, which was unusual for the time. It was not entirely original as Clouzot had done the same in France for Diabolique.[125] Hitchcock thought that if people entered the theater late and never saw the star actress Janet Leigh, they would feel cheated.[35] At first theater owners opposed the idea, claiming that they would lose business. However, after the first day, the owners enjoyed long lines of people waiting to see the film.[35]

Promotion

Hitchcock did most of the promotion on his own, forbidding Leigh and Perkins to make the usual television, radio, and print interviews for fear of them revealing the plot.[126] Even critics were not given private screenings but rather had to see the film with the general public, which, despite possibly affecting their reviews,[124] certainly preserved the secret.

The film's original trailer features a jovial Hitchcock taking the viewer on a tour of the set, and almost giving away plot details before stopping himself. It is "tracked" with Herrmann's Psycho theme, but also jovial music from Hitchcock's comedy The Trouble with Harry; most of Hitchcock's dialogue is post-synchronized. The trailer was made after completion of the film, and because Janet Leigh was no longer available for filming, Hitchcock had Vera Miles don a blonde wig and scream loudly as he pulled the shower curtain back in the bathroom sequence of the preview. Because the title Psycho instantly covers most of the screen, the switch went unnoticed by audiences for years. However, a freeze-frame analysis clearly reveals that it is Miles and not Leigh in the shower during the trailer.[35]

Release

The film was so successful that it was reissued to theaters in 1965.

Lobby card for a 1969 reissue.

A year later, CBS purchased the television rights for $450,000. CBS planned to televise the film on September 23, 1966 as an installment of its new movie night The CBS Friday Night Movies.[127] Three days prior to the scheduled telecast, Valerie Percy, daughter of Illinois senate candidate Charles H. Percy, was murdered. As her parents slept mere feet away, she was stabbed a dozen times with a double-edged knife. In light of the murder, CBS agreed to postpone the broadcast. As a result of the Apollo pad fire of January 27, 1967, the network washed its hands of Psycho.[128]

Shortly afterward Paramount included the film in its first syndicated package of post-1950 movies, "Portfolio I". WABC-TV in New York City was the first station in the country to air Psycho (with some scenes significantly edited), on its late-night movie series, The Best of Broadway, on June 24, 1967.[129]

Following another successful theatrical reissue in 1969, the film finally made its way to general television airing in one of Universal's syndicated programming packages for local stations in 1970. Psycho was aired for 20 years in this format, then leased to cable for two years before returning to syndication as part of the "List of a Lifetime" package.[128]

The film was re-released to cinemas on September 20 & 23, 2015, as part of the "TCM Presents" series by Turner Classic Movies and Fathom Events.[130]

Reception

Janet Leigh received an Oscar nomination and won a Golden Globe for her performance in the film.

Initial reviews of the film were thoroughly mixed.[131] Bosley Crowther of The New York Times wrote, "There is not an abundance of subtlety or the lately familiar Hitchcock bent toward significant and colorful scenery in this obviously low-budget job." Crowther called the "slow buildups to sudden shocks" reliably melodramatic but contested Hitchcock's psychological points, reminiscent of Krafft-Ebing's studies, as less effective. While the film did not conclude satisfactorily for the critic, he commended the cast's performances as "fair".[132] British critic C. A. Lejeune was so offended that she not only walked out before the end but permanently resigned her post as film critic for The Observer.[133] Other negative reviews stated, "a blot on an honorable career", "plainly a gimmick movie", and "merely one of those television shows padded out to two hours."[131][134]

Positive reviews stated, "Anthony Perkins' performance is the best of his career ... Janet Leigh has never been better", "played out beautifully", and "first American movie since Touch of Evil to stand in the same creative rank as the great European films."[131][135] A good example of the mix is the New York Herald Tribune's review, which stated, "... rather difficult to be amused at the forms insanity may take ... keeps your attention like a snake-charmer."[131]

The public loved the film, with lines stretching outside of theaters as people had to wait for the next showing. This, along with box office numbers, led to a reconsideration of the film by critics, and it eventually received a large amount of praise. It broke box-office records in Japan and the rest of Asia, France, Britain, South America, the United States, and Canada, and was a moderate success in Australia for a brief period.[131] It was the most profitable black-and-white sound film ever made, and Hitchcock personally realized well in excess of $15 million. He then swapped his rights to Psycho and his TV anthology for 150,000 shares of MCA, making him the third largest shareholder in MCA Inc., and his own boss at Universal, in theory; however, this did not stop them from interfering with his later films.[136][137] Psycho was, by a large margin, the most profitable film of Hitchcock's career, earning over $32 million for the studio on release, and $18 million by the end of the year. Around the time of the run's end, the film had grossed $50 million in domestic theaters.

In the United Kingdom, the film shattered attendance records at the London Plaza Cinema, but nearly all British critics gave it poor reviews, questioning Hitchcock's taste and judgment. Reasons cited for this were the critics' late screenings, forcing them to rush their reviews, their dislike of the gimmicky promotion, and Hitchcock's expatriate status.[138] Perhaps thanks to the public's response and Hitchcock's efforts at promoting it, the critics did a re-review, and the film was praised. TIME switched its opinion from "Hitchcock bears down too heavily in this one" to "superlative" and "masterly", and Bosley Crowther put it on his Top Ten list of 1960.[138]

The Catholic Legion of Decency gave the film a B rating, meaning "morally objectionable in part".[139]

Psycho was criticized for making other filmmakers more willing to show gore; three years later, Blood Feast, considered to be the first "splatter film", was released.[140] Psycho's success financially and critically had others trying to ride its coattails. Inspired by Psycho, Hammer Film Productions launched a series of mystery thrillers including The Nanny[141] (1965) starring Bette Davis and William Castle's Homicidal (1961) was followed by a slew of more than thirteen other splatter films.[140]

On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, Psycho holds an approval rating of 96% based on 97 reviews, with an average score of 9.19/10. The site's critical consensus states, "Infamous for its shower scene, but immortal for its contribution to the horror genre. Because Psycho was filmed with tact, grace, and art, Hitchcock didn't just create modern horror, he validated it."[142]

Themes and style

Subversion of romance through irony

In Psycho, Hitchcock subverts the romantic elements that are seen in most of his work. The film is instead ironic as it presents "clarity and fulfillment" of romance. The past is central to the film; the main characters "struggle to understand and resolve destructive personal histories" and ultimately fail.[143] Lesley Brill writes, "The inexorable forces of past sins and mistakes crush hopes for regeneration and present happiness." The crushed hope is highlighted by the death of the protagonist, Marion Crane, halfway through the film.[144] Marion is like Persephone of Greek mythology, who is abducted temporarily from the world of the living. The myth does not sustain with Marion, who dies hopelessly in her room at the Bates Motel. The room is wallpapered with floral print like Persephone's flowers, but they are only "reflected in mirrors, as images of images—twice removed from reality". In the scene of Marion's death, Brill describes the transition from the bathroom drain to Marion's lifeless eye, "Like the eye of the amorphous sea creature at the end of Fellini's La Dolce Vita, it marks the birth of death, an emblem of final hopelessness and corruption." [145]

Marion is deprived of "the humble treasures of love, marriage, home and family", which Hitchcock considers elements of human happiness. There exists among Psycho's secondary characters a lack of "familial warmth and stability", which demonstrates the unlikelihood of domestic fantasies. The film contains ironic jokes about domesticity, such as when Sam writes a letter to Marion, agreeing to marry her, only after the audience sees her buried in the swamp. Sam and Marion's sister Lila, in investigating Marion's disappearance, develop an "increasingly connubial" relationship, a development that Marion is denied.[146] Norman also suffers a similarly perverse definition of domesticity. He has "an infantile and divided personality" and lives in a mansion whose past occupies the present. Norman displays stuffed birds that are "frozen in time" and keeps childhood toys and stuffed animals in his room. He is hostile toward suggestions to move from the past, such as with Marion's suggestion to put his mother "someplace" and as a result kills Marion to preserve his past. Brill explains, "'Someplace' for Norman is where his delusions of love, home, and family are declared invalid and exposed."[147]

Light and darkness feature prominently in Psycho. The first shot after the intertitle is the sunny landscape of Phoenix before the camera enters a dark hotel room where Sam and Marion appear as bright figures. Marion is almost immediately cast in darkness; she is preceded by her shadow as she reenters the office to steal money and as she enters her bedroom. When she flees Phoenix, darkness descends on her drive. The following sunny morning is punctured by a watchful police officer with black sunglasses, and she finally arrives at the Bates Motel in near darkness.[148] Bright lights are also "the ironic equivalent of darkness" in the film, blinding instead of illuminating. Examples of brightness include the opening window shades in Sam's and Marion's hotel room, vehicle headlights at night, the neon sign at the Bates Motel, "the glaring white" of the bathroom tiles where Marion dies, and the fruit cellar's exposed light bulb shining on the corpse of Norman's mother. Such bright lights typically characterize danger and violence in Hitchcock's films.[149]

Motifs

The film often features shadows, mirrors, windows, and, less so, water. The shadows are present from the first scene where the blinds make bars on Marion and Sam as they peer out of the window. The stuffed birds' shadows loom over Marion as she eats, and Norman's mother is seen in only shadows until the end. More subtly, backlighting turns the rakes in the hardware store into talons above Lila's head.[150]

Mirrors reflect Marion as she packs, her eyes as she checks the rear-view mirror, her face in the policeman's sunglasses, and her hands as she counts out the money in the car dealership's bathroom. A motel window serves as a mirror by reflecting Marion and Norman together. Hitchcock shoots through Marion's windshield and the telephone booth, when Arbogast phones Sam and Lila. The heavy downpour can be seen as a foreshadowing of the shower, and its cessation can be seen as a symbol of Marion making up her mind to return to Phoenix.[150]

There are a number of references to birds. Marion's last name is Crane and she is from Phoenix. Norman comments that Marion eats like a bird. The motel room has pictures of birds on the wall. Brigitte Peucker also suggests that Norman's hobby of stuffing birds literalizes the British slang expression for sex, "stuffing birds", bird being British slang for a desirable woman.[151] Robert Allan suggests that Norman's mother is his original "stuffed bird", both in the sense of having preserved her body and the incestuous nature of Norman's emotional bond with her.[152]

Psychoanalytic interpretation

Psycho has been called "the first psychoanalytical thriller."[153] The sex and violence in the film were unlike anything previously seen in a mainstream film. "The shower scene is both feared and desired," wrote French film critic Serge Kaganski. "Hitchcock may be scaring his female viewers out of their wits, but he is turning his male viewers into potential rapists because Janet Leigh has been turning men on ever since she appeared in her brassiere in the first scene."[153]

In his documentary The Pervert's Guide to Cinema, Slavoj Žižek remarks that Norman Bates' mansion has three floors, paralleling the three levels of the human mind that are postulated by Freudian psychoanalysis: the top floor would be the superego, where Bates' mother lives; the ground floor is then Bates' ego, where he functions as an apparently normal human being; and the basement would be Bates' id. Žižek interprets Bates' moving his mother's corpse from top floor to basement as a symbol for the deep connection that psychoanalysis posits between superego and id.[154]

Recognition

Award	Category	Nominee(s)	Result
Academy Awards	Best Director	Alfred Hitchcock	Nominated
	Best Supporting Actress	Janet Leigh	Nominated
	Best Art Direction – Black-and-White	Joseph Hurley, Robert Clatworthy and George Milo	Nominated
	Best Cinematography – Black-and-White	John L. Russell	Nominated
Bambi Awards	Best Actor – International	Anthony Perkins	Nominated
Cahiers du cinema	Best Film	Alfred Hitchcock	Nominated
Directors Guild of America Awards	Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Motion Pictures		Nominated
Edgar Allan Poe Awards	Best Motion Picture Screenplay	Joseph Stefano (screenwriter) and Robert Bloch (author)	Won
Golden Globe Awards	Best Supporting Actress – Motion Picture	Janet Leigh	Won
International Board of Motion Picture Reviewers	Best Actor	Anthony Perkins	Won
Laurel Awards	Top Drama	Psycho	Nominated
	Top Female Supporting Performance	Janet Leigh	Nominated
National Film Preservation Board	National Film Registry	Psycho	Inducted
Online Film & Television Association	Hall of Fame – Motion Picture		Won
Satellite Awards	Best Classic DVD	Psycho (Part of the Alfred Hitchcock: The Masterpiece Collection)	Nominated
Satellite Awards		Psycho	Nominated
Saturn Awards	Best Classic Film Release	Psycho (Universal Legacy Series)	Won
Saturn Awards		Psycho (The 50th Anniversary Edition)	Nominated
Saturn Awards	Best DVD or Blu-ray Collection	Psycho (Part of the Alfred Hitchcock: The Masterpiece Collection)	Nominated
Writers Guild of America Awards	Best Written American Drama	Joseph Stefano	Nominated

In 1992, the film was deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant" by the United States Library of Congress and was selected for preservation in the National Film Registry.[11]

In 1998, TV Guide ranked it #8 on their list of the 50 Greatest Movies on TV (and Video).[155]

Leigh asserted, "no other murder mystery in the history of the movies has inspired such merchandising."[156] Any number of items emblazoned with Bates Motel, stills, lobby cards, and highly valuable posters are available for purchase. In 1992, it was adapted scene-for-scene into three comic books by the Innovative Corporation.[156]

Psycho has appeared on a number of lists by websites, television channels, and magazines. The shower scene was featured as number four on the list of Bravo Network's 100 Scariest Movie Moments,[157] whilst the finale was ranked number four on Premiere's similar list.[158] Entertainment Weekly's book titled The 100 Greatest Movies of All Time ranked the film as #11.[75]

In 2012, the Motion Picture Editors Guild listed the film as the twelfth best-edited film of all time based on a survey of its membership.[159]

American Film Institute has included Psycho in these lists:

• AFI's 100 Years ... 100 Movies – #18
• AFI's 100 Years ... 100 Thrills – #1
• AFI's 100 Years ... 100 Heroes and Villains:
  • Norman Bates – #2 Villain
• AFI's 100 Years ... 100 Movie Quotes:
  • "A boy's best friend is his mother." – #56
• AFI's 100 Years of Film Scores – #4
• AFI's 100 Years ... 100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition) – #14

Legacy

Impact

Psycho has become one of the most recognizable films in cinema history, and is arguably Hitchcock's best known film.[160][161] In his novel, Bloch used an uncommon plot structure: he repeatedly introduced sympathetic protagonists, then killed them off. This played on his reader's expectations of traditional plots, leaving them uncertain and anxious. Hitchcock recognized the effect this approach could have on audiences, and utilized it in his adaptation, killing off Leigh's character at the end of the first act. This daring plot device, coupled with the fact that the character was played by the biggest box-office name in the film, was a shocking turn of events in 1960.[116]

The shower scene has become a pop culture touchstone and is often regarded as one of the most terrifying scenes ever filmed. Its effectiveness is often credited to the use of startling editing techniques borrowed from the Soviet montage filmmakers,[162][163] and to the iconic screeching violins in Bernard Herrmann's musical score. The scene has been frequently spoofed and referenced in popular culture, complete with the violin screeching sound effects (see Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, among many others).[164] 78/52: Hitchcock's Shower Scene, a documentary on its production by Alexandre O. Philippe, was released on October 13, 2017, including interviews with and analysis by Guillermo del Toro, Peter Bogdanovich, Bret Easton Ellis, Jamie Lee Curtis, Karyn Kusama, Eli Roth, Oz Perkins, Leigh Whannell, Walter Murch, Danny Elfman, Elijah Wood, Richard Stanley, and Neil Marshall.[165]

Psycho is considered by some to be the first film in the slasher film genre,[166] though some critics and film historians point to Michael Powell's Peeping Tom, a lesser-known film with similar themes of voyeurism and sexualized violence, whose release happened to precede Psycho's by a few months.[167] However, due to Peeping Tom's critical drubbing at the time and short lifespan at the box office, Psycho was the more widely known and influential film.

Psycho has been referenced in other films numerous times: examples include the 1974 musical horror film Phantom of the Paradise; 1978 horror film Halloween (which starred Jamie Lee Curtis, Janet Leigh's daughter, and Donald Pleasence's character was named "Sam Loomis");[168] the 1977 Mel Brooks tribute to many of Hitchcock's thrillers, High Anxiety; the 1980 Fade to Black; the 1980 Dressed to Kill; and Wes Craven's 1996 horror satire Scream.[169] Bernard Herrmann's opening theme has been sampled by rapper Busta Rhymes on his song "Gimme Some More" (1998).[170] Manuel Muñoz's 2011 novel What You See in the Dark includes a sub-plot that fictionalizes elements of the filming of Psycho, referring to Hitchcock and Leigh only as "The Director" and "The Actress".[171] In the comic book stories of Jonni Future, the house inherited by the title character is patterned after the Bates Motel.[172]

The success of the film jump-started Perkins' career, but he soon began to suffer from typecasting.[173] However, when Perkins was asked whether he would have still taken the role knowing that he would be typecast afterwards, he replied with a definite "yes".[174] As Perkins was in New York working on a Broadway stage show when the shower sequence was filmed, actresses Anne Dore and Margo Epper stepped in as his body doubles for that scene.[175] Until her death in 2004, Leigh received strange and sometimes threatening calls, letters, and even tapes detailing what the caller would like to do to Marion Crane. One letter was so "grotesque" that she passed it to the FBI. Two agents visited Leigh and told her the culprits had been located and that she should notify the FBI if she received any more letters of that type.[176]

Sequels and remake

See also: Psycho (franchise)

Three sequels were produced after Hitchcock died: Psycho II (1983), Psycho III (1986), and Psycho IV: The Beginning (1990), the last being a part-prequel television movie written by the original screenplay author, Joseph Stefano. Anthony Perkins returned to his role of Norman Bates in all three sequels, and also directed the third film. The voice of Norman Bates' mother was maintained by noted radio actress Virginia Gregg with the exception of Psycho IV, where the role was played by Olivia Hussey. Vera Miles also reprised her role of Lila Crane in Psycho II.[177] The sequels received mixed reviews and were universally considered inferior to the original.[178][179][180][181][182]

In 1998, Gus Van Sant made a nearly shot-for-shot remake (in color) starring Vince Vaughn, Julianne Moore, and Anne Heche.[183] Van Sant said that his film was "a huge kind of experimental project," and that, though it did not do well commercially or critically, he may do it again, with more changes.[184]

MPAA rating

Psycho has been rated and re-rated several times over the years by the MPAA. Upon its initial release, the film received a certificate stating that it was "Approved" (certificate #19564) under the simple pass/fail system of the Production Code in use at that time. Later, when the MPAA switched to a voluntary letter ratings system in 1968, Psycho was one of a number of high-profile motion pictures to be retro-rated with an "M" (Mature Audiences).[185] This remained the only rating the film would receive for 16 years, and according to the guidelines of the time "M" was the equivalent of a "PG" rating.[186][187] Then, in 1984, amidst a controversy surrounding the levels of violence depicted in "PG"-rated films, the film was re-classified again to its current rating of "R".[186][187]

Home media

The film has been released several times on VHS, LaserDisc, DVD and Blu-ray. MCA DiscoVision Incorporated (parent company, MCA Inc) first released Psycho on the LaserDisc format in "standard play" (5 sides) in 1979, and "extended play" (2 sides) in October 1981. MCA/Universal Home Video released a new LaserDisc version of Psycho in August 1988 (Catalog #: 11003). In May 1998, Universal Studios Home Video released a deluxe edition of Psycho as part of their Signature Collection. This THX-certified Widescreen (1.85:1) LaserDisc Deluxe Edition (Catalog #: 43105) is spread across 4 extended play sides and 1 standard play side, and includes a new documentary and isolated Bernard Herrmann score. A DVD edition was released at the same time as the LaserDisc.[188]

A version with alternate footage of Norman cleaning up after the murder and additional footage of Marion undressing and Arbogast's death has been shown on German TV and released on VHS and Blu-ray in Germany.[189][190] This footage was cut out of the film after it had been approved by the MPAA, at the insistence of the National Legion of Decency.[191]

For the initial DVD release, Laurent Bouzereau produced a documentary looking at the film's production and reception. Universal released a 50th anniversary edition on Blu-ray in the United Kingdom on August 9, 2010,[192] with Australia making the same edition (with a different cover) available on September 1, 2010.[193] To mark the film's 50th anniversary, a Blu-ray in the US was released on October 19, 2010, featuring yet another cover.[194] The film is also included on two different Alfred Hitchcock Blu-ray boxsets from Universal.[195][196]

See also

• False protagonist
• Hitchcock, a 2012 biopic film about Hitchcock and the making of Psycho with Anthony Hopkins as Hitchcock, Helen Mirren as his wife Alma Reville, Scarlett Johansson as Janet Leigh, and James D'Arcy as Anthony Perkins.
• List of American films of 1960

Notes

1. After the film's release, Paramount transferred the film rights to Hitchcock, who later sold the rights to Universal Pictures in 1962.[2]

References

1. "Muere Mac, el mítico cartelista de 'Doctor Zhivago' y 'Psicosis'". El Periódico de Catalunya (in Spanish). July 21, 2018. Archived from the original on July 27, 2018. Retrieved August 18, 2018.
2. "Psycho (1960): Notes". tcm.com. Turner Classic Movies. Retrieved April 25, 2017.
3. "'Psycho' Film Review". Variety. June 22, 1960. Retrieved June 15, 2020.
4. Hedrick, Lizzie (8 September 2015). "8 Reasons Psycho Taps into the Psyche". USC Dornsife. University of Southern California. Retrieved 17 June 2020.
5. "Psycho (1960)". British Film Institute. Archived from the original on January 16, 2015. Retrieved December 30, 2014.
6. "Psycho (1960)". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved October 20, 2014.
7. Nixon, Rob. "The Critics' Corner: PSYCHO". Turner Classic Movies. Retrieved December 30, 2014.
8. "Psycho (1960) - Full Synopsis - TCM.com". Turner Classic Movies. Retrieved June 16, 2018.
9. Psycho is the top listed Hitchcock film in The 100 Greatest Movies of All Time by Entertainment Weekly, and the highest Hitchcock film on AFI's 100 Years ... 100 Movies.
10. "Psycho reviews". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved April 17, 2010.
11. "Complete National Film Registry Listing | Film Registry | National Film Preservation Board | Programs at the Library of Congress | Library of Congress". Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA. Retrieved May 8, 2020.
12. Wharton, Andy Marx,Dennis; Marx, Andy; Wharton, Dennis (December 4, 1992). "Diverse pix mix picked". Variety. Retrieved August 4, 2020.
13. • Leigh, Janet with Christopher Nickens. Psycho: Behind the Scenes of the Classic Thriller. Harmony Press, 1995, p. 83
14. Rebello 1990, pp. 7–14
15. Reavill 2007, p. 228 "With only two confirmed kills, Ed did not technically qualify as a serial killer (the traditional minimum requirement was three"
16. Rebello 1990, pp. 19–20
17. Leigh, p. 6
18. Rebello 1990, pp. 18–19
19. Rebello 1990, p. 23
20. Rebello 1990, pp. 26–29
21. The Making of Psycho, 1997 documentary directed by Laurent Bouzereau, Universal Studios Home Video, available on selected Psycho DVD releases.
22. Leigh, pp. 36–37
23. Rebello 1990, p. 39
24. Tangentially mentioned by interviewer of Stefano Joseph Stefano but generally given less attention than the film's omission of Bates' alcoholism and pornography.
25. Smith 2009, p. 15
26. "Interview in Creative ScreenWriting Journal. Reproduced at". Hitchcockwiki.com. Retrieved January 26, 2014.
27. Truffaut 1967, p. 268 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFTruffaut1967 (help)
28. Leigh, pp. 33–34
29. Smith 2009, p. 16
30. Leigh, p. 39
31. Caminer & Gallagher 1996
32. Rebello 1990, p. 47
33. "Interview with Stefano". Hitchcockwiki.com. Retrieved January 26, 2014.
34. Rebello 1990, p. 13
35. Leigh, pp. 96–97
36. Leigh, pp. 86, 173
37. See WikiMapia {Coordinates: 34°8'12"N 118°20'48"W}.
38. Rothenberg, Robert S. (July 2001). "Getting Hitched — Alfred Hitchcock films released on digital video disks". USA Today (Society for the Advancement of Education). Archived from the original on December 5, 2007. Retrieved March 13, 2007.
39. Rebello 1990, p. 82
40. CBS/AP (May 20, 2004). "'Psycho' Voted Best Movie Death: British Film Magazine Rates It Ahead Of 'Strangelove,' 'King Kong'". CBS News. Archived from the original on June 16, 2013. Retrieved March 13, 2007.
41. Rebello 1990, p. 28
42. Leigh, pp. 12–13
43. Truffaut 1967 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFTruffaut1967 (help)
44. Arneel, Gene (September 21, 1960). "Alfred Hitchcock to Make At Least $5 Million for 'Psycho'". Variety. Retrieved April 24, 2017.
45. Hall, John W. (September 1995). "Touch of Psycho? Hitchcock, Welles". Bright Lights Film Journal. Archived from the original on July 13, 2009. Retrieved March 13, 2007.
46. Leigh, pp. 22–23
47. Rebello 1990, p. 128
48. Leigh, p. 88
49. Leigh, p. 66
50. Rebello 1990, p. 93
51. Leigh, pp. 24–26
52. Rebello 1990, p. 90
53. Wagstaff 2004, p. 234 See also Liner notes to CD recording of score by Joel McNeely & Royal Scottish National Orchestra
54. "Someplace Like Home: An eerily familiar house rises in many American landscapes by Paul Bochner. The Atlantic Monthly, May 1996". Theatlantic.com. May 1996. Retrieved August 5, 2014.
55. Leigh, p. 73
56. Leigh, p. 62
57. Leigh, pp. 46–47
58. Leigh, p. 55
59. Leigh, p. 59
60. Leigh, pp. 87–88
61. Truffaut 1967, p. 273 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFTruffaut1967 (help)
62. Leigh, pp. 85–86
63. Allen 2007, p. 21 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFAllen2007 (help)
64. Rebello 1990, p. 97
65. "The top 10 film moments". The Guardian. February 6, 2000 – via www.theguardian.com.
66. Leigh, pp. 65, 67
67. Dancyger 2002
68. Hitchcock, cited in Schickel 2001, p. 293 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSchickel2001 (help) and page 308
69. Rebello 1990, p. 144
70. "Mr. Hitchcock's suggestions for placement of music (08/Jan/1960)". January 1960. Retrieved April 17, 2010.
71. Leigh, pp. 165–166
72. Aspinall, David (September 2003). "Bernard Herrmann: Psycho: National Philharmonic, conducted by composer". The Film Music Pantheon #3. Audiophilia. Archived from the original on April 6, 2007. Retrieved March 13, 2007.
73. Kiderra, Inga (Winter 2000). "Scoring Points". USC Trojan Family Magazine. Archived from the original on March 14, 2007. Retrieved March 13, 2007. Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
74. "Modern Marvels ('Chocolate')". History channel.
75. The 100 Greatest Movies of All Time. New York: Entertainment Weekly Books, 1999
76. Lehmann-Haupt, Christopher (May 7, 1990). "Books of The Times; 'Casaba,' He Intoned, and a Nightmare Was Born". The New York Times. Retrieved November 28, 2006.
77. "Psycho stabbing 'best film death". BBC News. May 20, 2004. Retrieved April 17, 2010.
78. Ebert, Roger (October 5, 2004). "Janet Leigh dies at age 77". Chicago Sun-Times. Retrieved March 13, 2007.
79. Hodgkinson, Will (March 29, 2010). "Secrets of the Psycho shower". The Guardian. Archived from the original on February 3, 2012. Retrieved February 18, 2012.CS1 maint: unfit url (link)
80. Leibowitz, Barry (February 1, 2010). "Book 'Em: The Girl in Alfred Hitchcock's Shower". cbsnews.com. Retrieved August 30, 2016.
81. "Rita Riggs". Archive of American Television. October 23, 2017. Retrieved June 25, 2018.
82. sceneexamples, The making of the Shower Scene in Psycho, retrieved December 9, 2018
83. Leitch, Luke (October 4, 2004). "Janet Leigh, star of Psycho shower scene, dies at 77". Evening Standard. Archived from the original on January 12, 2013. Retrieved March 13, 2007.
84. Leigh, pp. 67–70
85. Ebert, Roger (December 15, 1996). "Movie Answer Man". Chicago Sun-Times. Archived from the original on June 28, 2006. Retrieved March 13, 2007.
86. Rebello 1990, p. 117
87. "Psycho: The Title Credits". Retrieved November 20, 2010.
88. Krohn 2003
89. Leigh, pp. 176, 42
90. Leigh, p. 169
91. Ebert, Roger (December 6, 1998). "Psycho (1960)". Great Movies. rogerebert.com. Retrieved December 1, 2006.
92. Harmetz, Aljean (October 5, 2004). "Janet Leigh, 77, Shower Taker of 'Psycho,' Is Dead". The New York Times. Retrieved December 1, 2006.
93. "8 frames of "Psycho"". hitchcockwiki.com. May 8, 2008. Archived from the original on April 9, 2010. Retrieved April 24, 2010.
94. Leigh, p. 131
95. Wood 1989, p. 146
96. "Hitchcock's Shower Scene: 78/52". www.bbc.co.uk. BBC. Retrieved March 10, 2018.
97. Gleiberman, Owen (January 24, 2017). "Film Review: '78/52: Hitchcock's Shower Scene'". Variety. Retrieved March 10, 2018.
98. Smith 1991, p. 236 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFSmith1991 (help)
99. Palmer 1990, pp. 273–274
100. Smith 1991, p. 240 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFSmith1991 (help)
101. Smith 1991, p. 241 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFSmith1991 (help)
102. Smith, S.C. (1991). A heart at fire's centre: the life and music of Bernard Herrmann. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 236. ISBN 0520229398.
103. Psycho – Bernard Herrmann Archived July 23, 2011, at the Wayback Machine. Soundtrack-express.com. Retrieved on November 21, 2010.
104. Smith 1991, p. 237 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFSmith1991 (help)
105. Palmer 1990, p. 274
106. Palmer 1990, p. 275
107. Smith 1991, p. 238 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFSmith1991 (help)
108. Palmer 1990, p. 277
109. Palmer 1990, p. 240
110. Smith 1991, p. 192 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFSmith1991 (help)
111. "Psycho shower music voted scariest movie theme tune". The Daily Telegraph. London. October 28, 2009. Retrieved May 22, 2010.
112. "CSO – Friday Night at the Movies". Chicago. November 19, 2010. Retrieved November 23, 2011.
113. Bernard Herrmann and 50th anniversary of PSYCHO. Americanmusicpreservation.com (June 16, 1960). Retrieved on November 21, 2010.
114. Soundtrack details: Psycho. SoundtrackCollector. Retrieved on November 21, 2010.
115. "Psycho". Varesesarabande.com. Archived from the original on February 26, 2014. Retrieved January 26, 2014.
116. Psycho (1960). Retrieved November 20, 2010.
117. "Psycho – Classic Hitchcock Horror Turns 50". Retrieved November 20, 2010.
118. Winecoff, Charles (1996). Split Image: The Life of Anthony Perkins. New York: Dutton. ISBN 0-525-94064-2.
119. Oever, Roel van den (September 24, 2012). Mama's Boy: Momism and Homophobia in Postwar American Culture. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 111–113. ISBN 9781137274052. Retrieved June 14, 2018.
120. Leigh, p. 112
121. "'Psycho' and deadly sin". Archived from the original on November 9, 2010. Retrieved November 20, 2010.
122. Kermode, Mark (October 22, 2010). "Psycho: the best horror film of all time". The Guardian. London. Retrieved November 20, 2010.
123. Taylor, Ella (December 9, 1998). "Hit the showers: Gus Van Sant's 'Psycho' goes right down the drain". Seattle Weekly. Archived from the original on December 5, 2007. Retrieved April 17, 2010.
124. Leigh, pp. 105–6
125. Rebello 1990, p. 21
126. Leigh, p. 95
127. "CBS and Psycho". Television Obscurities. Retrieved October 5, 2017.
128. Leigh, p. 187
129. WABC TO TONE DOWN 'PSYCHO' FOR JUNE 24. The New York Times, June 1, 1967. Retrieved May 31, 2010.
130. Kelley, Seth (June 9, 2015). "'Psycho,' 'Grease' Returning to Cinemas in 'TCM Presents' Series". Variety. Retrieved September 6, 2015.
131. Leigh, pp. 99–102
132. Crowther, Bosley (June 17, 1960). "Screen: Sudden Shocks". The New York Times. Retrieved January 7, 2010.
133. Smith 2009, p. 175
134. These are from (in order): New York Times, Newsweek and Esquire
135. These are from (in order): New York Daily News, New York Daily Mirror, and Village Voice
136. Stephen Rebello, Alfred Hitchcock and the Making of Psycho, Soft Skull Press, Berkeley, 1990.
137. Leigh, p. 141
138. Leigh, pp. 103–106
139. Kapsis, Robert E. (1992). Hitchcock: The Making of a Reputation. University of Chicago Press. p. 58. ISBN 9780226424897. Retrieved April 2, 2017.
140. Leigh, pp. 180–181
141. Hardy 1986, p. 137
142. "Psycho (1960)". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved April 23, 2020.
143. Brill 1988, pp. 200–201
144. Brill 1988, p. 223
145. Brill 1988, p. 224
146. Brill 1988, p. 228
147. Brill 1988, p. 229
148. Brill 1988, p. 225
149. Brill 1988, pp. 225–226
150. Leigh, pp. 90–93
151. Peucker, Brigitte (2007). The Material Image: Art And the Real in Film. Stanford University Press. p. 167. ISBN 978-0-8047-5431-6.
152. Allen, Richard (2007). Hitchcock's Romantic Irony. Columbia University Press. p. 161. ISBN 978-0-231-13575-7.
153. Kaganski 1997
154. Fiennes, Sophie (director); Žižek, Slavoj (writer/narrator) (2006). The Pervert's Guide to Cinema (documentary). Amoeba Film.
155. "TV Guide's 50 Greatest Movies". Listal.com. April 25, 2009. Retrieved January 26, 2014.
156. Leigh, p. 186
157. "100 Scariest Movie Moments". Bravo. Archived from the original on October 30, 2007. Retrieved July 2, 2009.
158. "The 25 Most Shocking Moments in Movie History". Premiere Magazine. Archived from the original on December 16, 2008. Retrieved December 2, 2006.
159. "The 75 Best Edited Films". Editors Guild Magazine. 1 (3). May 2012. Archived from the original on March 17, 2015.
160. "Alfred Hitchcock and the Making of a Film Culture". Archived from the original on November 5, 2010. Retrieved November 20, 2010.
161. "Psycho (1960)". Retrieved November 20, 2010.
162. "Psycho Analyzed". Retrieved November 20, 2010.
163. "Alfred Hitchcock Filmmaking Techniques "SUSPENSE 'HITCHCOCKIAN'"". Archived from the original on July 7, 2011. Retrieved November 20, 2010.
164. Hartl, John (July 14, 2005). "'Chocolate Factory' is a tasty surprise". msnbc.
165. Film Review: '78/52: Hitchcock's Shower Scene'. Variety Magazine. January 24, 2017. .
166. "Alfred Hitchcock: Our Top 10". CNN. August 13, 1999. Archived from the original on December 11, 2004. Retrieved December 1, 2006.
167. "Before 'Psycho,' there was 'Peeping Tom'". Observer. October 30, 2015.
168. Berardinelli, James. "Review: Psycho (1960)". Retrieved November 16, 2008.
169. Dirks, Tim. "Psycho (1960)". Film Site. Retrieved November 16, 2008.
170. Busta Rhymes – E.L.E. Extinction Level Event|Album Review @ Music-Critic.com : the source for music reviews, interviews, articles, and news on the internet. Music-critic.com (December 17, 1998). Retrieved on November 21, 2010.
171. Muñoz, Manuel. What You See in the Dark, 2011, Algonquin Books.
172. George Khoury and Eric Nolen-Weathington. Modern Masters Volume Six: Arthur Adams, 2006, TwoMorrows Publishing.
173. Leigh, pp. 156, 187–188, 163
174. Leigh, p. 159
175. III, Joseph W. Smith (2009). The Psycho file : a comprehensive guide to Hitchcock's classic shocker. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland & Co., Pub. p. 74. ISBN 978-0786444878. Retrieved May 30, 2015.
176. Leigh, pp. 132–133
177. Leigh, p. 113
178. Ebert, Roger Psycho III. Roger Ebert' Movie Home Companion. Kansas City: Andrews and McMeel, 1991
179. "Psycho III". Variety. January 1, 1986. Retrieved November 26, 2006.
180. "Psycho II (1983)" – via www.rottentomatoes.com.
181. "Psycho III (1986)" – via www.rottentomatoes.com.
182. "Psycho IV: The Beginning (1991)" – via www.rottentomatoes.com.
183. Psycho, retrieved March 26, 2020
184. "Gus Vant Sant: Exclusive Interview : Interview : Movies : Entertainment : Web Wombat". www.webwombat.com.au. Retrieved March 26, 2020.
185. "Psycho Ratings and Certifications". Internet Movie Database. Retrieved November 8, 2010.
186. "MPAA Ratings System". Home Theater Info. Retrieved November 8, 2010.
187. Beth Pinsker (November 25, 1994). "The Ratings: A Look Back". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved March 19, 2013.
188. "Discovision Library: Psycho". Retrieved November 8, 2010.
189. "Psycho – Hitchcock's Classic Uncut on German TV". Movie Censorship.
190. "Psycho UNCUT!". youtube.
191. "AFI|Catalog". catalog.afi.com.
192. UK DVD and Blu-ray Releases: Monday 9th August 2010 -filmdetail.com
193. Australian Blu-ray releases W/C Monday November 29, 2010 Archived August 12, 2011, at the Wayback Machine -blurayaustralia.com
194. Barton, Steve. "Official Cover Art: Psycho on Blu-ray". Dread Central. Retrieved June 15, 2010.
195. "Alfred Hitchcock: The Essentials Collection – Limited Edition". Retrieved January 26, 2014.
196. "Alfred Hitchcock: The Masterpiece Collection (Limited Edition) [Blu-ray] (2012): Alfred Hitchcock: Movies & TV". Retrieved January 26, 2014.

Further reading

• Allen, Richard (2007). Hitchcock's romantic irony. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-13575-7.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
• Brill, Lesley (1988). "'I Look Up, I Look Down' (Vertigo and Psycho)". The Hitchcock Romance: Love and Irony in Hitchcock's Films. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-00822-1.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
• Caminer, Sylvia; Gallagher, John Andrew (January–February 1996). "An Interview with Joseph Stefano". Films in Review. XLVII (1/2).CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
• Dancyger, Ken (2002). The Technique of Film and Video Editing: History, Theory, and Practice. New York: Focal Press. ISBN 0-240-80420-1.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
• Hardy, Phil (1986). Encyclopedia of Horror Movies. London: Octopus Books. ISBN 0-7064-2771-8.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
• Kaganski, Serge (1997). Alfred Hitchcock. Paris: Hazan.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
• Krohn (2003). Hitchcock at Work. Phaidon Press Ltd.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
• Nickens, Christopher; Leigh, Janet (1996). Psycho: Behind the Scenes of the Classic Thriller. Harmony. ISBN 0-517-70112-X.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
• Palmer, Christopher (1990). The Composer in Hollywood. London: Marion Boyars. ISBN 0714529508.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
• Rebello, Stephen (1990). Alfred Hitchcock and the Making of Psycho. Marion Boyars. ISBN 0-7145-3003-4.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
• Reavill, Gil (2007). Aftermath, Inc.: Cleaning Up After CSI Goes Home. Gotham. ISBN 978-1-59240-296-0.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
• Schickel, Richard; Capra, Frank (2001). The Men Who Made the Movies. I.R. Dee. ISBN 978-1-56663-374-1.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
• Smith, Joseph W., III. (2009). The Psycho File: A Comprehensive Guide to Hitchcock's Classic Shocker. Berkeley: McFarland.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
• Smith, Steven C. (1991). A Heart at Fire's Center; The Life and Music of Bernard Herrmann. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-22939-8.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
• Steinberg, Cobbett (1980). Film Facts. New York: Facts on File, Inc. ISBN 0-87196-313-2.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
• Winecoff, Charles (1996). Split Image: The Life of Anthony Perkins. Diane Pub Co. ISBN 0-7881-9870-X.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
• Truffaut, François; Scott, Helen (1967). Hitchcock (revised ed.). New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-671-60429-5.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
• Wagstaff, Sheena, ed. (2004). Edward Hopper. London: Tate Publishing. ISBN 1-85437-533-4.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
• Wood, Robin (1989). Hitchcock's Films Revisited. London: Faber and Faber. ISBN 0-571-16226-6.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)

Production of Psycho

• Anobile, Richard J.; editor. Alfred Hitchcock's Psycho (The Film Classics Library). Avon Books, 1974. This volume, published before the proliferation of home video, is entirely composed of photo reproductions of film frames along with dialogue captions, creating a fumetti of the entire motion picture.
• Durgnat, Raymond E. A Long Hard Look at Psycho (BFI Film Classics). British Film Institute, 2002.
• Kolker, Robert; editor. Alfred Hitchcock's Psycho: A Casebook. Oxford University Press, 2005.
• Naremore, James. Filmguide to Psycho. Indiana University Press, 1973.
• Rebello, Stephen. Alfred Hitchcock and the Making of Psycho. Dembner Books, 1990. A definitive "making of" account tracing every stage of the production of the film as well as its aftermath.
• Rebello, Stephen. "Psycho: The Making of Alfred Hitchcock's Masterpiece". "Cinefantastique", April 1986 (Volume 16, Number 4/5). Comprehensive 22-page article.
• Skerry, Philip J. The Shower Scene in Hitchcock's Psycho: Creating Cinematic Suspense and Terror. Edwin Mellen Press, 2005.
• Smith, Joseph W., III. The Psycho File: A Comprehensive Guide to Hitchcock's Classic Shocker. McFarland, 2009.
• Thomson, David, The Moment of Psycho (2009) ISBN 978-0-465-00339-6

External links

• Psycho essay by Charles Taylor at National Film Registry
• Psycho on IMDb
• Psycho at the TCM Movie Database
• Psycho at the American Film Institute Catalog
• Psycho at AllMovie
• Psycho at Box Office Mojo
• Psycho at Rotten Tomatoes
• Psycho at Metacritic
• Filmsite: Psycho In-depth analysis of the film
• Psycho and Bernard Herrmann film score
• "Psycho' at 50: What We've Learned from Alfred Hitchcock's Horror Classic" by Gary Susman – Moviefone – June 15, 2010
• Psycho essay by Daniel Eagan in America's Film Legacy: The Authoritative Guide to the Landmark Movies in the National Film Registry, A&C Black, 2010 ISBN 0826429777, pages 563-565