Plug-in electric vehicles in Australia

The adoption of plug-in electric vehicles in Australia is driven by customer demand due to the lack of government policies or monetary incentives to support the adoption and deployment of low or zero emission vehicles.

Tesla Model 3 made available in Australia in August 2019 for $66,000 AUD.[1][2]
The Mercedes-Benz EQC was named the best car in Australia in 2019.
The Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV is Australia's top selling plug-in electric vehicle, with over 2,906 units sold through March 2018.[3]

The total stock of plug-in electric vehicles is almost 12,000 with 6,718 of these electric cars sold in 2019 alone with the other sales occurring between 2012 and 2018.[4][5][6] A further 14,253 electric vehicles were registered in early 2020 which is nearly double the registrations of the previous year.[7] The Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV was the country's top selling plug-in electric vehicle, with over 2,906 plug-in hybrid SUVs sold through March 2018.[3] However, Tesla accounted for 70% of the 6,718 electric car sales in 2019 with the Tesla Model 3 compromising two-thirds of electric car sales in the year.[8] The electric Tesla Model X and Model 3 are Australia's second and third most safest cars.[9] While the Mercedes-Benz all-electric EQC was named the best car in Australia in 2019.[10]

Victoria is Australia's most important electric vehicle market with the most electric vehicle purchases in Australia between 2011 and 2017 with a total of 1,324 car sales.[11] Victoria is also Australia's most important electric vehicle market because it had the most electric vehicle chargers in the country.[11] Similarly, Victoria's capital city Melbourne, had the highest concentration of electric vehicle chargers in Australia in 2017.[11] Victoria had 403 electric vehicle chargers in 2019 with another 31 expected to be constructed by the end of 2020.[12] Victoria almost doubled the electric vehicle charger network from 216 chargers in 2018 to 403 chargers in 2019.[12][11] Victoria also manufactures electric vehicles with a commercial electric vehicle manufacturing facility to be established in Victoria in 2021, producing 2,400 vehicles per year.[13] The Victorian company SEA Electric also manufactures electric trucks and other vehicles for domestic and international markets.[14][15] Overall, Victoria, Australian Capital Territory/New South Wales, South Australia and Tasmania represent the largest markets in the country for electric car sales.[11]

The 2018 Electric Vehicle Council report Recharging the Economy, stated a high adoption of electric vehicles has the potential to boost GDP by $2.9 billion and support 13,400 jobs by 2030, and has other positive economic effects including lower fuel costs and better fuel security, improved public health and growth of EV supply chains.[16] A study in 2020 by ClimateWorks Australia, stated that at least 50% of all new cars sold in 2030 will need to be electric vehicles to remain within 2C of global warming by 2050.[17] The study further found that Australia will require an accelerated rollout of electric vehicles to transition to net zero emissions by 2050 and to ensure 100% renewable energy by 2035.[17]

Evolution of EV market

Early development

In 2008 Australia started producing its first commercial all-electric vehicle. Originally called the Blade Runner, its name was changed to Electron, and was exported to New Zealand with one purchased by the then Environment Minister Dr. Nick Smith.[18][19] The Electron is based on the Hyundai Getz and has proven popular with government car pools.[20]

Better Place
Two Mitsubishi i MiEVs owned by ChargePoint and Better Place providing test drives during the 2010 Australian International Motor Show in Sydney.
A Better Place charging station in Canberra.

In October 2008, Better Place announced plans to deploy charging network to power electric cars in Melbourne, Sydney and Brisbane in partnership with Australian power company AGL and finance group Macquarie Capital.[21] The initial network deployment was planned to take place in Canberra in late 2011.[22] As of December 2011, 12 public charge spots (power outlets, not battery swap stations) had been installed in Australia.[23] The roll out of the Australian network was initially planned to begin 6 months to a year after the roll out of the network in Denmark.[24]

In December 2012, Renault announced that the launch of the Renault Fluence Z.E. was postponed indefinitely following delays with the roll out of Australia's electric vehicle infrastructure. The electric car was scheduled to go on sale to the public from a number of dealers across the country in the fourth quarter of 2012. Better Place explained that delays in the deployments in Israel and Denmark are reflecting in the Australian roll out, which would take place between 12 and 18 months behind the other markets.[25] Better Place ultimately went bankrupt with the only sign they ever existed being a few lone silver posts standing in (mostly university) car parks. As of 2015, Chargepoint is now the only major operator of a charging network still based and active in Australia.[26]

Introduction of series production EVs

Beginning in mid-2009, a twelve-month field trial was conducted with the Mitsubishi i-MiEV with potential electric vehicle customers, such as local, state and federal government bodies, and major fleet operators.[27] Leasing for fleet customers began in Australia in August 2010.[28][29] As of May 2011, a total of 110 i-MiEVs had been leased to government and corporate fleets, while retail sales to the public began in August 2011. As of December 2012, 125 i-MiEVs had been sold in the country, 30 of which were sold by December 2011.[30]

A Mitsubishi i MiEV charging in Melbourne.

A two-year fleet trial of 10 converted Ford Focus Electric cars, that also included 14 i-MiEVs and 3 Toyota Prius PHEVs,[31] commenced in Western Australia in 2010.[32] Each converted car was equipped with a 23 kWh battery pack, a 27 kW DC motor and a 1000A motor controller. These cars were then used in the study as regular fleet vehicles to find their usability for everyday driving.[33]

In July 2011, Nissan Australia provided 16 Nissan Leaf vehicles, to be used by both personal and commercial users, for an electric vehicle trial in Victoria.[34] A total of 19 Leafs were registered in 2011, while sales of the Nissan Leaf in Australia began in June 2012—77 units were sold during 2012.[30][35] The Holden Volt, a plug-in hybrid model, was released onto the Australian market by late 2012 and a total of 80 units were delivered during that year.[30]

A total of 258 plug-in electric cars were sold during 2012, with the i-MiEV as the top selling model, with 95 units sold.[36] Sales during 2013 totaled 304 units, up 20% from 2012. The Nissan Leaf was the top selling plug-in car with 188 units followed by the Holden Volt with 101 units. The EV market share in 2013 was 0.036% of total new car sales in the country.[37][38]

As of September 2013, the largest public charging networks exist in the capital cities of Perth and Melbourne, with around 30 stations (7 kW AC) established in both cities—smaller networks exist in other capital cities. An Australian standard for charging connectors does not exist as of September 2013.[39]

Since 2014 Mitsubishi is no longer importing the i-MiEV after slow sales due to the high price and due to competition from the more successful Outlander PHEV for battery components. Sales during the first quarter of 2014 totaled 42 units, representing a 0.015% market share of new car sales,[40] and during the first half of 2014 sales reached 114 units.[41]

Deliveries of the Tesla Model S in Australia began in late 2014.[42] Deliveries of the BMW i3 also commenced at the end of 2014. Sales during 2014 totaled 1,228 units, up 288% from 2013.[43] The plug-in electric segment reached a 0.11% market share of total new car sales in the country, up threefold from 0.036% in 2013.[37][43] The surge in sales was due to the introduction of the Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV, which sold 895 units during 2014, and became Australia's top selling plug-in electric vehicle.[43] Cumulative sales in the Australian market since 2010 reached over 1,950 units by the end of December 2014, up from 304 units in 2013.[30][37][43][44][45][46]

A total of 246 Holden Volts had been sold in the country by mid April 2015, with the stock of the first generation almost empty. General Motors announced that it will not build the second generation Volt in right-hand-drive configuration, so the Holden Volt will be discontinued in the country when the remaining stock is sold out.[47] As of April 2015, the following models are available in the Australian market: Nissan Leaf, Tesla Model S, both variants of the BMW i3 (REx and all-electric), BMW i8, Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV, and Porsche plug-in hybrids, 918 Spyder, Panamera and Cayenne.[47][48][49] Other models scheduled to be launched in the country include the Audi A3 e-tron and the Audi Q7 e-tron.[47]

Driver assistance vehicles operated by the Royal Automobile Club of Western Australia (left, BMW i3) and the National Roads and Motorists' Association (right, Mitsubishi i MiEV).

As of December 2014, a total of 65 Model S cars were registered in New South Wales and only four in Victoria.[44] At the end of March 2015, registrations totaled 119 in New South Wales and 54 in Victoria. Although there were no sales figures reported for Tesla in other states, the combined sales of these two states alone were enough for the Model S to rank as the top selling all-electric car in the country for the first quarter of 2015, ahead of the BMW i3 (46) and the Nissan Leaf (31).[44] Australia's top selling plug-in electric vehicle for the first quarter of 2015 was the Outlander P-HEV, with 198 units sold,[50] again in the first quarter of 2016 ranked as the top selling plug-in with 195 units,[51] and continued as the country's all-time best selling plug-in with 2,015 units sold through March 2016 since its introduction in 2013.[52]

As of December 2016, about 1,000 Nissan Leafs have been sold since its introduction in the country in 2012.[53] The Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV is the country's all-time top-selling plug-in electric vehicle with 2,906 units sold through March 2018.[3]

Growth and availability of electric vehicles

Plug-in electric cars in Australia grew 300% from just 2,216 sales in 2018 to 6,718 in 2019.[6] Tesla accounted for 70% of these electric car sales, mostly through the release of the Tesla Model 3 in August which accounted for two-thirds of electric car sales in 2019.[8][54] Electric vehicle sales were also stated earlier to have doubled in Australia in 2019 compared to 2018.[55] In 2019, the Electric Vehicle Council expected EV model choices to continue to expand which would consequently promote a significant increase in EV sales in Australia.[56] This is from 22 all-electric vehicles (EVs) and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) available in 2019 to 31 by the end of 2020.[56] This compares to more than 150 electric car models being available in Europe and elsewhere.[8]

Electric Vehicle Policies

Government incentives

A National Electric Vehicle Strategy by the federal liberal government is being developed which is set to be released in mid-2020.[57] This may include federal tax rebates and direct vehicle subsidies as offered through similar federal government policies in the US and China.[16] Also, a clean car "feebate" could be offered as introduced in neighbouring New Zealand in July 2019 where a discount of $8,000 NZD ($7,700 AUD) is offered towards the purchase of a new electric car.[16] In addition, the Electric Vehicle Council and the principal clean energy transition advisor for Ernst and Young, urged the Australian government to introduce a complete ban on new petrol and diesel car sales from 2035 as seen in the UK, and add hybrids to the black list.[58] As of July 2019, the Australian government offers a higher luxury tax threshold for qualifying low emissions vehicles and the state of Victoria and Australian Capital Territory offer incentives for purchasing and owning electric vehicles e.g. stamp duty exemptions and registration discounts. The Victorian Government encourages the use of electric cars as part of its strategy to tackle climate change with a long-term target of net zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050.[59] The Victorian Government is also preparing a Zero Emissions Vehicle Roadmap to be released in mid-2020 to support the adoption of electric vehicles.[60] The New South Wales Liberal Government will also release an electric car strategy with incentives to encourage the use of such vehicles in early 2020.[16] However, currently the ACT offers the most financial and non-financial incentives for purchasing electric vehicles of any state in Australia.[11]

The opposition government in Australia in 2019 also proposed a 50% electric vehicle target by 2030.[61] The Coalition federal government has its carbon abatement policy anticipating electric vehicles to make up 50% of sales by 2030.[56] Furthermore, government analysis in 2019 forecasted 50% of all new cars sold in Australia by 2035 will be electric on the current path.[62] Another government forecast indicated the uptake of zero emissions vehicles in Australia would be at a minimum at least 27% by 2030.[63]

Overview of federal, state and territory government policy as of May 2018[64][11]

VIC ACT SA NSW TAS QLD NT WA Cwth
Uptake EV purchases 2011 - 2017 1324 165 957 1238 61 688 13 375 4821
EV sales per 10,000 vehicles (2017) 10 21 22 10 3 6 1 8 7
Regulation Vehicle CO2 emissions standards o
Building Code Changes (EVSE)* ✓
Financial incentives Stamp duty, registration and tax discounts ✓ ($100) ✓ ($2,110) o ✓ (<$250) ✓ ($660) ✓ ✓
Direct Vehicle Incentive ✓
Direct vehicle subsidy o
Fleet incentive ✓
Charging infrastructure incentive ✓ ✓ ($5,000)[56] ✓ ✓ ✓ o ✓
Toll Lane Exemption
Discounted Parking ✓ (100%) ✓ (49%) ✓ (50%)
Private Charger Install Rebate (L2) ✓
Private Charger Install Rebate (L3) ✓
Free Govt Charging (L2) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Free Govt Charging (DCFC) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Non financial incentives Vehicle lane and parking privileges ✓
Electric vehicle public transport trials ✓[65] ✓[66] ✓ ✓[67][68] ✓[66] ✓ ✓ ✓
Electric council trucks ✓[69] ✓[70]
Government fleet policy ✓[71][72][73] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Information and education programs ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

policies under consideration are marked o.

Source: Energeia Research; Notes: * Building code changes to require conduit in all parking areas in new buildings to support charging; ** Estimated discounts are for a $60,000 electric vehicle in comparison to a $60,000 medium sized petrol or diesel vehicle; *** SA charging incentive not available outside of Adelaide City, maximum incentive shown for installing level 3 charger.

Charging infrastructure

Public charging infrastructure in Australia[11]

VIC ACT SA NSW TAS QLD NT WA
Total number of charging stations 216 20 76 161 21 162 5 122
Charging stations per 100,000 residents 3.40 3.17 4.40 2.04 4.02 3.27 2.03 4.72
Total # AC 208 17 70 148 21 138 5 107
DC 8 3 6 13 0 24 0 15
Total # Capital City 114 20 32 86 4 58 3 77
Regional 102 0 44 75 17 104 2 45

The number of charging stations in Australia has increased substantially, with a 64 per cent increase from 2017 to 2018 as data reveals that 476 charging locations available in 2017 has increased to 783 charging locations available in 2018.[11]

Sales
Registration of highway-capable plug-in electric cars by model in Australia between 2010 and April 2017
ModelTotal
2010–2017(1)		YTD
2017(1)[74]		2016[74]2015[74]2014[74]2013[74]2012[74]2011[74]2010[46][75]
Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV1,666149753863––––
Nissan Leaf6350421361731887719–
Tesla Model S323?150104(2)69(2)––––
BMW i3310349315033––––
Holden Volt2470085810180––
Mitsubishi i MiEV237000009530112
Mercedes-Benz C350e230541688–––––
Porsche Cayenne S E-Hybrid138077583––––
Audi A3 e-tron12860608–––––
BMW i8102632613––––
BMW 330e1022874––––––
Volvo XC90 T8982672––––––
BMW X5 xDrive40e7826016–––––
Mercedes-Benz GLE500e561640––––––
Tesla Roadster110000056–
Renault Kangoo Z.E.101405––––
Renault Fluence Z.E.4000031––
Total registrations4,4202829121,3021,20729225855112
Notes: (1) 2017 figures as of 25 April.
(2) Model S figures correspond only to registrations in New South Wales and Victoria.[44]

Plug-in electric vehicles available in Australia
CompanyNameTypeBodyAvailablePriceFuel per 100 km/Range ImageNotes
Tesla Tesla Model 3 BEV 4 Door Sedan August 2019 $69,275 (SR)

$87,275 (LR)

$95,275 (P)

 460 km (NEDC est.)

620 km (NEDC est.)

560 km (NEDC est.)

 (SR) - Standard Range

(LR) - Long Range

(P) - Performance

Prices are for base models (no options) and include $1,375 delivery fee but not local taxes.

Tesla Model S BEV 4 Door Sedan (Saloon) 2014 $126,275 (LR)

$145,275 (P)

 713 km range (NEDC)

671 km range (NEDC)

 (LR) - Long Range

(P) - Performance

Prices are for base models (no options) and include $1,375 delivery fee but not local taxes.

Tesla Model X BEV 5 Door SUV 2016 $135,275 (LR)

$153,275 (P)

 580 km range (NEDC)

553 km range (NEDC)

 (LR) - Long Range

(P) - Performance

Prices are for base models (no options) and include $1,375 delivery fee but not local taxes.

BMW i3 BEV 5 Door Hatchback 2014 $68,400[76] 246 km range (2019)[77] HEV (Range extender) option was available until 2018[78]
Jaguar I-PACE BEV 5 Door SUV 2019 $119,000 470 km range
Nissan Leaf BEV 5 Door Hatchback 2011 $51,500 363 km range
Hyundai IONIQ Electric BEV 5 Door Hatchback Dec 2018 $49,253 230 km range
Hyundai KONA BEV 5 Door SUV Apr 2019 $61,664[79] 449 km range[80]
Volvo XC40 Recharge Plug-in Hybrid PHEV SUV Q3 2020 $64,990[81] 46km electric-only range[7]
Mercedes-Benz EQC BEV SUV Medium 2019 $123,506 (Qld.)[82] 353km range[83]
Renault ZOE BEV 2017 $47,490[84] 390km range[85]
Kia Kia E-Niro BEV SUV 485 km range[86]
Hyundai IONIQ Plug-In Hybrid PHEV 5 Door Hatchback Dec 2018 $45,253 50 km battery range + Petrol
BMW330ePHEV4 Door Sedan2016$75,900[87] 66 km battery-only[88] [89]
BMWX5 40ePHEV5 Door SUV2016 [89]
BMW530ePHEV4 Door Sedan2017 [89]
BMW740ePHEV4 Door Sedan2016 [89]
Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV PHEV SUV March 2014 $47,500[90] 54 km range (NEDC Correlated, 45 km range WLTP)[91]

5.3L (Hybrid Mode)
Mercedes-Benz C 300e PHEV Sedan 2019 $79,200
Volvo S60 PHEV Sedan 2017 $60,000 - $100,000 2L per 100km R-Design Model
Volvo XC60 T8 PHEV SUV 2015 $100,000 Polestar Engineered Model
Volvo XC90 T8 PHEV Large SUV 2016 $100,000 40 km battery range + Petrol R-Design Model
Land Rover Range Rover Sport P400e PHEV SUV 2018 > $100,000
AudiA3 e-tronPHEV5 Door Hatchback201550 km [89]
Audi Q7 e-tron quattro PHEV SUV large 2018 $139,000
BMW i8 PHEV Sports Car 2015 $320,000 2.1L
Mitsubishi iMiEV BEV 5 Door Hatchback July 2010 160 km range[92] Available for fleets only
MINI S E Mini Countryman Hybrid PHEV SUV Small $60,000 2.5 L/100 km
Mercedes-Benz C350e PHEV Medium 2015 $60,000 - $100,000
Mercedes-Benz C350T E PHEV Medium 2015 $60,000 - $100,000
Mercedes-Benz E350E PHEV Large 2017 > $100,000
Mercedes-Benz GLE500e PHEV SUV large July 2016 >$100k
Mercedes-Benz S500e Gen2 PHEV Upper large July 2016 >$100k
Porsche Cayenne E-Hybrid PHEV SUV August 2019 $145,965[93] 43 km range[94]

3.2L (Hybrid Mode)
PorscheCayenne Turbo S E-HybridPHEVSUVAugust 2019$299,265 ($303,965 Coupé)[95]40 km range [94]

3.9L (Hybrid Mode)
Renault Fluence Small 2012 $60,000 - $100,000
Renault Kangoo PHEV Van 2019 $50,000 200 km range[96]
Nissan e-NV200 PHEV Van 2014 $20,000 - $30,000 170 km range
Mitsubishi MiniCab MIEV PHEV Van 2011 $17,000
ZED70[97] ZED70 ute[97] less than AUD$200,000[97] The pickup was developed in Adelaide, South Australia[97]
SEA Electric[98] $550,000[98] 100% Australian made and for IKEA Australia to have a 100% electric fleet in 2025[98]
Carbridge/BYD[99] BEV 2017[99] 430km[99] Australian bus manufacturer[99]
BYD BYD electric truck T5[100] BEV Truck 2020
BYD BYD electric truck T6[100] BEV Truck 2020
HoldenVoltPHEV5 Door HatchbackDec 2012$60,0003.8L No longer offered as of 2015[101]
Blade Electric Vehicles Electron BEV 5 Door Hatchback (Hyundai Getz) 2008 $48,000 100 km range Ceased production in 2011[102]

Volvo Bus Australia’s national contracts manager Ian Clarke in 2017 stated “The future is electric. Volvo has electric chassis in development and actually in service in Europe which we are planning on bringing to Australia at some point in the future. We have plans to roll them out across the country”.[99]

Plug-in electric vehicles future availability in Australia
CompanyNameTypeAvailablePrice Range Image
Volvo All-electric XC40[103] BEV late 2020 $72,590[104] 400 km[105]
Tesla Model Y[106] BEV 2021 $102,000[107]
Volvo Polestar 2[103] BEV 2020 $64,430[104]
MG ZS EV[104] BEV 2020 $46,990[104]
Volkswagen ID.3[108] BEV 2022 $48,000
Volkswagen ID.4 SUV[109] BEV 2022
Mini Cooper SE hatchback[110] BEV mid-2020 $59,999[111]
Audi E-tron[104] BEV mid-2020 $137,700[107] 500 km+[112]
Porsche Taycan[104] BEV mid-2020 $191,000[112]
Kia Electric e-Soul[113] BEV
Glory Glory EV[104] BEV 2020 $60,000[104]
gollark: I would be worried about the networking between the payment terminals and central server, too - if it's not secured properly people could intercept it and/or run attacks on it.
gollark: You *don't* trust the payment terminals, because people can go around editing the code on them to do basically whatever, and they have to read the card and contact the bank server.
gollark: You trust the central server but it can't actually physically be there to handle every transaction somehow.
gollark: You trust the card but it's a blind data storage device which can't compute or do networking.
gollark: It's not a crypto problem. It's a trust problem.

See also

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