Georg-Peter Eder

Georg-Peter "Schorsch" Eder (8 March 1921 – 11 March 1986) was a German fighter pilot in the Luftwaffe during World War II. He was a recipient of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves of Nazi Germany. Eder flew 572 combat missions claiming 78 enemy aircraft shot down in total. He was the leading day scorer against four-engined bombers, and with 56 air victories the leading ace against the USAAF.

Georg-Peter Eder
Georg-Peter Eder
Nickname(s)Schorsch
Born(1921-03-08)8 March 1921
Oberdachstetten
Died11 March 1986(1986-03-11) (aged 65)
Wiesbaden
Allegiance Nazi Germany
Service/branch Luftwaffe
Years of service1939–1945
RankMajor
UnitJG 51, JG 2, JG 1, JG 26, EKdo 262,
Kommando Nowotny, JG 7
Battles/wars
See battles

World War II

  • Defense of the Reich
  • Invasion of Normandy
AwardsKnight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves

Early life and career

Eder was born on 8 March 1921 in Oberdachstetten in Bavaria. After he attended the Grundschule, an elementary school, and Oberrealschule, a secondary school, he joined the military service of the Luftwaffe on 15 November 1939. Posted to the 4. Kompanie (4th company) of Fliegerausbildungsregiment 62 (62nd Flight Training Regiment) in Quedlinburg in the Harz region, he then attended the Luftkriegsschule 2 (LKS 2—2nd air war school) at Berlin-Gatow. On 1 April 1940, he was accepted as a Fahnenjunker (candidate). During his flight training, he was promoted to Fähnrich (officer cadet) on 1 September 1940.[1]

World War II

World War II in Europe began on Friday 1 September 1939 when German forces invaded Poland. Eder was posted to 4. Staffel (4th squadron) of Jagdgeschwader 51 (JG 51—51st Fighter Wing), a squadron of II. Gruppe, on 1 December 1940.[1] At the time, II. Gruppe of JG 51 was undergoing a period of rest and replenishment at Mannheim-Sandhofen Airfield following the Battle of Britain. There, the Gruppe received the Messerschmitt Bf 109 E-7. The Gruppe returned to France on 14 February 1941 and was commanded by Hauptmann Josef Fözö while Eder's 4. Staffel was headed by Oberleutnant Erich Hohagen.[2]

Operation Barbarossa
Barbarossa's attack plan

II. Gruppe of JG 51 was withdrawn from the Channel Front in early June 1941 and ordered to Dortmund where the unit was reequipped with the Bf 109 F series. On 10 June, II. Gruppe began transferring east and was located at Siedlce. On 22 June, German forces launched Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion of the Soviet Union.[3] JG 51, under the command of Oberstleutnant Werner Mölders, was subordinated to II. Fliegerkorps (2nd Air Corps), which as part of Luftflotte 2 (Air Fleet 2). JG 51 area of operation during Operation Barbarossa was over the right flank of Army Group Center in the combat area of the 2nd Panzer Group as well as the 4th Army.[4]

On the first day of the invasion, Eder claimed his first two aerial victories, a Polikarpov I-16 fighter and a Tupolev SB bomber shot down 09:23 and 09:35 respectively.[5] For this feat, Eder received the Iron Cross 2nd Class (Eisernes Kreuz 2. Klasse) on 26 June.[1] Eight days later, he shot down an Ilyushin DB-3 bomber for his third aerial victory in combat in the area of Babruysk.[6] The German Army crossed the Berezina River on 4 July, and II. Gruppe was moved forward to an airfield at Babruysk, fighting on the Stalin Line in the area of Vitebsk-Orsha-Mogilev.[7] On 11 July, Eder was awarded the Iron Cross 1st Class (Eisernes Kreuz 1. Klasse).[8] German forces breached the Stalin Line and II. Gruppe was moved to an airfield at Stara Bychow, approximately 50 kilometres (31 miles) south of Mogilev on the Dnieper on 12 July. That day, the Gruppe flew multiple combat air patrols in support of the German beachhead on the eastern bank of the Dnieper in the area between Mogilev and Smolensk.[9] That day, Eder claimed a Petlyakov Pe-2 bomber shot down. On 13 July, he claimed two aerial victories, a DB-3 bomber shot down at 10:07 and an I-16 fighter at 10:23, followed by another DB-3 bomber on 14 July. Eder was credited with another Pe-2 bomber shot down on 26 July and an I-16 fighter destroyed on 31 July.[10]

On 5 August, II. Gruppe was moved to an airfield at Schatalowka, approximately 150 km (93 mi) northeast of Stara Bychow, between Smolensk in the north and Roslavl in the south.[9] On 9 August, Eder was credited with his tenth and last aerial victory on the Eastern Front when he claimed an I-18 shot down at 16:50.[11] The German designation I-18 refers to the Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-1 fighter.[12] On 10 August, Eder's Bf 109 F-2 (Werknummer 9184—factory number) collided with a Junkers Ju 52 on the ground at Ponjatowka.[13] Eder suffered a skull fracture and following convalescence, he was posted to the Jagdfliegerschule 2 (fighter pilot school) at Zerbst on 1 November 1941.[14]

Western Front
Combat box of a 12-plane B-17 squadron. Three such boxes completed a 36-plane group box.
1. Lead Element
2. High Element
3. Low Element
4. Low Low Element

On 1 November 1942, Eder was posted to 7. Staffel (7th squadron) of Jagdgeschwader 2 "Richthofen" (JG 2—2nd Fighter Wing), a squadron of III. Gruppe of JG 2 named after the after World War I fighter ace Manfred von Richthofen.[14] That day, Oberleutnant Egon Mayer was appointed Gruppenkommandeur (group commander) of III. Gruppe while command of 7. Staffel was given to Hohagen who also joined the Geschwader that day.[15] JG 2 was based in northern France and fought against the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) under the leadership of Geschwaderkommodore (wing commander) Major Walter Oesau.[16] At the time, III. Gruppe was equipped with the Focke-Wulf Fw 190 A-4 and some older A-3s. The Gruppe operated from various airfields in Brittany, France, providing fighter protection for the German U-boat bases along the Atlantic coast.[17] Eder claimed his first aerial victory on the Western Front on 30 December when he shot down a Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress bomber on a mission to bomb Lorient.[18]

Together with Mayer, Eder developed the head-on attack as the most effective tactic against the Allied daylight heavy combat box formations of B-17s and Consolidated B-24 Liberator bombers.[19] The concept was based on a Kette (chain), three aircraft flying in a "V" formation, attacking from ahead and to the left. When in range, the attackers opened fire with a deflection burst, aiming in front of the enemy aircraft. Following the attack, the pilots would pull up sharply to the left or right. This gave the attacking fighters the best chance of avoiding the massed firepower of the bombers' guns.[20][21]

On 3 January 1943, the USAAF VIII Bomber Command attacked the U-boat base at Saint-Nazaire. III. Gruppe managed to fend off some of the bombers, claiming sixteen B-17 bombers shot down over sea, including one by Eder. The USAAF reported the loss of seven bombers during the attack. The U-boat base at Lorient was the target of the VIII Bomber Command on 23 January. III. Gruppe, supported by 9. Staffel of Jagdgeschwader 26 "Schlageter" (JG 26—26th Fighter Wing), claimed seven aerial victories, of which one B-17 was claimed shot down by Eder.[22] On 9 February, the Gruppenstab (headquarters unit) of III. Gruppe, 7. Staffel and 9. Staffel were ordered to Berck-sur-Mer where they were placed under the command of JG 26.[23] On 13 February, the Royal Air Force (RAF) Fighter Command targeted the west coast of Pas-de-Calais with three "Rodeos" and one "Circus". In defense of this attack, Eder claimed a RAF Supermarine Spitfire fighter shot down northwest of Boulogne.[24][25]

Squadron leader

In February, a new 12. Staffel of JG 2 was created at the airfield at Beaumont-le-Roger. On 15 February, Eder was appointed its Staffelkapitän (squadron leader) of this newly created Staffel and tasked with bringing it to operational readiness. The plan was to equip this Staffel with a full complement of 16 pilots and Bf 109 Gs. Initially, Eder was given eight Fw 190 A-2 and A-3s, as well as two Bf 109 G-1 aircraft, and subordinated and accountable to the Stab of JG 2.[26] On 8 March, Eder claimed the first aerial victory credited to the 12. Staffel when he shot down a Spitfire near Le Petit-Quevilly.[27] That day, VIII Bomber Command sent 54 B-17 bombers to Rennes and 16 B-24 bombers to the Rouen railroad yards. The attack on Rouen was protected by 16 RAF Spitfire squadrons, supported by a Spitfire sweep of the 4th Fighter Group.[28] On 12 March, he shot down another Spitfire 38 km (24 mi) northwest of Fécamp.[29]

On 28 March, VIII Bomber Command dispatched 70 B-17 bombers on mission to bomb the Rouen railroad yards again. The escorting Spitfire fighters missed their rendezvous point with the bombers, leaving the bombers unprotected. II. Gruppe of JG 26 and Eder's 12. Staffel of JG 2 intercepted the bombers, damaging nine and one was shot down by Eder.[30] Following combat with a B-17, he was injured by the return fire but managed to make a forced landing of his Bf 109 G-4 (Werknummer 14988) at Beaumont-le-Roger airfield.[31] By end of April, 12. Staffel had received their full complement of 16 Bf 109 G-6 fighters. Recovered from his injuries, Eder led his Staffel against an USAAF attack on the Potez aircraft plant at Albert. 12. Staffel operated autonomously from other Luftwaffe units and claimed a B-17 bomber and a Republic P-47 Thunderbolt fighter shot down for the loss of three aircraft and two pilots killed in action.[32] Eder was credited with the destruction of the P-47, shot down west of Étaples.[29]

On 29 May, the USAAF targeted Rennes, Saint-Nazaire and La Pallice. Defending against this attack, 12. Staffel claimed three B-17 bombers shot down in combat over sea off Paimpol, including one claim by Eder.[33] He was awarded the Honour Goblet of the Luftwaffe (Ehrenpokal der Luftwaffe) on 25 June.[34] The next day, he was credited with the destruction of a Spitfire 40 km (25 mi) north of Fécamp.[29] On 29 June, Eder led his Staffel against USAAF bombers, losing two aircraft, one pilot killed in action and two further were wounded, while Eder claimed a B-17 shot down north of Saint-Valery.[35]

Eder shot down a Hawker Typhoon west of Hesdin on 29 August.[36] Two days later, he was awarded the German Cross in Gold (Deutsches Kreuz in Gold).[37] On 5 September 1943, he was transferred to 5. Staffel of JG 2, taking command of the Staffel after its former commander Leutnant Kurt Goltzsch was wounded the day before.[38] On 5 November, Eder was forced to bail out of his Bf 109 G-6 (Werknummer 20733) after engine failure near Mons, Belgium and was again injured.[39]

Defense of the Reich

Following his recovery from injuries sustained on 5 November 1943, Eder was posted to the II. Gruppe of Jagdgeschwader 1 (JG 1—1st Fighter Wing) under the command of Hauptmann Hermann Segatz in February 1944. The Gruppe, which was fighting in Defense of the Reich, was based in Wunstorf in northern Germany. Following the death of Segatz, Major Heinrich Bär was given command of the Gruppe on 9 March. Bär, who had previously commanded 6. Staffel, was then in consequence succeeded by Eder.[40] Eder claimed his first aerial victory with JG 1 on 8 April when the USAAF Eighth Air Force, formerly known as VIII Bomber Command, attacked German airfields in northwestern Germany as well as the German aircraft industry in Braunschweig. II. Gruppe attacked the bombers in the vicinity of Salzwedel where Eder shot down one of the B-24 bombers.[41]

He bailed out of his Fw 190 A-7 (Werknummer 430645) during combat with P-47 fighters over Göttingen on 19 April.[42] On 8 May, he claimed a B-24 shot down but made a forced landing at Vechta in his Fw 190 A-8 (Werknummer 170071).[43]

Group commander

On 11 November, the Geschwaderkommodore of JG 1, Oberst Oesau, who had commanded JG 1 since November 1943, was killed in action. The following day, Bär was temporarily appointed as his successor. In consequence, Eder was given the position Gruppenkommandeur of II. Gruppe.[44] In preparation of the Normandy landings, Eighth Air Force targeted the German fuel industry on 12 May. That day, 886 heavy-bombers escorted by 980 fighter aircraft, targeted the hydrogenation factories at Leuna, Merseburg, Böhlen, Zeitz and Brüx, present-day Most in the Czech Republic. Eder vectored his Gruppe in a consolidated attack on the bombers. The Gruppe claimed five bombers shot down plus a further P-47 destroyed, for the price of five pilots killed in action.[45] Eder accounted for one of the bombers destroyed when he shot down a B-24 in the area of the Eifel. Following the attack, his Fw 190 had engine problems resulting in an emergency landing at Mannheim-Sandhofen Airfield.[46] The USAAF targeted the German aircraft industry on 29 May. The Eighth Air Force sent 993 heavy bombers, escorted by 1,265 fighters, to factories in Leipzig, Sorau, and Posen, to the airfield at Tutow, as well as the hydrogenation factory at Pölitz. At the same time, the Fifteenth Air Force attacked similar targets in southern Germany and Austria. JG 1 was scrambled shortly after 11:00 and met up near Dessau. In frontal attack, pilots of I. and II. Gruppe claimed nine B-17 bombers shot down. While I. Gruppe came away unscathed, II. Gruppe lost one pilot killed in action and two further were wounded.[47] Eder, who hat shot down a B-17 in the vicinity of Görlitz, crashed his Fw 190 A-8 (Werknummer 730386) during the landing at Cottbus. The airfield was under attack at the time of the landing and Eder collided with a parked Siebel aircraft.[48][49]

The Western Allies of World War II launched the invasion of Normandy in the early morning o 6 June 1944. At 16:25, II. Gruppe of JG 1, with a strength of 32 Fw 190 fighters under the leadership of Eder, relocated from Störmede to an airfield at Montdidier, France.[50] That evening, II. Gruppe was then ordered to Le Mans Airfield.[51] The following day, the Gruppe flew its first combat missions during the Normandy campaign, losing two aircraft without claiming any aerial victories.[52] On 8 June, Eder headed II. Gruppe in an anti shipping mission against the Allied landing fleet near Deauville and Trouville on southern bank of the Baie de la Seine.[53] On 24 June, Eder received the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross (Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes).[54]

On 11 August 1944, Eder temporailly took command of 6. Staffel of JG 26, replacing Leutnant Adolf Glunz who was off operations at the time.[55] Attacking Allied armour near Dreux on 17 August Eder shot down a Spitfire at low level; it crashed between two M4 Sherman tanks, destroying them. Shortly after that he shot down another Spitfire, which crashed on another tank, setting it on fire.[56]

On 4 September, Eder was appointed Gruppenkommandeur II. Gruppe of JG 26 after the unit's former Gruppenkommandeur Hauptmann Emil Lang was killed in action against USAAF Thunderbolts over St Trond.[57] On 8 October, Eder was transferred to Kommando Nowotny, the first operational Messerschmitt Me 262 jet fighter unit named after its commander Major Walter Nowotny. He was replaced by Major Anton Hackl as commander of II. Gruppe of JG 26.[58][Note 1]

Flying the Messerschmitt Me 262

Kommando Nowotny was made up of three Staffeln and based at Achmer Airfield. 1. Staffel was headed by Oberleutnant Paul Bley, 2. Staffel by Oberleutnant Alfred Teumer, and Eder was given command of 3. Staffel.[59] By late September 1944, Kommando Nowotny had approximately 30 Me 262s.[59] As a unit, the Kommando flew three combat missions between 3 October and 24 October.[60]

Me 262 A, circa 1945

It is difficult to establish the exact number of aerial victories claimed by Eder while flying the Me 262 as various sources provide contradicting information. According to Harvey, Eder claimed his first aerial victory on the Me 262 on 6 October when he shot down a Lockheed P-38 Lightning F-5 reconnaissance aircraft from the 7th Photographic Group.[61] Authors Morgan and Weal, credit Eder with his first victory on the Me 262 on 13 November 1944. In this account, Eder flew a mission from Achmer Airfield and encountered a P-38. Misjudging the closing speed, he collided with the P-38. The damage to his Me 262 was minimal while the P-38 crashed near Schleißheim.[62] Without an exact date, Boehme indicates that Eder was credited with eleven aerial victories flying the Me 262 in the timeframe 1 October 1944 until 1 January 1945, including the claim over a P-38, bringing his total to 64 claims.[63]

Nowotny was killed in action on 8 November which marked the end of Kommando Nowotny.[64] Following Nowotny's death, Eder then briefly led the Kommando until it was renamed to III. Gruppe of Ergänzungs-Jagdgeschwader 2 and withdrawn from combat.[65] Harvey states that on 11 November, leading five Me 262s, Eder claimed two B-17 bombers and a North American P-51 Mustang escort fighter in combat near Frankfurt.[66] On 19 November, the pilots of Kommando Nowotny formed the nucleus of III. Gruppe of Jagdgeschwader 7 (JG 7—7th Fighter Wing), the first operational jet fighter wing.[67] Now based at Lechfeld Airfield, III. Gruppe was placed on the command of Major Hohagen, Eder's former Staffelkapitän with JG 51.[68] The three Staffeln of Kommando Nowotny were redesignated to 9., 10., and 11. Staffel of JG 7, with Eder in command of the 11. Staffel.[69]

Eder was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves (Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub) on 25 November 1944 for some 60 victories.[70] He was the 663rd member of the German armed forces to be so honored.[1] On 17 January 1945, Eder claimed a B-17 shot down. This B-17 may have been from the 351st Bombardment Group on mission to Paderborn.[71][Note 2] Eder may have shot down two P-47 fighters on 3 February.[73] On 9 February, during an attack of the Eighth Air Force on synthetic oil plants and transportation, Eder shot down a B-17 bomber.[72][74]

On 17 February, Eder, together with Oberfeldwebel Helmut Zander and Oberfeldwebel Hermann Buchner took off from Parchim to intercept a bomber formation. They intercepted the bomber formation south of Bremen when his Me 262 was hit by the defensive gunfire in the left engine, setting the engine and wing on fire. Forced to bail out, Eder struck his head and leg on the aircraft. He was picked up and taken to a hospital with a broken leg and head injuries.[75][76] Following convalescence, Eder was back with III. Gruppe of JG 7 and claimed a B-17 shot down near Berlin on 17 April 1945.[77] The B-17 was named The Towering Titan and belonged to the 305th Bombardment Group.[78] According to Harvey, this was his 25th claim flying the Me 262.[79]

Later life

After World War II, Eder became a businessman in Wiesbaden.[80]

Summary of career

Aerial victory claims

According to Obermaier, Eder flew 572 combat missions of which 150 were with the Messerschmitt Me 262. On the Eastern Front, he claimed 10 victories and on the Western Front 68, of which 36 were four-engined bombers.[14] Matthews and Foreman, authors of Luftwaffe Aces — Biographies and Victory Claims, researched the German Federal Archives and state that he claimed 75 aerial victories. The authors list 48 aerial victories plus further ten unconfirmed claims. This figure includes ten claims on the Eastern Front, more than 41 claims on the Western Front, including more than 23 four-engined bombers. It is possible that Eder claimed more than 21 victories flying the Me 262.[81] Accordind to Boehme, Eder was credited with eleven aerial victories flying the Me 262 in the timeframe 1 October 1944 until 1 January 1945, bringing his total to 64 claims.[63]

Victory claims were logged to a map-reference (PQ = Planquadrat), for example "PQ 14 West 4857". The Luftwaffe grid map (Jägermeldenetz) covered all of Europe, western Russia and North Africa and was composed of rectangles measuring 15 minutes of latitude by 30 minutes of longitude, an area of about 360 square miles (930 km2). These sectors were then subdivided into 36 smaller units to give a location area 3 × 4 km in size.[82]

Awards

Promotions
1 April 1940:Fahnenjunker (Cadet)[1]
1 September 1940:Fähnrich (Ensign)[1]
1 February 1941:Oberfähnrich (Senior Ensign)[1]
1 April 1941:Leutnant (Second Lieutenant)[1]
1 July 1943:Oberleutnant (First Lieutenant)[1]
1 July 1944:Hauptmann (Captain)[1]
1 February 1945:Major (Major) with a rank age backdated to 1 December 1944[1]

Notes
  1. According to Forsyth, Eder had already been transferred to Erprobungskommando 262 in September 1944. This experimental test unit later formed the nucleus of Kommando Nowotny.[59]
  2. According to Boehme, this claim may also have been dated on 14 or 17 January.[72]
  3. According to Matthews and Foreman claimed at 10:25.[37]
  4. According to Matthews and Foreman claimed as a Polikarpov I-16.[37]
  5. This unconfirmed claim is not listed by Prien, Stemmer, Rodeike and Bock.[29]
  6. According to Matthews and Foreman this claim is confirmed as a shared aerial victory.[85]
  7. According to Matthews and Foreman claimed at 11:00.[85]
  8. This claim is not listed by Matthews and Foreman.[85]
  9. According to Matthews and Foreman this claim is unconfirmed.[85]
  10. According to Matthews and Foreman claimed at 13:57.[85]
  11. According to Matthews and Foreman claimed at 12:55.[85]
  12. According to Obermaier on 16 June 1943.[14]
gollark: Seriously, I have no idea who "generic rust advocate 5" is or what they're doing here.
gollark: HELPI DON'T KNOW WHO RUST ADVOCATE 5 IS
gollark: Oh hey coltrans.
gollark: Sleep is uncool anyway.
gollark: Oh no.

References

Citations
  1. Stockert 2011, p. 163.
  2. Prien et al. 2002, pp. 55–56.
  3. Prien et al. 2003, p. 266.
  4. Prien et al. 2003, p. 206.
  5. Prien et al. 2003, p. 279.
  6. Prien et al. 2003, pp. 267, 280.
  7. Prien et al. 2003, p. 267.
  8. Thomas 1997, p. 143.
  9. Prien et al. 2003, p. 269.
  10. Prien et al. 2003, p. 282.
  11. Prien et al. 2003, p. 284.
  12. Prien et al. 2003, p. 11.
  13. Prien et al. 2003, p. 289.
  14. Obermaier 1989, p. 70.
  15. Prien et al. 2004, p. 283.
  16. Prien et al. 2004, p. 209.
  17. Prien et al. 2010, p. 485.
  18. Prien et al. 2004, pp. 281, 291.
  19. Spick 1996, p. 155.
  20. Forsyth 2011, p. 13.
  21. Musciano 1982, p. 80.
  22. Prien et al. 2010, pp. 486, 500.
  23. Prien et al. 2010, p. 486.
  24. Prien et al. 2010, p. 500.
  25. Caldwell 1998, p. 26.
  26. Prien et al. 2010, pp. 455, 466.
  27. Prien et al. 2010, pp. 455, 474.
  28. Caldwell 1998, pp. 33–34.
  29. Prien et al. 2010, p. 474.
  30. Caldwell 1998, p. 39.
  31. Prien et al. 2010, p. 476.
  32. Prien et al. 2010, pp. 455–456.
  33. Prien et al. 2010, pp. 456, 474.
  34. Patzwall 2008, p. 71.
  35. Prien et al. 2010, pp. 458, 474.
  36. Prien et al. 2010, p. 475.
  37. Matthews & Foreman 2014, p. 262.
  38. Prien et al. 2010, p. 466.
  39. Prien et al. 2010, p. 482.
  40. Prien & Rodeike 1996, pp. 788, 791.
  41. Prien & Rodeike 1996, pp. 835–837.
  42. Prien & Rodeike 1996, p. 1174.
  43. Prien & Rodeike 1996, p. 1177.
  44. Prien & Rodeike 1996, pp. 926–927.
  45. Prien & Rodeike 1996, pp. 930, 933.
  46. Prien & Rodeike 1996, pp. 934, 1208.
  47. Prien & Rodeike 1996, pp. 981, 984.
  48. Prien & Rodeike 1996, pp. 984, 1183, 1210.
  49. Weal 2011, p. 75.
  50. Prien & Rodeike 1996, pp. 998, 1001.
  51. Prien & Rodeike 1996, p. 1002.
  52. Prien & Rodeike 1996, p. 1007.
  53. Prien & Rodeike 1996, p. 1018.
  54. Weal 2011, p. 77.
  55. Caldwell 1998, pp. 317–318.
  56. Caldwell 1998, p. 325.
  57. Caldwell 1998, p. 344.
  58. Caldwell 1998, p. 363.
  59. Forsyth 2008, p. 10.
  60. Forsyth 2008, p. 13.
  61. Harvey 2011, p. 277.
  62. Morgan & Weal 1998, pp. 28, 30.
  63. Boehme 1992, p. 64.
  64. Forsyth 2008, pp. 14–15.
  65. Morgan 1994, p. 98.
  66. Harvey 2011, pp. 278–279.
  67. Morgan & Weal 1998, p. 30.
  68. Forsyth 2008, p. 17.
  69. Forsyth 2008, pp. 17, 19.
  70. Weal 2011, p. 81.
  71. Smith & Creek 2000, p. 552.
  72. Boehme 1992, p. 83.
  73. Smith & Creek 2000, p. 560.
  74. Smith & Creek 2000, p. 566.
  75. Boehme 1992, p. 102.
  76. Forsyth 2008, p. 11.
  77. Forsyth 2008, p. 105.
  78. Morgan 1994, p. 118.
  79. Harvey 2011, p. 348.
  80. Sims 1980, p. 190.
  81. Matthews & Foreman 2014, pp. 262–263.
  82. Planquadrat.
  83. Prien et al. 2003, p. 280.
  84. Prien et al. 2004, p. 291.
  85. Matthews & Foreman 2014, p. 263.
  86. Prien & Rodeike 1996, p. 1205.
  87. Prien & Rodeike 1996, p. 1207.
  88. Prien & Rodeike 1996, p. 1206.
  89. Prien & Rodeike 1996, p. 1208.
  90. Prien & Rodeike 1996, p. 1209.
  91. Prien & Rodeike 1996, p. 1210.
  92. Caldwell 1998, p. 324.
  93. Caldwell 1998, p. 326.
  94. Harvey 2011, p. 278.
  95. Harvey 2011, p. 279.
  96. Forsyth 2008, pp. 32–33.
  97. Forsyth 2008, p. 34.
  98. Forsyth 2008, p. 27.
  99. Patzwall & Scherzer 2001, p. 97.
  100. Scherzer 2007, p. 288.
  101. Fellgiebel 2000, p. 169.
  102. Fellgiebel 2000, p. 92.

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