Cai Lun

Cai Lun (Chinese: 蔡伦; c. 57–62 CE – 121 CE), formerly romanized as Ts'ai Lun, courtesy name Jingzhong (敬仲), was a Chinese inventor and eunuch court official of the Han dynasty. He is traditionally regarded as the inventor of paper and the papermaking process, for he originated paper in its modern form. Although early forms of paper had existed in China since the 2nd century BCE, he was responsible for significant improvements and standardization of papermaking by adding important new materials into its composition.

This is a Chinese name; the family name is Cai.
Cai Lun
蔡伦
A stamp of Cai Lun issued by China Post in 1962[lower-alpha 1]
Bornc. 57–62 CE
Leiyang, Guiyang County, Han Empire (modern-day Hunan Province, China)
Died121 CE
Luoyang, Han Empire (modern-day Henan Province), China
OccupationInventor and eunuch court official
Known forModernization of paper
Cai Lun
"Cai Lun" in Simplified (top) and Traditional (bottom) Chinese characters
Simplified Chinese蔡伦
Traditional Chinese蔡倫

Cai Lun was born in Leiyang, Guiyang County (modern-day Hunan), into a poor family and came to the imperial court as eunuch by at least 75 CE under Emperor Ming. Emperor Ming died the same year and was succeeded by Emperor Zhang, whose reign saw various power struggles between imperial consorts. Cai's early positions involved much contact with the consorts and powerful politicians, something that would prove consequential later in his life. After serving the Emperor He as a political counselor, Cai assisted him in regaining power over Dowager Empress Dou and for his service was promoted to the head of Imperial Supply Department, offering him the perfect opportunity for experimentation of new weapons and materials, including paper. In 105 CE Cai Lun perfected the paper making process with the use of tree bark, hemp waste, old rags, and fishnets. This greatly impressed the emperor and spread Cai's fame throughout the empire. His invention, service and early association with powerful officials eventually led to him being granted the title of Marquis and the lordship of a small village in 114 CE. He committed suicide in 121 CE after a false rumor spread that he intended to harm the newly-ascended Emperor An.

Cai Lun's contributions to the modernization of paper have been enormously impactful on human history, with his invention allowing literature and communication to spread around the world. However, he is mostly unknown outside of East Asia and in China is revered in ancestor worship and deified as the god of papermaking. Of China's so-called Four Great Inventions – the compass, gunpowder, papermaking and printing – Cai Lun is the only originator of one of these whose name has not been lost to history.

Life and career

Early life

Cai Lun was born in Leiyang, ancient Guiyang County (modern-day Hunan province) during the Han Dynasty.[2][3][lower-alpha 2] Cai's birth year is unknown,[5] although it has been estimated to be c. 57–62 CE.[lower-alpha 3] Almost nothing is known about his early life except that he was born into a poor family.[6] Legends suggest that there was a pool near his home, south of which was a stone mortar that Cai would later use for papermaking.[7] Anicent historian Fan Ye describes Guiyang county as having "a culture very different from that of the midlands. In the prefecture of Kuei-Yung [Guiyang] people lived humbly; the people were poor but lived together peacefully".[6]

Imperial court service
See also: History of the Han dynasty
Emperor Zhang, whom Cai Lun served under for 13 years

It is not known how Cai Lun came to be in the service of the imperial court in the 70s CE. Leiyang had recently attracted attention from the government due to its newly-discovered resources of iron, copper and zinc.[8] Ancient sources report that an iron foundry was founded to harvest the iron and transported it to the central government in Luoyang.[9] Former director of the Paper Museum in Tokyo, Kiyofusa Narita, suggested that Cai may obtained funds to travel to the capital city by working at the the iron foundry.[8] Narita cites Cai's future court appointment to oversee the production of weapons, especially swords, as evidence that he must have learned the skills to do so earlier in his life, likely from the iron foundry.[8][10]

However his appointment came about, Cai was known to have been castrated as a court eunuch by at least 75 CE,[lower-alpha 4] under Emperor Ming.[11][12] Cai's position was probably as a liaison between the privy council and the emperor, and likely involved duties akin to a chamberlain for the royal family.[8] Narita notes that this role would mean that Cai would have had many chances to become acquainted with some of the most powerful men in China.[8] Later in 75 CE Emperor Ming died and his successor, Emperor Zhang, appointed Cai as a Gentleman at the Yellow Gates (黃門侍郎) around 80 CE.[13][lower-alpha 5] The climate in the court was increasingly unstable since Liu Qing, Emperor Zhang’s son from his concubine Consort Song, was the designated heir.[13] This enraged Empress Dou, Emperor Zhang’s favorite concubine and designated empress, since she desired her adopted son, Prince Zhao, to be the heir. Empress Dou, her mother Princess Piyang, and her four brothers planned to ruin the reputation of Consort Song and her sister, another imperial consort, in order to have her adopted son crowned heir.[14] The Dou family's opportunity came in 82 CE when Consort Song became ill and asked for herbs, leading Empress Dou to falsely accuse her of planning to use the herbs for witchcraft against Emperor Zhang.[14][15] Empress Dou then convinced Cai to interrogate Consort Song and her sister, to force a confession; they both killed themselves.[13][16] Believing Empress Dou's accusation, Emperor Zhang removed Liu Qing as heir and appointed Prince Zhao.[14]

In 88 CE Emperor Zhang died and was succeeded by Prince Zhao, who ruled as Emperor He.[8] Since Emperor He was 9–10 years old at his accession, Empress Dou took control as Empress dowager and secured her family's authority by giving various positions to her brothers Dou Xian, Dou Du, Dou Jing, and Dou Gui.[8][17] During this time Cai was promoted to his most important position yet, as private counsellor to Emperor He in political matters.[18] Ancient historian, Fan Ye suggested that this promotion was due to Cai's talent and ingenuity, although Fan Ye also mentioned that while Cai was praised by Emperor He, he was criticized just as much.[10][12] He may have also became the chief eunuch in 89 CE.[19][lower-alpha 6] Emperor He came of age in 92 CE and sought to regain his power from Dowager Empress Duo, perhaps from the encouragement of the former heir Liu Qing, whose mother, Consort Song, had died as a result of the Dowager Empress Duo's rise to power.[23] Emperor He was assisted by various officials, Cai and other eunuchs, especially Zheng Zhong, in the overthrowal of the Duo family.[18][23] While not much is known about the coup itself, Emperor He was victorious and consequently forced the four Dou brothers to commit suicide, exiling Dowager Empress Duo and the rest of her family to Vietnam.[23] In 97 CE, Cai became well associated with Consort Deng Sui and was later promoted to Shang Fang Si, making him the manager of the Imperial Supply department.[10][11][18][lower-alpha 7] This was a very powerful role that would have included a wide variety of tasks, including the overseeing of the imperial library, the production of weapons, furniture and various other materials that would offer him the perfect resources to experiment and develop a more practical and higher quality version of paper.[18][24]

Standardization of paper
See also: Papermaking and Science and technology of the Han dynasty
Five seminal steps in ancient Chinese papermaking outlined in a woodcut.

In 105 CE, Cai Lun publicly declared that he had invented a new composition for paper and papermaking process.[24] Writing had a long history in China with substitutes for paper originally being wood for short text and bamboo for lengthy text.[25][26] These alternatives were inconvenient for many reasons, being especially awkward to store, heavy and difficult to write on.[25] With the introduction of a writing animal-hair brush by Meng Tian in the third century BCE, silk and cloth became alternatives that addressed these issues, but their high cost prevented widespread use.[25] The absence of a practical solution motivated continued experimentation with different materials; Cai's pulp solution became the most widely used in 105 CE.[27] Cai's process still involved the use of bamboo but also hemp waste, old rags, fishnets and most importantly, bark from trees, probably mulberry.[3][28] These materials were boiled in a pulp that was beaten with a wood or stone mallet and then mixed with a large amount of water. Then an unknown ingredient to bond the fiber together was added and the excess water was removed, leaving the paper finished after drying.[29][30]

Modern investigation has proven that somewhat modern forms of paper did exist at least 3 centuries before 105 CE,[24][31] so the process of Cai's invention was a gradual one, rather than a sudden discovery.[32] However, as sinologist Joseph Needham notes, this does not necessarily discount the credit given to Cai.[33] Cai did in fact perfect the papermaking form to a standard that has little changed in modern times and he is recognized at the very least as the patron of its creation.[29][34] It has been suggested that if he were just the patron and not the inventor, Cai took credit from someone else, as Feng Dao may have done with printing, though there is no decisive evidence to support this.[29] Many legends exist as to the inspiration for Cai's invention, with one of the most popular ones being that Cai was inspired by watching paper wasps make their nests.[35] Needham suggested that Cai was inspired by the people of his birthplace, Leiyang, who used bark from the many mulberry trees to create an earlier version of paper.[2] In contrast, Narita cites a story about how Emperor He had ordered Cai to sort and organize the wooden–board books of the imperial library, a task that was probably extremely difficult due to the awkwardness and heaviness of the books.[36] Narita suggested that this task may have convinced Cai that a new writing surface was needed and thus encouraged him to begin experimenting.[37] Irrespective of its origin, in 105 CE Cai's new paper making process not only impressed Emperor He but gained him fame throughout the empire.[3][10][38]

Final years and death
Memorial for Cai Lun at Hunan International Economics University

Emperor He died later in 105 CE and was succeeded by the infant Emperor Shang who died before the age of 1 in 106 CE and was immediately succeeded by the 13 year old Emperor An.[30] Emperor An's young age caused Consort Deng Sui to become Dowager Empress Deng Sui and rule the empire with other officials until Emperor An came of age.[13][30] The Imperial Supply Department was diminished in status and power after in 114 CE, due to the discovery that much of its profits were given to specific families rather than the government.[30] However, Cai Lun's early association with the Dowager Empress Deng Sui proved useful as while he was dismissed from his position in the Imperial Supply Department, his loyalty and service awarded him the title of Marquis, and the lord of Lung T'ing, a small village of 300 families in the shensi province.[3][39] Later in the year, Zheng Zhong's death led Cai to succeed him as chief of the palace.[13] In 117 CE, Dowager Empress Deng Sui appointed him to oversee and supervise more than 100 scholars' in their creation of a definitive edition of the so called Five Classics.[40][3]

Emperor An assumed power after Empress Deng's death in CE 121.[39] There were many officials in the kingdom who not only despised the deceased Dowager Empress Deng Sui but also her allies that were still in power. In order to remove these allies, a false rumour was spread that a coup was being planned to overthrow Emperor An, of which Cai was indicated to be involved in.[3][39] Sinologist Rafe de Crespigny notes that Cai's innocence was not helped by the fact that Emperor An was the grandson of Consort Song, who death was in part because of Cai.[13] Cai was reported to prison to answer the charges, but since he was likely to be killed he first went to his house to prepare for his death.[39] Ever since the death of his ally Empress Deng Sui, Cai had carried a poison that he had made when he was the chief of the Imperial Supply Department, its use had finally come.[41] Cai, ashamed that the Emperor would send him to death in such a dishonorable way, bathed, dressed in formal clothes and committed suicide by drinking the poison.[13][38] Cai's death date and place are unknown, but various monuments and shrines have been erected to honor him.[42]

Legacy

Global influence
Further information: History of paper
The Three Gods of Paper-making, Cai Lun with Donchō (on the left) and Mochizuki Seibee (who brought the art to Nishijima (西嶋)) (Minobu Town Museum of History and Folklore)[43]

Cai Lun's standardization and modernization of paper and the paper making process are widely considered enormously impactful to human history.[44][45][34] However, Cai is only somewhat known outside East Asia and is often excluded from major encyclopedias.[46] In fact, other than Fan Ye's ancient biography of him in the Book of the Later Han, few contemporary accounts exist.[47] Modern scholarship has praised Cai and has drawn many parallels between him and Johannes Gutenberg,[48][49] with author Michael H. Hart ranking him 7th in his The 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential Persons in History, above figures such as Albert Einstein and Charles Darwin.[50]

After Cai invented the modern papermaking process in 105, a younger contemporary of him, Tso Tzǔ-yi improved the process and paper as a medium subsequently became widely used in China by the 3rd century.[51] The paper making process seems to have gradually improved was known to be in Turkestan, Japan, Korea and India[lower-alpha 8] by the 600s.[52][53] Legend says that a Buddhist monk, Damjing, brought the process to Japan and whatever the truth to the legend is, Damjing occupies a similar patron saint position in Japan as Cai Lun does in China.[51][54] In 751 CE, Tang dynasty general Gao Xianzhi led an expedition in Pakistan and Central Asia against the Western Regions (allied Islamic countries) where he lost at the Battle of Talas River, resulting in the capturing of many Chinese to Samarkand. Papermakers were among prisoners and the Arabs soon learned the process and began heavily producing it.[34][52] Unlike many Chinese inventions that were created independently of Western Europe, the modern paper making process was wholly Chinese and gradually spread by the Arabs to Europe, where it saw widespread manufacturing by the 12th century.[29] Paper had an unprecedented impact as it entered different parts of the world, spreading literature around the world and radically revolutionizing the manner in which written communication could be spread from region to region.[55][24] In August 2010, the International Astronomical Union honored his legacy by naming a crater after him.[56]

Influence in China
Posthumous print of Cai Lun as the patron of papermaking[lower-alpha 9]

Modern Chinese culture especially celebrates Four Great Inventions of the ancient world – the compass, gunpowder, papermaking and printing – of which Cai Lun is credited with papermaking, and is therefore the only known creator of any of the 4.[5] After his death in 121 CE a shrine with his grave was built in his native Leiyang, but was soon damaged by floods.[41] Cai Lun's temple was neglected and his name largely forgotten for many centuries, even as his work spread across the world.[41] The Tang dynasty of the late 7th century saw the deification of many national heroes like Li Bai and Guan Yu as the gods of wine and war respectively. Cai Lun was among the important people declared gods so he himself became the god of papermaking.[58][59] Cai Lun also became something of a patron saint for papermakers, his image often being painted or printed onto paper mills and paper shops in not only China, but also Japan.[7][10] In 1267 a man named Chen Tsunghsi raised public funds to repair the long-damaged shrine and in doing so built a statue of Cai and a mausoleum.[41] Tsunghi explained that "As I think, Tsai Lung's [Cai Lun's] extraordinary talent and his achievement are exemplary to all ages."[41] A stone mortar, that legends claim Cai used to make paper, may have been brought to the mausoleum, although other sources say it was brought to the Imperial Museum in the Capital.[41][10] Regardless of the mortar's location, a great ceremony was held for the new mausoleum, although it eventually fall into ruin and had to be restored in 1955.[41][10] Today, the temple still stands in Leiyang as the Cai Lun Temple near the pool, renamed the "Cai Lun Pool", that was thought to be near Cai's residence.[10] In modern day China Cai Lun's name is closely associated with paper,[10] with 3 roads and the Cai Lun Paper Culture Museum being named after him.[60]

gollark: And small changes could make it fold very differently sometimes.
gollark: How? I thought binding and whatever were very sensitive to the particular shape.
gollark: It probably can't fold *that* differently without just not working.
gollark: Weird that everyone suddenly started closing borders *now* given that it's apparently been around and known about somewhat for two weeks or so.
gollark: The report doesn't mention anything about vaccines but the article says they'll keep working, as only ~~one bit~~ some of the spike protein changed.

See also

Notes
  1. No contemporary portraits of Cai Lun survive.[1]
  2. The ancient Guiyang County is not to be confused with the modern-day Guiyang County and the city of Guiyang. While Leiyang's name remains unchanged from the Han Dynasty, the ancient Guiyang County is now the prefecture-level city of Chenzhou in the Hunan province.[4]
  3. Day & McNeil 1996, p. 122: c. 57 CE
    [[#CITEREFCai_Lun_|_Biography,_Paper_&_Facts_|_Britannica2020|Cai Lun | Biography, Paper & Facts | Britannica 2020]]: c. 62? CE
  4. It is possible that Cai was employed earlier than 75 CE, but a record indicates that he was employed by at least 75 CE.[11]
  5. This appointment would have meant that Cai was attending the imperial consorts, a role that only eunuchs were eligible for.
  6. While Britannica records this, biographies by Fan Ye, Kiyofusa Narita and Joseph Needham do not mention it.[19][20][21][22]
  7. Some sources claim that Cai gained this position earlier, in 89 AD. This is unlikely as Narita notes that the promotion was likely a reward from Emperor He, after assisting in his successful coup.[11][18]
  8. Although India seems to have only begun widely producing paper in the 12th century.[52]
  9. This is an 18th-century Qing dynasty print of Cai Lun with 4 attendants and a sacrificial pig and chicken; no contemporary portraits of Cai Lun survive.[1][57]

References
  1. Hunter & Hunter 1978, p. 51.
  2. Needham & Tsien 1985, p. 4.
  3. Hunter & Hunter 1978, p. 52.
  4. Official website of Leiyang Government 2019.
  5. Narita 1966, p. 1.
  6. Narita 1966, pp. 1–2.
  7. Needham & Tsien 1985, p. 107.
  8. Narita 1966, p. 2.
  9. Mu-chou 2018, p. 98.
  10. Carter 1925, p. 3.
  11. Needham & Tsien 1985, p. 40.
  12. Hunter & Hunter 1978, p. 50.
  13. Crespigny 2006, p. 27.
  14. Tan 2014, p. 107.
  15. Peterson 2016, pp. 104–105.
  16. Peterson 2016, p. 105.
  17. Tan 2014, p. 108.
  18. Narita 1966, p. 3.
  19. [[#CITEREFCai_Lun_|_Biography,_Paper_&_Facts_|_Britannica2020|Cai Lun | Biography, Paper & Facts | Britannica 2020]].
  20. Carter 1925.
  21. Narita 1966.
  22. Needham & Tsien 1985.
  23. Tan 2014, p. 109.
  24. Eliot & Rose 2009, p. 99.
  25. Hunter & Hunter 1978, p. 48.
  26. Carter 1925, p. 1.
  27. Carter 1925, p. 2.
  28. Needham & Tsien 1985, p. 4, 40, 57.
  29. Day & McNeil 1996, p. 122.
  30. Narita 1966, p. 11.
  31. Needham & Tsien 1985, p. 38.
  32. Narita 1966, pp. 5–8.
  33. Needham & Tsien 1985, p. 41.
  34. Narita 1966, p. 14.
  35. Holdstock 2018, p. 101.
  36. Narita 1966, p. 10.
  37. Narita 1966, pp. 10–11.
  38. Hart 2000, p. 37.
  39. Narita 1966, p. 12.
  40. Crespigny 2006, p. 127.
  41. Narita 1966, p. 13.
  42. Needham & Tsien 1985, p. 47.
  43. Hanging scroll with the Three Gods of Paper-making, Nishijima.
  44. Hart 2000, p. 39.
  45. Day & McNeil 1996, p. 122–123.
  46. Hart 2000, p. 36.
  47. Hart 2000, pp. 36–37.
  48. Carter 1925, p. 180.
  49. Hart 2000, p. 40.
  50. Hart 2000, p. vii.
  51. Hunter & Hunter 1978, p. 53.
  52. Needham & Tsien 1985, p. 3.
  53. Carter 1925, p. 5.
  54. Needham & Tsien 1985, p. 108.
  55. Needham & Tsien 1985, p. 2–3.
  56. Planetary Names: Crater, craters: Cai Lun on Moon 2010.
  57. Needham & Tsien 1985, pp. 108–109.
  58. Day & McNeil 1996, p. 123.
  59. Needham & Tsien 1985, p. 106–107.
  60. Wang 2015.

Sources
Books
  • Carter, Thomas Francis (1925). The Invention of Printing in China and Its Spread Westward. New York, New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0826018359.
  • Hart, Michael H. (2000). The 100: A Ranking Of The Most Influential Persons In History (2nd ed.). New York, New York: Citadel. ISBN 978-0806513508.
  • Narita, Kiyofusa (1966). Life of Ts'ai Lung and Japanese Paper-Making. Tokyo, Japan: Dainihon Press. OCLC 8310445.
  • Needham, Joseph; Tsien, Tsuen-Hsuin (1985). Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 1, Paper and Printing. Taipei: Caves Books. ISBN 978-0521086905.
Online
  • 历史沿革 [History] (in Chinese). Leiyang, Hunan: leiyang.gov.cn. 6 August 2019. Retrieved 29 April 2020.


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