Hydrate

In chemistry, a hydrate is a substance that contains water or its constituent elements. The chemical state of the water varies widely between different classes of hydrates, some of which were so labeled before their chemical structure was understood.

Chemical nature

Organic chemistry

In organic chemistry, a hydrate is a compound formed by the hydration, i.e. "Addition of water or of the elements of water (i.e. H and OH) to a molecular entity".[1] For example: ethanol, CH₃−CH₂−OH, is the product of the hydration reaction of ethene, CH₂=CH₂, formed by the addition of H to one C and OH to the other C, and so can be considered as the hydrate of ethene. A molecule of water may be eliminated, for example, by the action of sulfuric acid. Another example is chloral hydrate, CCl₃−CH(OH)₂, which can be formed by reaction of water with chloral, CCl₃−CH=O.

Many organic molecules, as well as inorganic molecules, form crystals that incorporate water into the crystalline structure without chemical alteration of the organic molecule (water of crystallization). The sugar trehalose, for example, exists in both an anhydrous form (melting point 203 °C) and as a dihydrate (melting point 97 °C). Protein crystals commonly have as much as 50% water content.

Molecules are also labeled as hydrates for historical reasons not covered above. Glucose, C₆H₁₂O₆, was originally thought of as C₆(H₂O)₆ and described as a carbohydrate. Methanol is often sold as "methyl hydrate", implying the incorrect formula CH₃OH₂, while the correct formula is CH₃−OH.

Hydrate formation is common for active ingredient. Many manufacturing processes provide an opportunity for hydrates to form and the state of hydration can be changed with environmental humidity and time. The state of hydration of an active pharmaceutical ingredient can significantly affect the solubility and dissolution rate and therefore its bioavailability.[2]

Inorganic chemistry

Hydrates are inorganic salts "containing water molecules combined in a definite ratio as an integral part of the crystal"[3] that are either bound to a metal center or that have crystallized with the metal complex. Such hydrates are also said to contain water of crystallization or water of hydration. If the water is heavy water, where the hydrogen involved is the isotope deuterium, then the term deuterate may be used in place of hydrate.


Anhydrous cobalt(II) chloride CoCl₂	Cobalt(II) chloride hexahydrate CoCl₂·6H₂O

A colorful example is cobalt(II) chloride, which turns from blue to red upon hydration, and can therefore be used as a water indicator.

The notation "hydrated compound⋅nH₂O", where n is the number of water molecules per formula unit of the salt, is commonly used to show that a salt is hydrated. The n is usually a low integer, though it is possible for fractional values to occur. For example, in a monohydrate n = 1, and in a hexahydrate n = 6. Numerical prefixes of Greek origin are:[4]

Hemi – 1/2
Mono – 1
Sesqui – 1½
Di – 2
Tri – 3
Tetra – 4
Penta – 5
Hexa – 6
Hepta – 7
Octa – 8
Nona – 9
Deca – 10
Undeca – 11
Dodeca – 12

A hydrate that has lost water is referred to as an anhydride; the remaining water, if any exists, can only be removed with very strong heating. A substance that does not contain any water is referred to as anhydrous. Some anhydrous compounds are hydrated so easily that they are said to be hygroscopic and are used as drying agents or desiccants.

Clathrate hydrates

Clathrate hydrates (also known as gas hydrates, gas clathrates, etc.) are water ice with gas molecules trapped within; they are a form of clathrate. An important example is methane hydrate (also known as gas hydrate, methane clathrate, etc.).

Nonpolar molecules such as methane can form clathrate hydrates with water, especially under high pressure. Although there is no hydrogen bonding between water and guest molecules when methane is the guest molecule of the clathrate, guest–host hydrogen bonding often forms when the guest is a larger organic molecule such as tetrahydrofuran. In such cases the guest–host hydrogen bonds result in the formation of L-type Bjerrum defects in the clathrate lattice.[5]

Stability

The stability of hydrates is generally determined by the nature of the compounds, their temperature, and the relative humidity (if they are exposed to air).

gollark: Bees do not routinely have political prisoners.

gollark: Decaying vegetable communications are generally subsumed by their matter reassemblers, and they can physically transfer objects via miniaturized avian/apian carriers or railguns for high-bandwidth communications.

gollark: They have onboard passive-aggression neural networks massively surpassing human performance.

gollark: Oh, absolutely.

gollark: They don't actually have foreheads.

References

IUPAC, Compendium of Chemical Terminology, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2019) "Hydration". doi:10.1351/goldbook.H02876
Surov, Artem O., Nikita A. Vasilev, Andrei V. Churakov, Julia Stroh, Franziska Emmerling, and German L. Perlovich. "Solid Forms of Ciprofloxacin Salicylate: Polymorphism, Formation Pathways and Thermodynamic Stability". Crystal Growth & Design (2019). doi:10.1021/acs.cgd.9b00185.
Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 625. ISBN 978-0-08-037941-8.
Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry. IUPAC Recommendations 2005. Table IV Multiplicative Prefixes, p. 258.
Alavi S., Susilo R., Ripmeester J. A. (2009). "Linking microscopic guest properties to macroscopic observables in clathrate hydrates: guest-host hydrogen bonding" (PDF). The Journal of Chemical Physics. 130 (17): 174501. Bibcode:2009JChPh.130q4501A. doi:10.1063/1.3124187. PMID 19425784.CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link)

This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

[1] IUPAC, Compendium of Chemical Terminology, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2019) "Hydration". doi:10.1351/goldbook.H02876

[2] Surov, Artem O., Nikita A. Vasilev, Andrei V. Churakov, Julia Stroh, Franziska Emmerling, and German L. Perlovich. "Solid Forms of Ciprofloxacin Salicylate: Polymorphism, Formation Pathways and Thermodynamic Stability". Crystal Growth & Design (2019). doi:10.1021/acs.cgd.9b00185.

[3] Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 625. ISBN 978-0-08-037941-8.

[4] Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry. IUPAC Recommendations 2005. Table IV Multiplicative Prefixes, p. 258.

[5] Alavi S., Susilo R., Ripmeester J. A. (2009). "Linking microscopic guest properties to macroscopic observables in clathrate hydrates: guest-host hydrogen bonding" (PDF). The Journal of Chemical Physics. 130 (17): 174501. Bibcode:2009JChPh.130q4501A. doi:10.1063/1.3124187. PMID 19425784.CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link)