Opioid withdrawal

Opioid withdrawal, is a set of symptoms (a syndrome), arising from the sudden withdrawal or reduction of opioids where previous usage has been heavy and prolonged.[1][2] Signs and symptoms of withdrawal can include drug craving, anxiety, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, sweating, and an increased heart rate.  Opioid use triggers a rapid adaptation in cellular signalling pathways that means, when rapidly withdrawn, there can be adverse physiological effects. All opioids, both recreational drugs and medications, when reduced or stopped, can lead to opioid withdrawal symptoms. When withdrawal symptoms are due to recreational opioid use – the term opioid use disorder is used; when due to prescribed medications the term prescription opioid use disorder is used.[3] Opioid withdrawal can be helped by the use of opioid replacement therapy, and symptoms may be relieved by the use of medications including lofexidine, and clonidine.[4]

Signs and symptoms

Withdrawal from any opioid produces similar signs and symptoms. However, the severity and duration of withdrawal depends on the type of opioid taken.

The symptoms of opioid withdrawal may develop within minutes or up to several days following reduction or stopping.[1] Symptoms can include: extreme anxiety, nausea or vomiting, muscle aches, a runny nose, sneezing, diarrhea, and fever.[1] Males may also experience spontaneous ejaculations whilst awake, and sweating.[1]

Pathophysiology
Locus coeruleus in LCNE system [5]

Repeated dosages of opioids can quickly lead to tolerance and physical dependence. This is the marked decrease in opioid receptor sensitivity caused by long-term receptor stimulation triggering receptor desensitisation (in this case receptor internalisation).[2] Tolerance causes a decrease in opioid sensitivity, impairing the efficacy of endogenous (our own body's) opioid molecules that function in multiple brain regions. Opioids partially signal through the decrease in cellular cAMP. Cells with decreased cAMP adapt to regulate cAMP and increase production. In the tolerant, brain the sudden withdrawal of opioids coupled with the reduced sensitivity to inhibitory signals from the endogenous opioid systems can cause abnormally high levels of cAMP that may be responsible for withdrawal behaviours.[6] Similar changes may also be responsible for the peripheral gastrointestinal effects such as diarrhea, as there is a reversal of the effect on gastrointestinal motility.[7]

Due to the difference in lipophilicity and mode of release between opioid analgesics, the severity and duration of withdrawal symptoms may differ.

The followings are the general descriptions of duration of opioid withdrawal symptoms:[8]

  • High intake for a long duration (> 6 Months) is associated with more severe level of withdrawal symptoms.
  • Short-acting or slow-released opioids result in more rapid onset and shorter duration of withdrawal symptoms.
  • Longer-acting opioids results in slower onset but longer duration of withdrawal symptoms.

Diagnosis

The diagnosis of opioid withdrawal requires recent use or exposure to opioids and symptoms consistent with the disorder.[9] The severity of symptoms can be assessed by validated withdrawal scales, such as the Clinical Opiate Withdrawal Scale (COWS).[10]

Treatment and management

Treatment for opioid withdrawal is based on underlying diagnostic features. A person with an acute opioid withdrawal but no underlying opioid use disorder can be managed by slowly reducing opioids and treatments aimed at the symptoms.[2]

Acute withdrawal

alpha 2 adrenergic agonists

A major feature of opioid withdrawal is exacerbated noradrenaline release in the locus coeruleus, alpha 2 adrenergic agonists can be used to manage the symptoms of acute withdrawal. Lofexidine and clonidine are used for this purpose, both are considered to be equally effective, though clonidine has more side effects than lofexidine.[11]

Withdrawal in opioid use disorder
Main article: Opioid use disorder § Management

The treatment of withdrawal in people with opioid use disorder additionally relies on symptomatic management in addition tapering with medications that replace typical opioids including buprenorphine and methadone. The principle of managing the syndrome is to allow the concentration of drugs in blood to fall to near zero and reverse physiological adaptation. This allows the body to adapt to the absence of drugs in order to reduce the withdrawal symptoms. The most commonly used strategy is to offer opioid drug users with long-acting opioid drugs and slowly taper the dose of the drug. Methadone and buprenorphine are often used in treating opioid withdrawal syndrome.[12]

Buprenorphine patch can deliver the opioid drug in transdermal route, with long lasting effect.

Dangerous or ineffective treatments

The cost and expense of opioid replacement treatments have led to some people trying treatments with limited evidence. At high doses, loperamide has been reported by some drug users to alleviate opioid withdrawal syndrome.[13] The doses reported in the literature are associated with a strong risk of damage to the heart.[14]

Neonatal opioid withdrawal

Many thousands of newborns each year are affected by being exposed to opioids during their prenatal development.[15] Maternal use and abuse of opioids has become prolific. The use of opioids during pregnancy creates a dependency in the newborn who experiences withdrawal symptoms shown in clinical signs of opioid withdrawal. These signs are grouped as the neonatal opioid withdrawal syndrome, also known as the neonatal abstinence syndrome.[15] The central nervous system (CNS), and the autonomic nervous system (ANS) are affected.

Common signs associated with the CNS are: high-pitched crying, reduced sleep, tremors, seizures, gastrointestinal dysfunction, and vomiting. Common ANS-associated signs include sweating, hyperthermia, yawning and sneezing, faster breathing rate, and nasal congestion.[15]

Suboxone tablet (Buprenorphine) deliver the opioid drug through sublingual route, gives fast on set of effect.
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See also

References
  1. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders : DSM-5 (5th ed.). American Psychiatric Association. 2013. pp. 547–549. ISBN 9780890425541.
  2. Volkow, Nora D.; Blanco, Carlos (2020-01-02). "Medications for opioid use disorders: clinical and pharmacological considerations". The Journal of Clinical Investigation. 130 (1): 10–13. doi:10.1172/JCI134708. ISSN 0021-9738. PMC 6934219. PMID 31763992.
  3. Blandthorn, J; Leung, L; Loke, Y (October 2018). "Prescription opioid use in pregnancy". The Australian & New Zealand Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology. 58 (5): 494–498. doi:10.1111/ajo.12823. PMID 29744859. S2CID 13665351.
  4. Rehman, Saif Ur; Maqsood, Muhammad Haisum; Bajwa, Hamza; Tameez Ud Din, Asim; Malik, Mustafa N (2019). "Clinical Efficacy and Safety Profile of Lofexidine Hydrochloride in Treating Opioid Withdrawal Symptoms: A Review of Literature". Cureus. 11 (6): e4827. doi:10.7759/cureus.4827. ISSN 2168-8184. PMC 6682385. PMID 31403015.
  5. Lin, Hause; Vartanian, Oshin (2018-06-07). "A Neuroeconomic Framework for Creative Cognition". Perspectives on Psychological Science. 13. doi:10.1177/1745691618794945.
  6. Christie, M J (May 2008). "Cellular neuroadaptations to chronic opioids: tolerance, withdrawal and addiction". British Journal of Pharmacology. 154 (2): 384–396. doi:10.1038/bjp.2008.100. ISSN 0007-1188. PMC 2442443. PMID 18414400.
  7. Thomas, Jay (2008-01-01). "Opioid-Induced Bowel Dysfunction". Journal of Pain and Symptom Management. 35 (1): 103–113. doi:10.1016/j.jpainsymman.2007.01.017. ISSN 0885-3924.
  8. "Opioid withdrawal management: SA Health". www.sahealth.sa.gov.au. Retrieved 28 March 2020.
  9. Kosten, Thomas R.; Baxter, Louis E. (2019). "Review article: Effective management of opioid withdrawal symptoms: A gateway to opioid dependence treatment". The American Journal on Addictions. 28 (2): 55–62. doi:10.1111/ajad.12862. ISSN 1521-0391. PMC 6590307. PMID 30701615.
  10. "Clinical Opiate Withdrawal Scale" (PDF).
  11. Gowing, Linda; Farrell, Michael; Ali, Robert; White, Jason M (2016-05-03). "Alpha 2 -adrenergic agonists for the management of opioid withdrawal". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. doi:10.1002/14651858.cd002024.pub5. ISSN 1465-1858. PMC 7081129. PMID 27140827.
  12. Schuckit, Marc A. (2016-07-28). "Treatment of Opioid-Use Disorders". New England Journal of Medicine. 375 (4): 357–368. doi:10.1056/NEJMra1604339. ISSN 0028-4793. PMID 27464203.
  13. Daniulaityte, Raminta; Carlson, Robert; Falck, Russel; Cameron, Delroy; Perera, Sujan; Chen, Lu; Sheth, Amit (2013-06-01). ""I Just Wanted to Tell You That Loperamide WILL WORK": A Web-Based Study of Extra-Medical Use of Loperamide". Drug and alcohol dependence. 130 (0): 241–244. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2012.11.003. ISSN 0376-8716. PMC 3633632. PMID 23201175.
  14. Borron, Stephen W.; Watts, Susan H.; Tull, Jonathan; Baeza, Salvador; Diebold, Stephanie; Barrow, Alison (July 2017). "Intentional Misuse and Abuse of Loperamide: A New Look at a Drug with "Low Abuse Potential"". The Journal of Emergency Medicine. 53 (1): 73–84. doi:10.1016/j.jemermed.2017.03.018. ISSN 0736-4679.
  15. Piccotti, L; Voigtman, B; Vongsa, R; Nellhaus, EM; Rodriguez, KJ; Davies, TH; Quirk, S (1 May 2019). "Neonatal Opioid Withdrawal Syndrome: A Developmental Care Approach". Neonatal Network : NN. 38 (3): 160–169. doi:10.1891/0730-0832.38.3.160. PMID 31470383. S2CID 181561278.

Psychiatric diagnosis

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