Nicaraguan Armed Forces

The Nicaraguan Armed Forces are the military forces of Nicaragua.

Nicaraguan Armed Forces
Fuerzas Armadas de Nicaragua
MottoPatria y Libertad (English: "Fatherland and Freedom")
FoundedSeptember 2, 1979
Current form1995
Service branchesGround Forces
Navy
Air Force
Civil Defense Forces
HeadquartersManagua
Websiteejercito.mil.ni
Leadership
Supreme Commander-in-ChiefDaniel Ortega
Minister of DefenseMartha Elena Ruiz Sevilla
Commander-in-Chief of the ArmyJulio César Avilés Castillo
Manpower
Military age17-49
ConscriptionNo
Available for
military service		1,309,970 males, age 15–49,
1,315,186[1] females, age 15–49
Fit for
military service		1,051,425 males, age 15–49,
1,129,649 females, age 15–49
Reaching military
age annually		65,170 males,
63,133 females
Active personnel45,000[2] (ranked 105th)
Expenditures
Budget$32 million (Ranked 139th)[3]
Percent of GDP0.9% (2012 est.) (Ranked 56th)
Dollar Figure (per capita)
$0.06[4]
Industry
Foreign suppliers Russia
 United Kingdom
 United States
 Poland
 France
 Turkey
Related articles
HistoryNicaraguan Revolution
National Guard (Nicaragua)
RanksNicaragua military ranks

History

National Guard, 1927–1979
Main article: National Guard (Nicaragua)

The long years of strife between the peasant and land-owning political factions and the existence of private armies led the United States to sponsor the National Guard as an apolitical institution to assume all military and police functions in Nicaragua. The marines provided the training, but their efforts were complicated by a guerrilla movement led by Augusto César Sandino that continued to resist the marines and the fledgling National Guard from a stronghold in the mountainous areas of northern Nicaragua.

Upon the advent of the United States Good Neighbor Policy in 1933, the marines withdrew. Having reached a strength of about 3,000 by the mid-1930s, the guard was organized into company units, although the Presidential Guard component approached battalion size. Expanded to no more than 9,000 during the civil war of 1978-79, the guard consisted of a reinforced battalion as its primary tactical unit, a Presidential Guard battalion, a mechanized company, an engineer battalion, artillery and antiaircraft batteries, and one security company in each of the country's sixteen departments.

The National Guard's main arms were M1 Garands and Israeli Galils, later augmented by antiaircraft guns and mortars. Nicaragua declared war on the Axis powers in 1941, immediately after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. Although Nicaragua was not actively involved in World War II, it qualified for United States Lend-Lease military aid in exchange for U.S. base facilities at Corinto. Additional shipments of small arms and transportation and communication equipment followed, as well as some training and light transport aircraft.

United States military aid to the National Guard continued under the Rio de Janeiro Treaty of Mutual Defense (1947), but stopped in 1976 after relations with the administration of Anastasio Somoza Debayle (1967–72, 1974–79) worsened. Some United States equipment of World War II vintage was also purchased from other countries—Staghound armored cars and M4 Sherman medium tanks from Israel and F-51 Mustang fighter aircraft from Sweden. Except for minor frontier skirmishes with Honduras in 1957 over a border dispute, the National Guard was not involved in any conflict with its neighbors. The guard's domestic power, however, gradually broadened to embrace not only its original internal security and police functions but also control over customs, telecommunications, port facilities, radio broadcasting, the merchant marine, and civil aviation.

Military under the Sandinista government, 1979–1990
See also: FSLN

To replace the National Guard, the Sandinistas established a new national army, the Sandinista Popular Army (Ejército Popular Sandinista—EPS), and a police force, the Sandinista Police (Policía Sandinista). These two groups, contrary to the original Puntarenas Pact were controlled by the Sandinistas and trained by personnel from Cuba, Eastern Europe, and the Soviet Union. Opposition to the overwhelming FSLN influence in the security forces did not surface until 1980.[5]

Meanwhile, the EPS developed, with support from Cuba and the Soviet Union, into the largest and best equipped military force in Central America. Simultaneously, with the introduction of Patriotic Military Service (1983), a conscription system, EPS forces reached approximately 80,000 active-duty members by 1990.[6] Patriotic Military Service required males, ranging in age from seventeen to twenty-six, to serve four years in the military (two years active duty and two years in the reserves).[6] This conscription system did not require women to enlist; however, they could do so voluntarily.[6]

The Patriotic Military Service system was an extremely unpopular initiative taken by the Sandinista government. Draft dodging was rampant as young men fled the country in order to avoid conscription.[6] Additionally, massive demonstrations and antidraft protests plagued the country.[6] In 1990, the Patriotic Military Service system would be abolished after the Sandinista's lost power during the presidential elections.[6]

Nicaraguan Armed Forces, 1990–1995

Under an agreement between President-elect Chamorro of the National Opposition Union (Unión Nacional Oppositora – UNO) and the defeated FSLN party, General Humberto Ortega, former defense minister and commander in chief of the EPS under the Sandinistas, remained at the head of the armed forces. By a law that took effect in April 1990, the EPS became subordinate to President Chamorro as commander in chief. Chamorro also retained the Ministry of Defense portfolio.

Chamorro's authority over the EPS was very limited. There were no Ministry of Defense offices and no vice ministers to shape national defense policies or exercise civilian control over the armed forces. Under the Law of Military Organization of the Sandinista Popular Army enacted just before Chamorro's election victory, Humberto Ortega retained authority over promotions, military construction, and force deployments. He contracted for weapons procurement and drafted the military budget presented to the government. Only an overall budget had to be submitted to the legislature, thus avoiding a line-item review by the National Assembly.

Sandinista officers remained at the head of all general staff directorates and military regions. The chief of the army, Major General Joaquín Cuadra Lacayo, continued in his pre-Chamorro position. Facing domestic pressure to remove Humberto Ortega and the risk of curtailment of United States aid as long as Sandinistas remained in control of the armed forces, Chamorro announced that Ortega would be replaced in 1994. Ortega challenged her authority to relieve him and reiterated his intention to remain at the head of the EPS until the army reform program was completed in 1997.

The army reform measures were launched with deep cuts in personnel strengths, the abolition of conscription, and disbanding of the militia. The size of the army declined from a peak strength of 97,000 troops to an estimated 15,200 in 1993, accomplished by voluntary discharges and forced retirements. Under the Sandinistas, the army general staff embodied numerous branches and directorates artillery, combat readiness, communications, Frontier Guards, military construction, intelligence, counterintelligence, training, operations, organization and mobilization, personnel, and logistics. Most of these bodies appear to have been retained, although they have been trimmed and reorganized. The Nicaraguan Air Force and Navy were also subordinate to the army general staff.

Since 1990 the mission of the EPS has been to ensure the security of the national borders and to deal with internal disturbances. Its primary task has been to prevent disorder and violence wrought by armed bands of former Contra and Sandinista soldiers.

In November and December 1992, the EPS was deployed alongside the National Police to prevent violence during demonstrations by the National Workers' Front for improved pay and benefits. The EPS and the Frontier Guards also assist the police in narcotics control. A small EPS contingent works alongside demobilized Contras in a Special Disarmament Brigade to reduce the arsenal of weapons in civilian hands.

National Army of Nicaragua, 1995–2006

In 1995, the National Army of Nicaragua (Ejército de Nicaragua), having never previously been fully apolitical evolved, through constitutional reforms, into a more traditional Central American military.[7] As ties to the FSLN weakened, military leaders turned over power regularly without “fuss,” refrained from becoming involved in the political realm, and the overall size of the military significantly decreased.[7]

National Army of Nicaragua, 2006–present

Under President Ortega, multiple changes have occurred strengthening FSLN control over the national military. During 2010, the national assembly “passed changes that allowed [the] politicization of the country’s security forces, while expanding these agencies’ domestic powers.”[8] This change effectively erased the shift towards being an apolitical force from 1995 to 2006. Then in 2014, President Ortega supported a constitutional reform removing the defense and governance ministries “from the security forces’ chain of command, reducing oversight and leaving [President] Ortega in charge of appointing military and police commanders.”[9] This action enhanced President Ortega’s political and personal control over the nation’s security forces and personnel.

President Ortega has also strengthened his ability to control the general population through two different national security initiatives. In 2015, the Sovereign Security Law, “erased barriers between internal and external security, and gave the Ortega government wide discretion to use coercion against any person or entity deemed a threat to the state, society, or economy.”[9] The Sovereign Security Law provided the Ortega administration the right to infringe upon the basic human rights protected in the Nicaraguan constitution, if deemed necessary. Also, CPCs “have been replaced by Family, Community, and Life Cabinets (Gabinetes).”[9] These cabinets are linked to the police and provide the government with a means to keep communities under constant surveillance.[9]

In the contemporary period, multiple changes have taken place in the military regarding purpose and structure. The military currently serves as a force for national defense, public security, civil defense, and national development. In 2014, an expansion of institutional powers granted the military with the opportunity for greater involvement in international security initiatives.[7] The National Army of Nicaragua also has the highest public approval ratings of any Nicaraguan institution.[7]

Personnel

Military careers

The Nicaraguan military, Fuerzas Armadas de Nicaragua, exists in a top-down hierarchy and is partitioned into multiple ranks. In order to become a Lieutenant, Captain, Major, Lieutenant Colonel or Colonel, a candidate must attend Staff College (ESEM).[10] Alternatively, one may begin a military career as a Lieutenant, with the opportunity for advancement, by obtaining a bachelor's degree in Military Sciences.[11] Individuals may also attend Officers School, to gain the rank of Major, Lieutenant Colonel, Colonel, and General Staff or Army General.[10]

The Nicaraguan navy offers training other than that offered through ESEM, a bachelor's degree in Military Sciences, and Officers School. Candidates seeking to advance in the Nicaraguan navy may attend navy-specific training to become Lieutenant Commanders, Commanders, Captains, fleet Admirals, Generals, Major Generals and Generals of the Army.[10]

Despite offering advancement through ESEM training, Officers School, and a bachelor's degree in Military Sciences, most high-ranking officers choose to receive their formal military education from training opportunities in Mexico, Spain, France, China, Russia, and Cuba.[12]

Military size (manpower)

Nicaragua has a small military force with only 9,412 members as of 2010. This number includes 1,500 officers (16%), 302 non-commissioned officers (3%), and 7,610 troops (81%).[13] This relatively small armed force is supported by an extremely small $41 million-dollar defense budget (2010).[14] Such a small military budget has resulted in severe deficiencies in terms of manpower (i.e. cannot supply and employ) and modern weaponry.[15] This budget represents approximately 2.84% of the country's overall expenditures.[16]

Civilian police

The National Police of Nicaragua, established in 1979, was created to maintain domestic tranquility, prevent crime, ensure security for all civilians, prosecute offenders, and enforce any other nationally mandated laws.[17] As a non-political, non-partisan, and non-deliberative organization, the National Police of Nicaragua was a revolutionary agency when created.[18] This body is unaided by the national military, since it exists as a completely separate entity; however, in accordance with Article 92, the President may order the army to intervene on the National Police's behalf.[19] There is also a volunteer police force that aids the National Police force, not just in times of dire need. The National Police Force is organized into several different tiers: the national specialized organizations (i.e. investigation departments), support organizations (i.e. Police Academy), police delegations (i.e. department, municipal), and advisory structures (i.e. National Council).[20] Those wishing to become members of the National Police Force must pass through rigorous hours of training and multiple examinations.

Military performance regarding human rights

Armed Forces performed very well in terms of human rights under the Sandinista's. Upon visiting Nicaragua, human rights organizations such as Amnesty International, Americas Watch, and the Human Rights Commission of the Organization of American States found “little evidence of the extreme types of human rights violations so common under…US-backed regimes.”[21] These organizations were also unable to find any examples of: state-sponsored death squads, use of physical torture propagated by the state, and very few disappearances/executions.[21] Although, the investigations led by human rights organizations excluded unruly soldiers acting violently on their own accord. In this context, it was discovered that the government's “usual response…was to investigate and discipline those responsible.”[21]

Army equipment

Light equipment
Nicaraguan military members train during a visit by the U.S. Navy
  • Degtyaryov machine gun
  • Makarov PM
  • M1911 pistol
  • Smith & Wesson Model 10
  • Browning Hi-Power
  • Glock 17
  • Jericho 941
  • Heckler & Koch MP5
  • PPSh-41
  • IMI Uzi
  • IMI Mini Uzi
  • FN FAL
  • Heckler & Koch G3
  • AK-74MS
  • Type 58 rifle
  • Type 56 assault rifle
  • Pistol Mitralieră model 1963/1965
  • Romanian RPK version of the MD. 63 is called the MD. 64
  • Pistol Mitralieră model 1990
  • Puşcă Mitralieră model 1964 ("model 1964 light machine gun")
  • AIM/AIMS
  • AIM - 7.62×39mm
  • PM.md.65 with cleaning rod removed - 7.62×39mm. An early version of the AIMS with an under folding stock and inward curved grip
  • AIMS - 7.62×39mm
  • AIMS with 75-round drum magazine - 7.62×39mm
  • AIMR
  • First model AIMR with 20-round magazine - 7.62×39mm. The original Romanian designation for this rifle is the PM md. 80
  • AIMR - 7.62×39mm. The original Romanian designation for this rifle is the PM md. 90 cu țeavă scurtă (short barrelled)
  • AIMR - 5.56×45mm. The original Romanian designation for this rifle is the PA md. 97 cu țeavă scurtă (short barrelled)
  • AIMR - 5.56×45mm. The original Romanian designation for this rifle is the PA md. 97 cu țeavă scurtă (short barrelled)
  • Romanian AK Draco Pistol - 7.62×39mm. This is a US import variant of the AIMR and can be identified by its lack of a stock, a plain handguard without palmswell and 2 position selector switch
  • Romanian AK Draco Carbine - 7.62×39mm. This is a Draco pistol fitted with an AIMS folding stock to replicate the original AIMR, however it still lacks the palmswell hanguard and 3 position selector switch
  • PM md. 80 Pistol Mitralieră model 1980
  • PM md. 90Pistol Mitralieră model 1990
  • AK-103 Used by Nicaraguan Special Forces.
  • AK-47
  • Type I AK-47, hybrid stamped/milled receiver with prototype slab sided magazine - 7.62×39mm
  • Type II AK-47 (note stock mounting bracket) with prototype slab sided magazine - 7.62×39mm
  • Type II AK-47 - 7.62×39mm
  • Type III AK-47 with prototype slab-sided magazine - 7.62×39mm
  • AKM
  • AKMS / MPiKMS
  • AKMSK
  • Zastava M70
  • Zastava M-70A – milled receiver, underfolding stock
  • M-70A1 – milled receiver, underfolding stock, mount for night or optical sights
  • M-70B1 – stamped receiver, fixed stock
  • M-70AB2 – stamped receiver, underfolding stock
  • M-70B1N – stamped receiver, fixed stock, mount for night or optical sights
  • M-70AB2N – stamped receiver, underfolding stock, mount for night or optical sights
  • M-70AB3 – stamped receiver, underfolding stock, rifle grenade sight removed and replaced with a BGP 40mm underslung grenade launcher
  • M-70B3 – stamped receiver, fixed stock, rifle grenade sight removed and replaced with a BGP 40mm underslung grenade launcher
  • M-92 – carbine, the shorter variant of the M-70AB2
  • PAP M-70 – semi-automatic variant intended for the civilian market
  • MPi-KM/MPi-KMS-72
  • MPi-KMS
  • East German MPi-KM-72 with fixed stock - 7.62×39mm. This was the transitional MPi-KM-72 that still used the wooden lower hand grip from the MPi-KM. These were common from 1965-1972. The Side folding stock was not widely distributed until 1973
  • East German MPi-KM with plastic stock - 7.62×39mm
  • East German MPi-KMS-72 with sling and side-folding stock - 7.62×39mm
  • M-92 – carbine, the shorter variant of the M-70AB2
  • PAP M-70 – semi-automatic variant intended for the civilian market
  • AK-74 – Assault rifle
  • AKS-74 – Side-folding stock
  • AK-74N (AKS-74N) – Night scope rail
  • AKS-74U – Compact carbine
  • AKS-74UN – Night scope rail
  • AK-63
  • AK-63F (AMM in Hungarian service): The basic fixed-stock copy of the Soviet AKM.
  • AK-63D (AMMSZ in Hungarian service): An AKMS copy with an under-folding steel stock.
  • AK-63MF: Modernised AK-63D with telescopic stock and MIL-STD-1913 Picatinny rail.
  • SA-85M: A semi-automatic-only version intended for civilian sales in the United States; imported by Kassnar in both pre- and post-ban versions.
  • IMI Galil - 10,000
  • IMI Micro Galil
  • IMI Micro Galil
  • IMI MAR Galil
  • IMI SAR Galil
  • IMI ARM Galil
  • IMI AR Galil
  • T65
  • M16A1 & M16A2 rifle - 6,000
  • SIG SG 540
  • Ithaca 37
  • Remington-870 shotgun
  • M67 grenade
  • M59 grenade
  • M34 grenade
  • M26A1 grenade
  • AN M14
  • AN M18
  • M79 grenade launcher - 64
  • Heckler & Koch HK69A1 / MZP-1
  • FAMAE SAF - Standard and mini-versions[22]
  • HK MP5 sub-machine guns
  • RPK
  • RPKS (folding stock)
  • RPKS-74M
  • RPKS-74
  • RPKS-74N
  • RPKSN
  • RPK-74m
  • RPKN
  • RPD
  • RPK(S)N night scope rail
  • RPK(S)Lflash suppressor& night scope rail
  • RPKM (modernized)
  • RPK-203 (export variant)
  • RPK-204 (7.62×51mm NATO)
  • AGS-17 Plamya
  • AGS-30 Atlant light automatic grenade launcher

Armoured vehicles
  • T-72 - MBT - 20 T-72Bs delivered 2016[23]
  • T-54/55 - 62 - 156 delivered (20 T-54 & 136 T-55) some via Bulgaria & Libya
  • PT-76B LT - 22
  • BMP-1 - IFV - some[24]
  • AMX-VCI - APC - 30 - (planning modernisation)
  • BTR-152 - APC - 120
  • BTR-40 - APC - 20
  • BTR-50U CP Version- 1
  • BTR-60PB 8x8 APC - 82
  • BRDM-2 - 4 - modernised
  • T1E1 Staghound 4x4 37mm ARV via - 20
  • Altay - to be delivered in 2021

Vehicles

Anti-tank weapons

Artillery
  • D-30 2A18 122mm towed howitzer - 67
  • M-30 122mm towed howitzer - 24
  • D-20 M-1955 152mm towed howitzer - 60
  • ZiS-2 M-1943 57mm anti tank gun - 354
  • M101A 105mm towed howitzer - 12
  • ZiS-3 M-1942 76mm divisional gun - 85
  • BS-3 100mm filed gun - 24
  • M-160 160mm heavy mortar - 4
  • M-43 120mm heavy mortar - 24
  • Soltam M-65 120mm heavy mortar - some

Multiple rocket launchers

Anti-aircraft equipment

EW radars
  • P-37 Bar-Lock - 2
  • P-12 Spoon-Rest - 6
  • Son-9 - 7
  • Damen Stan patrol vessel 4207 - 2 (In service 2018, built in 2005 - ex Trinidad & Tobago Defence Force)
  • FPBs SinHung type - 3
  • Zhuk class PCs - 3
  • Dabur class PCs - 10 status unknown
  • Yevgenya class minesweepers - 8
  • Vedette class PCs - 2
  • PCs - status unknown
  • K-8 class minesweepers - 2

Air Force equipment

Aircraft inventory
Aircraft Type Versions In service[25] Notes
Mil Mi-8 Hiptransport helicopterMi-8
Mil Mi-17 Hip-H		5
15.		A total of 60 delivered. some sold to Peru (12 Mil Mi-8 Hip-E & 48 Mil Mi-17 Hip-H delivered).
Mil Mi-25 Hindattack helicopter28 (12 Mil Mi-25 Hind-E + 16 Mil Mi-24 Hind D)
AT-33Ajet training\CAS7-10 delivered out of service
Mirage M50FGA24 Mirage M50E\D\R ordered, not delivered
MiG-21 FishbedFGA24 Mig-21 Bis\ Mig-21U ordered-not delivered.
MiG-17 Fresco DFGA15 out of service/reported
Ilyushin IL-28 BeagleLB6 reported. out of service.
C-47 Dakotatransport13 out of service.
C-123K Providertransport5 delivered
DHC-4 Caribou}transport3 delivered
Fokker F-27transport2 delivered
Cessna 185trainer7 out of service.
Cessna 401 Titantransport1 delivered.
Cessna 172 SkyhawktrainerT-41D1 (7 delivered).
Cessna 210 Centurionutility2
Cessna 337 SkymasterliaisonO-2A
O-2B		8
1 (10 delivered).
AT-28D Trojantraining\COIN18 (11 AT-28D\ 7 AT-28A) out of service.
SIAI SF-260W Warriorliaison\light attack6 deilverd4
Hughes OH-6A Defenderattack helicopter12 out of service.
Antonov An-26 CurltransportAn-26C2 (7 delivered).
Antonov An-2 Colttransport11 delivered. out of service.
Mil Mi
-2 Hoplite		trainerMi-23 (10 delivered).
Piper PA-23 AztecutilityPA-23-2501 (2 delivered)
Piper PA-34 Senecautility8 delivered.out of service.(PA-34-200)
Piper PA28-235transport2 delivered.
Piper PA-18 Cubtraining10 delivered2
Beechcraft B-200 Super King Airtransport1
C-212 Aviocartransport5 delivered.out of service
Bell UH-1Hhelicopter2 delivered. out of service.
Alouette-IIIattack helicopter2 delivered.out of service.
Sikorsky S-58helicopter11 delivered.out of service.
Dassault Falcon 20VIP jet1 delivered. out of service,
HS125VIP jet1 delivered. out of service.
DHC-3 Ottertransport6 delivered. out of service.
IAI-201 Aravatransporter2 delivered. out of service.
gollark: ả̹̿l͖͊ͮs͖ͦ̂o̫͆͢ ̥̱͙ṯ̡̱ḧ̴̎ị͒ͦs̳͎͏.̦͐͛
gollark: I also have a bunch of text processing scripts for annoying people on Discord ||b||||y|| ||d||||o||||i||||n||||g|| ||t||||h||||i||||s||||.||.
gollark: For example, converting a directory of videos to a different format with `ffmpeg` or something.
gollark: Scripting capability is useful for doing random stuff a lot of times, or in bulk, and I do that occasionally.
gollark: If you *do* have to work with non-Linux stuff it probably isn't worth it.

See also

References
  1. "World Factbook Redirect — Central Intelligence Agency". Archived from the original on 2007-05-08.
  2. "Nicaragua Armed Forces". 2006-07-25.
  3. CIA.gov Archived 2007-09-30 at the Wayback Machine Rank Order – Military expenditures – dollar figure
  4. "NationMaster – Nicaraguan Military statistics".
  5. "Nicaragua: CONCODOC 1998 report".
  6. Merrill, Tim; Federal Research Division, The Library of Congress (1994). Nicaragua: A Country Study. Washington D.C.: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. p. 199.
  7. Millett, Richard L. (2018). "Nicaragua: An Uncertain Future". In Kline, Harvey F.; Wade, Christine J.; Wiarda, Howard J. (eds.). Latin American Politics and Development (Ninth ed.). New York: Westview Press. p. 387.
  8. Thaler, Kai M. (April 2017). "Nicaragua: A Return to Caudillismo". Journal of Democracy. 28: 159 – via Project Muse.
  9. Thaler, Kai M. (April 2017). "Nicaragua: A Return to Caudillismo". Journal of Democracy. 28: 160 – via Project Muse.
  10. de León-Escribano, Carmen Rosa (July 2011). "Capabilities of Police and Military Forces in Central -- A Comparative Analysis of Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras and Nicaragua". Western Hemisphere Security Analysis Center: 12 – via Florida International University.
  11. de León-Escribano, Carmen Rosa (July 2011). "Capabilities of Police and Military Forces in Central America -- A Comparative Analysis of Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras and Nicaragua". Western Hemisphere Security Analysis Center: 11 – via Florida International University.
  12. Premo, Daniel L. (March 1996). "The 'New' Nicaraguan Military: Sandinista To The 'Corps'". MACLAS Latin American Essays. 16: 117 – via Gale Group.
  13. de León-Escribano, Carmen Rosa (July 2011). "Capabilities of Police and Military Forces in Central America -- A Comparative Analysis of Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras and Nicaragua". Western Hemisphere Security Analysis Center: 16 – via Florida International University.
  14. de León-Escribano, Carmen Rosa (July 2011). "Capabilities of Police and Military Forces in Central America -- A Comparative Analysis of Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras and Nicaragua". Western Hemisphere Security Analysis Center: 17 – via Florida International University.
  15. de León-Escribano, Carmen Rosa (July 2011). "Capabilities of Police and Military Forces in Central America -- A Comparative Analysis of Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras and Nicaragua". Western Hemisphere Security Analysis Center: 18 – via Florida International University.
  16. de León-Escribano, Carmen Rosa (July 2011). "Capabilities of Police and Military Forces in Central America -- A Comparative Analysis of Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras and Nicaragua". Western Hemisphere Security Analysis Center: 37 – via Florida International University.
  17. de León-Escribano, Carmen Rosa (July 2011). "Capabilities of Police and Military Forces in Central America -- A Comparative Analysis of Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras and Nicaragua". Western Hemisphere Security Analysis Center: 28–29 – via Florida International University.
  18. de León-Escribano, Carmen Rosa (July 2011). "Capabilities of Police and Military Forces in Central America -- A Comparative Analysis of Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras and Nicaragua". Western Hemisphere Security Analysis Center: 29 – via Florida International University.
  19. de León-Escribano, Carmen Rosa (July 2011). "Capabilities of Police and Military Forces in Central America -- A Comparative Analysis of Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras and Nicaragua". Western Hemisphere Security Analysis Center: 29–30 – via Florida International University.
  20. de León-Escribano, Carmen Rosa (July 2011). "Capabilities of Police and Military Forces in Central America -- A Comparative Analysis of Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras and Nicaragua". Western Hemisphere Security Analysis Center: 30 – via Florida International University.
  21. Walker, Thomas W. (1985). Nicaragua: The First Five Years. New York: Praeger Publishers. p. 114.
  22. "Militaryphotos.net". www.militaryphotos.net.
  23. Salinas, Carlos (27 April 2016). "Nicaragua compra 50 tanques a Rusia" – via elpais.com.
  24. "Comandante Daniel preside Desfile Militar en honor al 35 Aniversario del Ejército". El 19 Digital.
  25. "World Military Aircraft Inventory", Aerospace Source Book 2007, Aviation Week & Space Technology, January 15, 2007.

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