Jeffery Amherst, 1st Baron Amherst

Field Marshal Jeffery[n 1] Amherst, 1st Baron Amherst, KB (29 January 1717 – 3 August 1797) served as an officer in the British Army and as Commander-in-Chief of the Forces.

"Lord Amherst" redirects here. For for the first earl, see William Amherst, 1st Earl Amherst. For other people, see Amherst (disambiguation).

Field Marshal The Right Honourable

The Lord Amherst

KB
Amherst by Joshua Reynolds
Commander-in-Chief, North America
In office
1758–1763
Crown Governor of Virginia
In office
1759–1768
Monarch
Preceded byJohn Campbell, 4th Earl of Loudoun
Succeeded byNorborne Berkeley, 4th Baron Botetourt
Governor of the Province of Quebec
In office
1760–1763
MonarchGeorge III
Preceded byPost created—replacing the French post of Governor General of New France
Succeeded byJames Murray
Personal details
Born(1717-01-29)29 January 1717
Sevenoaks, Kent, Great Britain
Died3 August 1797(1797-08-03) (aged 80)
Sevenoaks, Kent, Great Britain
Resting placeParish Church at Sevenoaks
AwardsKnight of the Order of the Bath
Signature
Military service
AllegianceKingdom of Great Britain
Branch/serviceBritish Army
Years of service1735–1795
RankField marshal
Commands
Battles/wars

Amherst is best known as the architect of Britain's successful campaign to conquer the territory of New France during the Seven Years' War. Under his command, British forces captured the cities of Louisbourg, Quebec City and Montreal, as well as several major fortresses. He was also the first British Governor General in the territories that eventually became Canada. Numerous places and streets are named for him, in both Canada and the United States.

Amherst's legacy is controversial due to his expressed desire to exterminate the race of indigenous people during Pontiac's War, and his advocacy of biological warfare in the form of gifting blankets infected with smallpox as a weapon,[1] notably at the Siege of Fort Pitt. This has led to a reconsideration of his legacy. In 2019, the City of Montreal removed his name from a street in the city, renaming it Rue Atateken, from the Kanien'kéha Mohawk language.[2] The town of Amherst, Nova Scotia is also considering renaming in light of recent movements to reconsider the naming of "towns, streets and monuments that celebrate past war heroes whom, seen through today's ethical lens are not people who behaved in ways that we respect today,"[3] as is the town of Amherstburg, Ontario.[4]

Life

Early life

Born the son of Jeffrey Amherst (d. 1750), a Kentish lawyer,[5] and Elizabeth Amherst (née Kerrill),[6] Jeffery Amherst was born in Sevenoaks, England, on 29 January 1717.[7] His brothers included Admiral John Amherst and Lieutenant General William Amherst.[8] At an early age, he became a page to the Duke of Dorset.[7] Amherst became an ensign in the Grenadier Guards in 1735.[9]

Amherst served in the War of the Austrian Succession becoming an aide to General John Ligonier and participating in the Battle of Dettingen in June 1743 and the Battle of Fontenoy in May 1745.[10] Promoted to lieutenant colonel on 25 December 1745, he also saw action at the Battle of Rocoux in October 1746.[11] He then became an aide to the Duke of Cumberland, the commander of the British forces, and saw further action at the Battle of Lauffeld in July 1747.[11]

Seven Years' War

Germany
Main article: Invasion of Hanover (1757)

In February 1756, Amherst was appointed commissar to the Hessian forces that had been assembled to defend Hanover as part of the Army of Observation: as it appeared likely a French invasion attempt against Britain itself was imminent, Amherst was ordered in April to arrange the transportation of thousands of the Germans to southern England to bolster Britain's defences.[12] He was made colonel of the 15th Regiment of Foot on 12 June 1756.[13] By 1757 as the immediate danger to Britain had passed the troops were moved back to Hanover to join a growing army under the Duke of Cumberland and Amherst fought with the Hessians under Cumberland's command at the Battle of Hastenbeck in July 1757:[11] the Allied defeat there forced the army into a steady retreat northwards to Stade on the North Sea coast.[14]

Amherst was left dispirited by the retreat and by the Convention of Klosterzeven by which Hanover agreed to withdraw from the war: he began to prepare to disband the Hessian troops under his command, only to receive word that the Convention had been repudiated and the Allied force was being reformed.[15]

Louisbourg
Main article: Siege of Louisbourg (1758)

Amherst gained fame during the Seven Years' War, particularly in the North American campaign known in the United States as the French and Indian War when he led the British attack on Louisbourg on Cape Breton Island in June 1758.[11]

In the wake of this action, he was appointed commander-in-chief of the British army in North America and colonel-in-chief of the 60th (Royal American) Regiment in September 1758.[11] Amherst then led an army against French troops on Lake Champlain, where he captured Fort Ticonderoga in July 1759, while another army under William Johnson took Niagara also in July 1759 and James Wolfe besieged and eventually captured Quebec with a third army in September 1759.[11] Amherst served as the nominal Crown Governor of Virginia from 12 September 1759.[16]

Montreal
Grateful Reflexions on the Signal Appearances of Divine Providence for Great Britain and its Colonies in America. 1760
Further information: Montreal Campaign

From July 1760, Amherst led an army down the Saint Lawrence River from Fort Oswego, joined with Brigadier Murray from Quebec and Brigadier Haviland from Ile-aux-Noix in a three-way pincer,[17] and captured Montreal, ending French rule in North America on 8 September.[11] He infuriated the French commanders by refusing them the honours of war; the Chevalier de Lévis burned the colours rather than surrendering them,[18] to highlight his differences with Vaudreuil for later political advantage back in France.[17]

Half the continent changed hands "at the scratch of a pen." The British settlers were relieved and proclaimed a day of thanksgiving. Boston newspapers recount how the occasion was celebrated with a parade, a grand dinner in Faneuil Hall, music, bonfires, and firing of cannon. Rev. Thomas Foxcroft of the First Church in Boston offered thus:[17]

The Lord hath done great things for us, whereof we are glad... Long had it been the common opinion, Delenda est Carthago, Canada must be conquered, or we could hope for no lasting quiet in these parts; and now, through the good hand of our God upon us, we see the happy day of its accomplishment. We behold His Majesty's victorious troops treading upon the high places of the enemy, their last fortress delivered up, and the whole country surrendered to the King of Britain in the person of his general, the intrepid, the serene, the successful Amherst.

In recognition of this victory, Amherst was appointed Governor-General of British North America in September 1760[11] and promoted to major-general on 29 November 1760.[19] He was appointed Knight of the Order of the Bath on 11 April 1761.[20]

Caribbean

From his base at New York, Amherst oversaw the dispatch of troops under Monckton and Haviland[21] to take part in British expeditions in the West Indies that led to the British capture of Dominica in 1761 and Martinique and Cuba in 1762.[6]

Pontiac's War
Main article: Pontiac's War

The uprising of many Native American tribes in the Ohio Valley and Great Lakes region, commonly referred to as Pontiac's War after one of its most notable leaders, began in early 1763. From 1753, when the French first invaded the territory, to February 1763, when peace was formally declared between the English and French, the Six Nations and tenant tribes always maintained that both the French and the British must remain east of the Allegheny Mountains. After the British failed to keep their word to withdraw from the Ohio and Allegheny valleys, a loose confederation of Native American tribes including the Delawares, the Shawnees, the Senecas, the Mingoes, the Mohicans, the Miamis, the Ottawas and the Wyandots, who were enraged with British post-war occupation of the region, banded together in an effort to drive the British out of their territory.[22][23]

Biological warfare involving smallpox

One of the most infamous and well documented issues during Pontiac's War was the use of biological warfare against the Native Americans. The British Army attempted use of smallpox against Native Americans during the Siege of Fort Pitt in June 1763.[24][25][26] During a parley in midst of the siege on 24 June 1763, Captain Simeon Ecuyer gave representatives of the besieging Delawares two blankets and a handkerchief enclosed in small metal boxes that had been exposed to smallpox, in an attempt to spread the disease to the Natives in order to end the siege.[27] William Trent, the trader turned militia commander who had come up with the plan, sent a bill to the British Army indicating that the purpose of giving the blankets was "to Convey the Smallpox to the Indians." The invoice's approval confirms that the British command endorsed Trent's actions.[24][25] Reporting on parleys with Delaware chiefs on 24 June, Trent wrote: '[We] gave them two Blankets and an Handkerchief out of the Small Pox Hospital. I hope it will have the desired effect.' The military hospital records confirm that two blankets and handkerchiefs were 'taken from people in the Hospital to Convey the Smallpox to the Indians.' The fort commander paid for these items, which he certified 'were had for the uses above mentioned.'[28][29] A reported outbreak that began the spring before left as many as one hundred Native Americans dead in Ohio Country from 1763 to 1764. It is not clear, however, whether the smallpox was a result of the Fort Pitt incident or the virus was already present among the Delaware people as outbreaks happened on their own every dozen or so years[30] and the delegates were met again later and they seemingly had not contracted smallpox.[31][32][33]

A month later the use of smallpox blankets was discussed by Amherst himself in letters to Colonel Henry Bouquet.[34] Amherst, having learned that smallpox had broken out among the garrison at Fort Pitt, and after learning of the loss of his forts at Venango, Le Boeuf and Presqu'Isle, wrote to Colonel Bouquet:[28]

"Could it not be contrived to send the small pox among the disaffected tribes of Indians? We must on this occasion use every stratagem in our power to reduce them."

Bouquet, who was already marching to relieve Fort Pitt, agreed with this suggestion in a postscript when he responded to Amherst just days later on 13 July 1763:[1]

"P.S. I will try to inocculate [sic] the Indians by means of Blankets that may fall in their hands, taking care however not to get the disease myself. As it is pity to oppose good men against them, I wish we could make use of the Spaniard's Method, and hunt them with English Dogs. Supported by Rangers, and some Light Horse, who would I think effectively extirpate or remove that Vermine."

In response, also in a postscript, Amherst replied:[1]

"P.S. You will Do well to try to Innoculate [sic] the Indians by means of Blankets, as well as to try Every other method that can serve to Extirpate this Execrable Race. I should be very glad your Scheme for Hunting them Down by Dogs could take Effect, but England is at too great a Distance to think of that at present."

Amherst was summoned home, ostensibly so that he could be consulted on future military plans in North America, and was replaced pro tem as Commander-in-Chief, North America by Thomas Gage. Amherst expected to be praised for his conquest of Canada, however, once in London, he was instead asked to account for the recent Native American rebellion.[35] He was forced to defend his conduct, and faced complaints made by William Johnson and George Croghan, who lobbied the Board of Trade for his removal and permanent replacement by Gage. He was also severely criticised by military subordinates on both sides of the Atlantic.[36] Nevertheless, Amherst was promoted to lieutenant-general on 26 March 1765,[37] and became colonel of the 3rd Regiment of Foot in November 1768.[38]

On 26 March 1767 Jeffrey Amherst married Elizabeth, daughter of General George Cary (portrait by Sir Joshua Reynolds, 1767).
Jeffrey Amherst, 1st Baron Amherst, by Sir Joshua Reynolds.

On 22 October 1772, Amherst was appointed Lieutenant-General of the Ordnance,[39] and he soon gained the confidence of George III, who had initially hoped the position would go to a member of the Royal Family.[40] On 6 November 1772, he became a member of the Privy Council.[41]

American Revolutionary War
Main article: American Revolutionary War

Amherst was raised to the peerage on 14 May 1776, as Baron Amherst, of Holmesdale in the County of Kent.[42] On 24 March 1778 he was promoted to full general[43] and, in April 1778, he became Commander-in-Chief of the Forces, which gave him a seat in the Cabinet.[38]

In 1778, when the British commander in North America, William Howe, requested to be relieved, Amherst was considered as a replacement by the government: however, his insistence that it would require 75,000 troops to fully defeat the rebellion was not acceptable to the government, and Henry Clinton was instead chosen to take over from Howe in America.[44] Following the British setback at Saratoga, Amherst successfully argued for a limited war in North America, keeping footholds along the coast, defending Canada, East and West Florida, and the West Indies while putting more effort into the war at sea.[45] On 7 November 1778 the King and Queen visited Amherst at his home, Montreal Park, in Kent[46] and on 24 April 1779 he became colonel of the 2nd Troop of Horse Grenadier Guards.[47]

Invasion scare
Main article: Armada of 1779

A long-standing plan of the French had been the concept of an invasion of Great Britain which they hoped would lead to a swift end to the war if it was successful: in 1779 Spain entered the war on the side of France, and the increasingly depleted state of British home forces made an invasion more appealing and Amherst organised Britain's land defences in anticipation of the invasion which never materialised.[6]

Gordon Riots
Main article: Gordon Riots

In June 1780, Amherst oversaw the British army as they suppressed the anti-Catholic Gordon Riots in London: after the outbreak of rioting Amherst deployed the small London garrison of Horse and Foot Guards as best as he could but was hindered by the reluctance of the civil magistrates to authorise decisive action against the rioters.[48] Line troops and militia were brought in from surrounding counties, swelling the forces at Amherst's disposal to over 15,000 many of whom were quartered in tents in Hyde Park and a form of Martial Law was declared, giving the troops the authority to fire on crowds if the Riot Act had first been read; although order was eventually restored, Amherst was personally alarmed by the failure of the authorities to suppress the riots.[49] In the wake of the Gordon Riots, Amherst was forced to resign as Commander-in-Chief in February 1782 and was replaced by Henry Conway.[38] On 23 March 1782 he became captain and colonel of the 2nd Troop of Horse Guards.[50]

French Revolutionary Wars

On 8 July 1788, he became colonel of the 2nd Regiment of Life Guards[51] and on 30 August 1788 he was created Baron Amherst (this time with the territorial designation of Montreal in the County of Kent) with a special provision that would allow this title to pass to his nephew (as Amherst was childless, the Holmesdale title became extinct upon his death).[52] With the advent of the French Revolutionary Wars, Amherst was recalled as Commander-in-Chief of the Forces in January 1793: however is generally criticised for allowing the armed forces to slide into acute decline, a direct cause of the failure of the early campaigns in the Low Countries: Pitt the Younger said of him "his age, and perhaps his natural temper, are little suited to the activity and the energy which the present moment calls for".[53] Horace Walpole called him "that log of wood whose stupidity and incapacity are past belief".[54] "He allowed innumerable abuses to grow up in the army… He kept his command, though almost in his dotage, with a tenacity that cannot be too much censured".[55] He retired from that post in February 1795, to be replaced by the Duke of York, and was promoted to the rank of field marshal on 30 July 1796.[56] He retired to his home at Montreal Park[57] and died on 3 August 1797.[38] He was buried in the Parish Church at Sevenoaks.[6]

Family

In 1753 he married Jane Dalison (1723–1765).[58] Following her death he married Elizabeth Cary (1740–1830), daughter of Lieutenant General George Cary (1712–1792),[59] who later became Lady Amherst of Holmesdale, on 26 March 1767.[6] There were no children by either marriage.[6]

Legacy

Several places are named for him: Amherstburg, Ontario (location of General Amherst High School),[60] Amherst, Massachusetts (location of the University of Massachusetts Amherst, Hampshire College and Amherst College),[61] Amherst, New Hampshire,[62] Amherst, Nova Scotia,[63] Amherst, New York[64] and Amherst County, Virginia.[65]

Movement to reconsider Amherst's legacy

Amherst's desire to exterminate the indigenous people is now viewed as a dark stain on his legacy and various agencies, municipalities and institutions have reconsidered the use of the name "Amherst". "The Un-Canadians", a 2007 article in The Beaver, includes Amherst in a list of people in the history of Canada who are considered contemptible by the authors, because he "supported plans of distributing smallpox-infested blankets to First Nations people."[66]

In 2008, Mi'kmaq spiritual leader John Joe Sark called the name of Fort Amherst Park of Prince Edward Island a "terrible blotch on Canada", and said: "To have a place named after General Amherst would be like having a city in Jerusalem named after Adolf Hitler...it's disgusting." Sark raised his concerns again in a 29 January 2016 letter to the Canadian government.[67] Mi'kmaq historian Daniel N. Paul, who referred to Amherst as motivated by white supremacist beliefs, also supports a name change, saying: "in the future I don't think there should ever be anything named after people who committed what can be described as crimes against humanity."[68] In February 2016, a spokesperson for Parks Canada said it would review the matter after a proper complaint is filed; "Should there be a formal request from the public to change the name of the National Historic Site, Parks Canada would engage with the Historic Sites and Monuments Board of Canada for its recommendation."[69] An online petition was launched by Sark to satisfy this formal request requirement on 20 February 2016.[70] The park is known as Port-la-Joye–Fort Amherst National Historic Site[71] and one of Parks Canada's partners for the site is the Mi'kmaq Confederacy of PEI.[72]

In 2009, Montreal City Councillor Nicolas Montmorency officially asked that Rue Amherst be renamed: "it is totally unacceptable that a man who made comments supporting the extermination of Native Americans to be honoured in this way".[73] On 13 September 2017, the city of Montreal decided that the street bearing his name would be renamed.[74] On 21 June 2019, the street was officially renamed Rue Atateken, atateken being a Kanien'kehá word describing "those with whom one shares values," according to Kanehsatake historian Hilda Nicholas.[75]

In 2016, Amherst College dropped its "Lord Jeffery" mascot at the instigation of the students.[76] It also renamed the Lord Jeffery Inn, a campus hotel owned by the college, to the Inn on Boltwood in early 2019.[77]

gollark: ++apioform
gollark: ++apioform
gollark: ++apioform
gollark: ++apioform
gollark: ++apioform

See also

Notes
  1. Lord Amherst spelled his name Jeffery, but Jeffrey and Geoffrey sometimes appear in sources discussing him.

References

Citations
  1. "Jeffrey Amherst and Smallpox Blankets". University of Massachusetts Amherst. Retrieved 29 August 2014.
  2. "Amherst Street becomes 'Atateken,' symbolizing fraternity and peace"
  3. Pati, Anjuli (19 September 2017). "Town of Amherst wades into debate over controversial names". CBC. Retrieved 1 February 2018.
  4. "What's in a name? Questions raised about Amherstburg namesake's history with Indigenous people". CBC News. 14 September 2017. Retrieved 1 February 2018.
  5. Chartrand p. 24
  6. "Jeffery Amherst, 1st Baron Amherst". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. 2004. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/443. Retrieved 28 April 2012. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
  7. Heathcote p. 23
  8. "Jeffrey Amherst". thepeerage.com. Retrieved 1 December 2010.
  9. Mayo p. 8
  10. Mayo pp. 11–15
  11. Heathcote p. 24
  12. Mayo pp. 34–37
  13. "No. 9590". The London Gazette. 8 June 1756. p. 2.
  14. Mayo pp. 37–38
  15. Mayo pp. 40–42
  16. "No. 9930". The London Gazette. 11 September 1759. p. 1.
  17. Parkman, Francis: "Montcalm and Wolfe"
  18. Hayes, p. 77
  19. "No. 10056". The London Gazette. 25 November 1760. p. 11.
  20. "No. 10094". The London Gazette. 7 April 1761. p. 2.
  21. Krugler, John D. (1979). "Haviland, William". In Halpenny, Francess G (ed.). Dictionary of Canadian Biography. IV (1771–1800) (online ed.). University of Toronto Press. Retrieved 24 January 2010.
  22. The Indian wars of Pennsylvania; C. Hale Sipe; The Telegraph Press; 1921; pp. 407–438
  23. Richard Middleton, Pontiac's War, pp. 1–128.
  24. Calloway, Collin G. (2007). The Scratch of a Pen: 1763 and the Transformation of North America (Pivotal Moments in American History). Oxford University Press. p. 73. ISBN 978-0195331271.
  25. Jones, David S. (2004). Rationalizing Epidemics. Harvard University Press. p. 97. ISBN 978-0674013056.
  26. McConnel, Michael N. (1997). A Country Between: The Upper Ohio Valley and Its Peoples, 1724–1774. University of Nebraska Press. p. 195.
  27. Anderson, Crucible of War, 541–42; Jennings, Empire of Fortune, 447n26.
  28. Fenn, Elizabeth A. Biological Warfare in Eighteenth-Century North America: Beyond Jeffery Amherst Archived 3 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine; The Journal of American History, Vol. 86, No. 4, March 2000
  29. Kiernan, p. 245
  30. King, J. C. H. (2016). Blood and Land: The Story of Native North America. Penguin UK. p. 73. ISBN 9781846148088.
  31. Ranlet, P (2000). "The British, the Indians, and smallpox: what actually happened at Fort Pitt in 1763?". Pennsylvania History. 67 (3): 427–441. PMID 17216901.
  32. Barras V, Greub G (June 2014). "History of biological warfare and bioterrorism". Clinical Microbiology and Infection. 20 (6): 497–502. doi:10.1111/1469-0691.12706. PMID 24894605. However, in the light of contemporary knowledge, it remains doubtful whether his hopes were fulfilled, given the fact that the transmission of smallpox through this kind of vector is much less efficient than respiratory transmission, and that Native Americans had been in contact with smallpox >200 years before Ecuyer’s trickery, notably during Pizarro’s conquest of South America in the 16th century. As a whole, the analysis of the various ‘pre-micro- biological” attempts at BW illustrate the difficulty of differentiating attempted biological attack from naturally occurring epidemics.
  33. Medical Aspects of Biological Warfare. Government Printing Office. 2007. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-16-087238-9. In retrospect, it is difficult to evaluate the tactical success of Captain Ecuyer's biological attack because smallpox may have been transmitted after other contacts with colonists, as had previously happened in New England and the South. Although scabs from smallpox patients are thought to be of low infectivity as a result of binding of the virus in fibrin metric, and transmission by fomites has been considered inefficient compared with respiratory droplet transmission.
  34. Appel, J. M. (2009), "Is all fair in biological warfare? The controversy over genetically engineered biological weapons", Journal of Medical Ethics, 35 (7): 429–432, doi:10.1136/jme.2008.028944, PMID 19567692
  35. Anderson pp. 552–553
  36. Middleton, Pontiac's War, 127–28. O'Toole p. 249
  37. "No. 10507". The London Gazette. 23 March 1765. p. 1.
  38. Heathcote p. 25
  39. "No. 11294". The London Gazette. 20 October 1772. p. 1.
  40. Patterson p. 93
  41. "No. 11298". The London Gazette. 3 November 1772. p. 1.
  42. "No. 11665". The London Gazette. 11 May 1776. p. 2.
  43. "No. 11859". The London Gazette. 21 March 1788. p. 1.
  44. Hibbert. Redcoats and Rebels p. 211
  45. Hibbert. Redcoats and Rebels. p209
  46. "No. 11924". The London Gazette. 3 November 1778. p. 1.
  47. "No. 11972". The London Gazette. 20 April 1779. p. 2.
  48. Mansel, page 126
  49. Hibbert King Mob. p. 102
  50. "No. 12280". The London Gazette. 19 March 1782. p. 1.
  51. "No. 13005". The London Gazette. 5 July 1788. p. 325.
  52. "No. 13020". The London Gazette. 26 August 1788. p. 413.
  53. Burne p. 209
  54. Burne p. 227
  55. Burne p. 228
  56. "No. 13918". The London Gazette. 2 August 1796. p. 743.
  57. Nunnerley, David. "A History of Montreal Park". Retrieved 22 April 2012.
  58. "William Amherst letter to Jane Dalison Amherst, 1758". Retrieved 14 September 2017.
  59. "George Cary". The Peerage.com. Retrieved 14 September 2017.
  60. Jacobson p. 17
  61. Tucker p. 14
  62. Farmer p. 70
  63. Heim p. 343
  64. "A Brief History of the Town of Amherst" (PDF). Amherst Museum. 1997. Retrieved 23 April 2012.
  65. Smith p. 182
  66. "The Un-Canadians". Beaver, Vol. 87 Issue 4, p. 30. August–September 2007. Retrieved 8 August 2012.
  67. "P.E.I. park honours general who wanted aboriginals killed, Mi'kmaq leader says". The Canadian Press. 8 February 2016. Archived from the original on 16 February 2016. Retrieved 9 February 2016.
  68. Mensah-Bonsu, Deborah (16 August 2008). "Native leader says P.E.I. park needs name changed". CTV.ca. Archived from the original on 3 September 2014. Retrieved 23 June 2015.
  69. "Parks Canada may consider renaming historic site Port-la-Joye–Fort Amherst". CBC.ca. 8 February 2016. Retrieved 9 February 2016.
  70. Removal of General Amherst's name from Parks Canada; Change.Org; 20 February 2016
  71. Port-la-Joye–Fort Amherst
  72. Partners – Partenaires
  73. "Le Devoir, Lundi 24 août 2009". Archived from the original on 27 August 2009. Retrieved 27 August 2009.
  74. "Montreal adds Iroquois symbol to flag, strips British general of street name – Montreal – CBC News". Cbc.ca. Retrieved 14 September 2017.
  75. Niosi, Laurence (21 June 2019). "La rue Amherst devient la rue Atateken". Radio-Canada. Retrieved 21 June 2019.
  76. Bidgood, Jess (26 January 2016). "Amherst College Drops 'Lord Jeff' as Mascot". New York Times.
  77. "The Lord Jeffrey Inn Introduces New Name and Logo". Amherst College. 27 August 2018.

Bibliography
  • Amherst, Jeffery (1931). The journal of Jeffery Amherst, recording the military career of General Amherst in America from 1758 to 1763 (Webster, John Clarence, ed) Toronto: The Ryerson Press; Chicago: University of Chicago Press
  • Anderson, Fred (2001). Crucible of War: The Seven Years' War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, 1754–1766. London: Faber and Faber. ISBN 978-0-571-20565-3.
  • Burne, Alfred (1949). The Noble Duke of York: The Military Life of Frederick Duke of York and Albany. Staples Press.
  • Cappel, Constance (2007). The Smallpox Genocide of the Odawa Tribe at L'Arbre Croche, 1763: The History of a Native American People. Lewiston, NY: The Edwin Mellen Press. ISBN 978-0-7734-5220-6.
  • Chartrand, René (2000). Louisbourg 1758: Wolfe's first siege. Oxford: Osprey. ISBN 978-1-84176-217-3.
  • Farmer, John (1823). A gazetteer of the state of New Hampshire. Library of Congress.
  • Hayes, Derek (2004). Canada: An Illustrated History. Douglas & McIntyre. ISBN 978-1-55365-046-1.
  • Heathcote, Tony (1999). The British Field Marshals 1736–1997. Pen & Sword Books Ltd. ISBN 0-85052-696-5.
  • Heim, Michael. Exploring America's Highways: Wisconsin Trip Trivia. T.O.N.E. Publishing.
  • Hibbert, Christopher (1958). King Mob: The story of Lord George Gordon and the Riots of 1780. London: Longmans, Green & Co. ISBN 978-0-88029-399-0.
  • Hibbert, Christopher (1990). Redcoats and Rebels: The American Revolution through British eyes. New York: Avon Books. ISBN 978-0-380-71544-2.
  • Jacobson, Judy (2009). Detroit River Connections. Genealogical Publishing Co Inc. ISBN 978-0-8063-4510-9.
  • Kiernan, Ben (2007). Blood and Soil. A World History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur, New Haven. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-10098-3.
  • Long, J. C. (1933). Lord Jeffery Amherst: A Soldier of the King. New York: MacMillan.
  • Mansel, Philip (1984). Pillars of Monarchy. Quartet. ISBN 978-0-7043-2424-4.
  • Mayo, Lawrence Shaw (1916). Jeffrey Amherst: A Biography.
  • Middleton, Richard, ed. (2003). Amherst and the conquest of Canada : selected papers from the correspondence of Major-General Jeffrey Amherst while Commander-in-Chief in North America from September 1758 to December 1760. Stroud: Sutton Publishing for the Army Records Society. ISBN 0-7509-3142-6.
  • Middleton, Richard, Pontiac's War: Its Causes, Course and Consequences New York and London, Routledge, 2007 ISBN 0-415-97913-7
  • O'Toole, Fintan (2006). White Savage: William Johnson and the Invention of America. London: Faber and Faber. ISBN 978-0-571-21841-7.
  • Patterson, Alfred Temple (1960). The Other Armada: The Franco-Spanish Attempt to Invade Britain in 1779. Manchester: University of Manchester Press.
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  • Tucker, Spencer (2011). The Encyclopedia of North American Indian Wars, 1607–1890: A Political Social and Military History. ABC-CLIO Ltd. ISBN 978-1-85109-697-8.
Military offices
Preceded by
John Jordan		 Colonel of the 15th Regiment of Foot
1756–1779		 Succeeded by
Charles Hotham
Preceded by
James Abercrombie		 Commander-in-Chief, North America
1758–1763		 Succeeded by
Thomas Gage
Colonel-in-Chief of the 60th (Royal American) Regiment of Foot
1758–1768
Preceded by
Ralph Burton		 Colonel of the 3rd Regiment of Foot
1768–1779		 Succeeded by
William Style
Preceded by
Thomas Gage		 Colonel-in-Chief of the 60th (Royal American) Regiment of Foot
1768–1797		 Succeeded by
Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany
Preceded by
Richard Lyttelton		 Governor of Guernsey
1770–1797		 Succeeded by
Charles Grey
Preceded by
Henry Seymour Conway		 Lieutenant-General of the Ordnance
1772–1782		 Succeeded by
William Howe
Vacant
Title last held by
John Manners, Marquess of Granby		 Commander-in-Chief of the Forces
1778–1782		 Succeeded by
Henry Seymour Conway
Preceded by
William Stanhope, 2nd Earl of Harrington		 Captain and Colonel of the
2nd Troop Horse Grenadier Guards
1779–1782		 Succeeded by
Prince Frederick
Preceded by
Lord Robert Bertie		 Captain and Colonel of
The Queen's Troop of Horse Guards
1782–1788		 Became the 2nd Life Guards
New title Colonel of the 2nd Regiment of Life Guards
1788–1797		 Succeeded by
William Cathcart, 1st Earl Cathcart
Preceded by
Henry Seymour Conway		 Commander-in-Chief of the Forces
1793–1795		 Succeeded by
Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany
Government offices
Preceded by
John Campbell, 4th Earl of Loudoun		 Crown Governor of Virginia
1759–1768		 Succeeded by
John Blair
Preceded by
New Office
or
Commander-in-Chief, North America
or
Governor of New France,
Pierre de Rigaud		 Governor of the Province of Quebec
1760–1763		 Succeeded by
James Murray
Peerage of Great Britain
New creation Baron Amherst
(of Holmesdale in the County of Kent)
1776–1797		 Extinct
Baron Amherst
(of Montreal in the County of Kent)
1788–1797		 Succeeded by
William Pitt Amherst
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