Proto-Indo-Iranian language

Proto-Indo-Iranian or Proto-Indo-Iranic[1] is the reconstructed proto-language of the Indo-Iranian/Indo-Iranic branch of Indo-European. Its speakers, the hypothetical Proto-Indo-Iranians, are assumed to have lived in the late 3rd millennium BCE, and are often connected with the Sintashta culture of the Eurasian Steppe and the early Andronovo archaeological horizon.

Proto-Indo-Iranian
PIIr
Reconstruction ofIndo-Iranian languages
RegionEurasian Steppe
Eralate 3rd m. BCE
Reconstructed
ancestor
Lower-order reconstructions

Proto-Indo-Iranian was a satem language, likely removed less than a millennium from its ancestor, the late Proto-Indo-European language, and in turn removed less than a millennium from the Vedic Sanskrit of the Rigveda, its descendant. It is the ancestor of the Indo-Aryan languages, the Iranian languages, and the Nuristani languages.

Descriptive phonology

Proto-Indo-Iranian consonant segments
Labial Coronal Palatal Velar Laryngeal
dental/alveolar post-alveolar first second
Plosivevoiceless *p *t *ć *č *k
voiced *b *d *ȷ́ *ǰ *g
aspirated * * *ȷ́ʰ *ǰʰ *
Fricative

voiceless

*s *š *H
voiced (*z) (*ž)
Nasal *m *n
Liquid (*l) *r *r̥
Semivowel *y *w
PII vowel segments
High *i *ī*u *ū
Low *a *ā

In addition to the vowels, *H, and * could function as the syllabic core.

Two palatal series

Proto-Indo-Iranian is hypothesized to have contained two series of stops or affricates in the palatal to postalveolar region.[2] The phonetic nature of this contrast is not clear, and hence they are usually referred to as the primary or first series (*ć *ȷ́ *ȷ́ʰ, continuing Proto-Indo-European palatovelar *ḱ *ǵ *ǵʰ) and the second or secondary series (*č *ǰ *ǰʰ, continuing Proto-Indo-European plain and labialized velars, *k, *g, *gʰ and *kʷ, *gʷ, *gʷʰ, in palatalizing contexts). The following table shows the most common reflexes of the two series (Proto-Iranian is the hypothetical ancestor to the Iranian languages, including Avestan and Old Persian):[3][4]

PII Sanskrit Proto-Iranian Avestan Old Persian Nuristani
*ć ś ([ɕ]) *ts s θ ċ ([ts]) / š
*ȷ́ j ([ɟ]) *dz z d j ([dz]) / z
*ȷ́ʰ h ([ɦ])
*č c ([c]) *č č č č
*ǰ j ([ɟ]) *ǰ ǰ ǰ ǰ / ž
*ǰʰ h ([ɦ])

Laryngeal

Proto-Indo-European is usually hypothesized to have had three to four laryngeal consonants, each of which could occur in either syllabic or non-syllabic positions. In Proto-Indo-Iranian, the laryngeals merged as one phoneme /*H/. Beekes suggests that some instances of this /*H/ survived into Rigvedic Sanskrit and Avestan as unwritten glottal stops as evidenced by metrics.[5]

Accent

Like Proto-Indo-European and Vedic Sanskrit (and also Avestan, though it was not written down[6]), Proto-Indo-Iranian had a pitch accent system similar to present-day Japanese, conventionally indicated by an acute accent over the accented vowel.

Historical phonology

The most distinctive phonological change separating Proto-Indo-Iranian from Proto-Indo-European is the collapse of the ablauting vowels *e, *o, *a into a single vowel, Proto-Indo-Iranian *a (but see Brugmann's law). Grassmann's law, Bartholomae's law, and the Ruki sound law were also complete in Proto-Indo-Iranian.

A fuller list of some of the hypothesized sound changes from Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Indo-Iranian follows:

  • The Satem shift, consisting of two sets of related changes. The PIE palatals *ḱ *ǵ *ǵʰ are fronted or affricated, eventually resulting in PII *ć, *ȷ́, *ȷ́ʰ, while the PIE labiovelars *kʷ *gʷ *gʷʰ merge with the velars *k *g *gʰ.[7]
PIE PII Sanskrit Avestan Latin English
*ḱm̥tóm *ćatám śatám satəm centum 'hundred'
*ǵónu *ȷ́ā́nu jā́nu zānu genū 'knee'
*ǵʰimós *ȷ́ʰimás himá ziiā̊ hiems 'winter' / 'snow'
*kʷós *kás kás ka quis 'who?, what?'
*gʷṓws *gā́wš gaus gao bōs 'cow'
*gʷʰormós *gʰarmás gharmás garəma formus 'warmth, heat'
  • The PIE liquids *l *r *l̥ *r̥ merge as *r *r̥.[8]
PIE PII Sanskrit Avestan Latin English
*ḱléwos *ćráwas śrávas srauua clueō 'fame, honour, word'
*wĺ̥kʷos *wŕ̥kas vŕ̥kas vəhrka lupus 'wolf'
  • The PIE syllabic nasals *m̥ *n̥ merge with *a.[8]
PIE pre-PII PII Sanskrit Avestan Latin English
*déḱm̥ *dáĉm̥ *dáća dáśa dasā decem 'ten'
*gʷm̥tós *gm̥tás *gatás gatá gata ventus 'come, gone'
*n̥bʰrós *n̥bʰrás *abʰrás abhrá aβra imber 'rain, cloud'
  • Bartholomae's law: an aspirate immediately followed by a voiceless consonant becomes voiced stop + voiced aspirate. In addition, dʰ + t > dᶻdʰ.[9]
PIE PII Sanskrit Avestan English
*ubʰtós *ubdʰás sámubdha ubdaēna 'woven' / 'made of woven material'
*wr̥dʰtós *wr̥dᶻdʰás vr̥ddʰá vərəzda 'grown, mature'
*dʰéwgʰti *dáwgdʰi dógdhi *daogdi 'to milk'
  • The Ruki rule: *s is retracted to *š when immediately following a liquid (*r *r̥ *l *l̥), a high vowel (*i *u), a PIE velar (*ḱ *ǵ *ǵʰ *k *g *gʰ *kʷ *gʷ *gʷʰ) or the syllabic laryngeal *H̥.[10] Its allophone *z likewise becomes *ž.[8]
PIE PII Sanskrit Avestan Latin English
*wisós *wišás víṣas viša vīrus 'poison, venom'
*ḱeHs- *ćH̥šam aśiṣam sīšā 'teach!'
*ǵéwseti *ȷ́áwšati jóṣati zaošō gustus 'to like, taste'
*kʷsép- *kšáp- kṣáp- xšap- 'darkness'
*plúsis *plúšiš plúṣi *fruši pūlex 'flea, noxious insect'
*nisdós *niždás nīḷá/nīḍá *nižda nīdus 'nest'
  • Before a dental occlusive, *ĉ becomes *š and *ĵ becomes *ž. *ĵʰ also becomes *ž, with aspiration of the occlusive.[11]
PIE pre-PII PII Sanskrit Avestan Latin English
*h₁oḱtṓ *Haĉtā́ *Haštā́ aṣṭá ašta octō 'eight'
*dr̥ḱtós *dr̥ĉtás *dr̥štás dr̥ṣṭá dərəšta 'seen, visible, apparent'
*mr̥ǵt- *mr̥ĵd- *mr̥žd- mr̥ḷ-/mr̥ḍ- mərəžd- 'to forgive, pardon'
*uǵʰtós *uĵdʰás *uždʰás ūḍhá *užda vector 'carried'
  • The sequence *ĉš was simplified to *šš.[12]
PIE pre-PII PII Sanskrit Avestan Latin English
*h₂éḱs- *Háĉšas *Háššas ákṣa aša axis 'axle, shoulder'
  • The "second palatalization" or "law of palatals": *k *g *gʰ develop palatal allophones *č *ǰ *ǰʰ before the front vowels *i, *e.[9] through an intermediate *kʲ *gʲ *gʲʰ.
PIE pre-PII PII Sanskrit Avestan Latin English
*-kʷe *-kʲa *-ča -ca -ča -que 'and'
*gʷih₃wós *gʲiHwás *ǰiHwás jīvás juuō vīvus 'alive, living'
*gʷʰénti *gʲʰánti *ǰʰánti hánti jaiṇti -fendit 'slays'
PIE pre-PII PII Sanskrit Avestan Latin English
*deh₃tórm̥ *daHtā́rm̥ *daHtā́ram dātā́ram dātārəm datōrem 'giver' (accusative singular)
  • The vowels *e *o merge with *a. Similarly, *ē, *ō merge with *ā. This has the effect of giving full phonemic status to the second palatal series *č *ǰ *ǰʰ.
PIE PII Sanskrit Avestan Latin English
*dédeh₃ti *dádaHti dádāti dadāiti dat 'to give'
*h₃dónts *Hdánts dant dantan dēns 'tooth'
*bʰréh₂tēr *bʰráHtā bhrā́tr̥ brātar frāter 'brother'
*wṓkʷs *wā́kš vā́k vāxš vōx 'voice'
  • In certain positions, laryngeals were vocalized to *i. This preceded the second palatalization.[14][15]
  • Following a consonant, and preceding a consonant cluster
PIE PII Sanskrit Avestan Latin English
*ph₂tréy *pitráy pitré piθrē patrī 'father' (dative singular)
  • Following a consonant and word-final
PIE PII Sanskrit Avestan English
*-medʰh₂ *-madʰHi -mahi -maidī/-maiδi (1st person plural middle ending)
  • The Indo-European laryngeals all merged into one phoneme *H, which may have been a glottal stop. This was probably contemporary with the merging of *e and *o with *a.[16]
PIE PII Sanskrit Avestan Latin English
*ph₂tḗr *pHtā́ pitā́ ptā pater 'father'
  • According to Lubotsky's Law, *H disappeared when followed by a voiced nonaspirated stop and another consonant:[17]
PIE PII Sanskrit Avestan English
*bʰéh₂geti *bʰáǰati bhájati bažat̰ 'to divide, distribute'


Subsequent sound changes

Among the sound changes from Proto-Indo-Iranian to Indo-Aryan is the loss of the voiced sibilant *z; among those to Proto-Iranian is the de-aspiration of the PIE voiced aspirates.

Proto-Indo-European and Indo-Iranian Phonological Correspondences[18]
PIEOInd/VSAvPIEOInd/VSAv
*p>pp*ph̥₂tḗr "father"pitā́ "father"pitar- "father"
*b>bb*bél- "strong"bálam "strength"
*bʰ>bhb*réh₂tēr "brother"bhrā́tār- "brother"brātar- "brother
*t>tt*tuHóm "thou"tuvám "thou"tvəm "thou"
*d>dd*dóru "wood"dā́ru "wood"dāru- "wood"
*dʰ>dhd*oHnéh₂- "grain"dhānā́- "grain"dāna- "grain"
*ḱ>śs* "ten"śa "ten"dasa "ten"
>jz*ǵónu "knee"jā́nu "knee"zānu- "knee"
*ǵʰ>hz*ǵʰimós "cold"himá- "cold, frost"zəmaka- "winterstorm"
*k>k ~ cx ~ č*kruh₂rós "bloody"krūrá- "bloody"xrūra- "bloody"
*ket "may he run"tačat̰ "may he run"
*g>g ~ jg ~ ǰ*h₂éuges- "strength"ójas- "strength"aoǰah "strength"
*h₂ugrós "strong"ugrá- "strong"ugra- "strong"
*gʰ>gh ~ hg ~ ǰ*dl̥Hós "long"dīrghá- "long"darəga- "long"
*dleHistos "longest"drā́ghiṣṭhadraǰišta- "longest"
*kʷ>k ~ ck ~ č*ós "who"káḥ "who"kō "who"
*e "and"ca "and"́ča "and"
*gʷ>g ~ jg ~ ǰ*ou- "cow"gav- "cow"gau- "cow"
*ih₃wós "alive"jīvá- "alive"OPer: ǰīva- "living"
*gʷʰ>gh ~ hg ~ ǰ*gʷʰnénti "strike" (pl.)ghnánti "strike" (pl.)
*gʷʰénti "strikes"hánti "strikes"ǰainti "strikes"
*s>ss ~ h*septm̥ "seven"saptá "seven"hapta "seven"
*h₁ésti "is"ásti "is"asti "is"
*y>yy*yugóm "yoke"yugam "yoke"yuga- "yoke"
*w>vv*wéǵʰeti "drives, rides"váhati "drives"vazaiti "travels"
*m>mm*méh₂tēr "mother"mātár- "mother"mātar- "mother"
*n>nn*nós "us"nas "us"nō "us"
*l>l ~ rr*kʷeleti "moves"carati "moves"caraiti "moves"
*r>rr*réh₂tēr "brother"bhrā́tār- "brother"brātar- "brother
*n̥>aa*- "un-"a- "un-"a- "un-"
*m̥>aa*tóm "hundred"śatám "hundred"satəm "hundred"
*l̥>ərər*wĺ̥kʷos "wolf"vŕ̥ka- "wolf"vəhrka- "wolf"
*r̥>ərər*ŕ̥d- "heart"hŕ̥d- "heart"zərəd- "heart"
*i>ii*linékʷti "leaves"riṇákti "leaves"irinaxti "releases"
*e>aa*déḱm̥ "ten"dáśa "ten"dasa "ten"
>āā*h₂nr "man"nā "man"nā "man"
*a>aa*h₂éǵeti "drives"ájati "drives"azaiti "drives"
>āā*méh₂tēr "mother"mātā́ "mother"mātar- "mother"
*o>a ~ āa ~ ā*ǵómbʰos "tooth, peg"jā́mbha- "tooth, tusk"
*ǵónu "knee"jānu "knee"zānu- "knee"
>āā*oHnéh₂- "grain"dhānā́- "grain"dāna- "grain"
*u>uu*yugóm "yoke"yugám "yoke"yuga- "yoke"
>ūū*mū́s "mouse"mū́ṣ- "mouse"NPer mūs "mouse"
*h₁>*h₁ésti "is"ásti "is"asti "is"
*h₂>*h₂ŕ̥tḱos "bear"ŕ̥kṣa- "bear"arəša- "bear"
*h₃>*h₃ókʷs(i) "eye"ákṣi "eye"aši "eye"
*h₄>*h₄órǵʰis "testicle"ərəzi- "testicle"
Proto-Indo-IranianOld Iranian (Av, OP)Vedic Sanskrit
*Háćwas "horse"Av aspa, OP asaáśva
*bʰaHgás "portion, share"Av bāgabhāgá
*bʰráHtā "brother"Av, OP brātarbhrā́tr̥
*bʰúHmiš "earth, land"OP būmišbhū́mi-
*mártyas "mortal, man"Av maṣ̌iia, OP martiyamártya
*mā́Has "moon"Av mā̊, OP māhamā́s
*wásr̥ "spring"Av vaŋharvásara "morning"
*Hr̥tás "truth"Av aṣ̌a, OP artar̥tá
*dʰráwgʰas "lie"Av draoγa, OP draugadrógha "using malicious words"
*sáwmas "pressed (juice)"Av haomasóma-
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gollark: I don't like Go's method of forcing one formatting style on people to be honest, but builtin warnings for doing silly things is sensible.

See also

  • Substratum in the Vedic language

References

  1. Peter Bellwood; Immanuel Ness (10 November 2014). The Global Prehistory of Human Migration. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-97059-1.
  2. Burrow, pp. 78-79
  3. Ramat, Anna Giacalone (1998). The Indo-European Languages (illustrated ed.). London ; New York: Routledge. p. 134. ISBN 0-415-06449-X.
  4. Cardona, George; Dhanesh Jain (2003). The Indo-Aryan Languages. London ; New York: Routledge. p. 24. ISBN 0-7007-1130-9.
  5. Beekes (1988), p. 50
  6. Beekes, p. 55
  7. Burrow, pp. 74-75
  8. Fortson, p. 182
  9. Fortson, p. 181
  10. F. B. J. Kuiper. 1976. "Old East Iranian dialects." Indo-Iranian Journal 18, p. 242.
  11. Burrow, p. 91
  12. Burrow, pp. 92-94
  13. Fortson, p. 183
  14. Beekes, pp. 85-86
  15. Lubotsky, p. 53
  16. get ref
  17. Beekes, pp. 88-89
  18. "Indo-Iranian Languages." Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. Ed. J.P. Mallory and D.Q. Adams. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn, 1997. pp. 305.

Bibliography

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