Apparent magnitude

Apparent magnitude (m) is a measure of the brightness of a star or other astronomical object observed from the Earth. An object's apparent magnitude depends on its intrinsic luminosity, its distance from Earth, and any extinction of the object's light caused by interstellar dust along the line of sight to the observer.

For a more detailed discussion of the history of the magnitude system, see Magnitude (astronomy).

Asteroid 65 Cybele and two stars, with their magnitudes labeled

The magnitude scale is reverse logarithmic: the brighter an object is, the lower its magnitude. An object that is measured to be 5 magnitudes higher than another object is 100 times dimmer. Consequently, a difference of 1.0 in magnitude corresponds to a brightness ratio of ⁵√100, or about 2.512. For example, a star of magnitude 2.0 is 2.512 times brighter than a star of magnitude 3.0 and is 100 times brighter than one of magnitude 7.0. The brightest astronomical objects have negative apparent magnitudes: for example, Venus at −4.2 or Sirius at −1.46. The faintest stars visible with the naked eye on the darkest night have apparent magnitudes of about +6.5, though this varies depending on a person's eyesight and with altitude and atmospheric conditions.[1] The apparent magnitudes of known objects range from the Sun at −26.7 to objects in deep Hubble Space Telescope images of around magnitude +30.[2]

The measurement of apparent magnitude is called photometry. Photometric measurements are made in the ultraviolet, visible, or infrared wavelength bands using standard passband filters belonging to photometric systems such as the UBV system or the Strömgren uvbyβ system.

Absolute magnitude is a measure of the intrinsic luminosity of a celestial object rather than its apparent brightness and is expressed on the same reverse logarithmic scale. Absolute magnitude is defined as the apparent magnitude that a star or object would have if it were observed from a distance of 10 parsecs (3.1×10¹⁴ kilometres). When referring to just "magnitude", apparent magnitude rather than absolute magnitude is normally intended.

History

Visible to typical human eye[3]	Apparent magnitude	Bright- ness relative to Vega	Number of stars (other than Sun) brighter than apparent magnitude[4] in the night sky
Yes	−1.0	251%	1 (Sirius)
	00.0	100%	4
	01.0	40%	15
	02.0	16%	48
	03.0	6.3%	171
	04.0	2.5%	513
	05.0	1.0%	1602
	06.0	0.4%	4800
	06.5	0.25%	9100[5]
No	07.0	0.16%	14000
	08.0	0.063%	42000
	09.0	0.025%	121000
	10.0	0.010%	340000

The scale used to indicate magnitude originates in the Hellenistic practice of dividing stars visible to the naked eye into six magnitudes. The brightest stars in the night sky were said to be of first magnitude (m = 1), whereas the faintest were of sixth magnitude (m = 6), which is the limit of human visual perception (without the aid of a telescope). Each grade of magnitude was considered twice the brightness of the following grade (a logarithmic scale), although that ratio was subjective as no photodetectors existed. This rather crude scale for the brightness of stars was popularized by Ptolemy in his Almagest and is generally believed to have originated with Hipparchus. This cannot be proved or disproved because Hipparchus's original star catalogue is lost. The only preserved text by Hipparchus himself (a commentary to Aratus) clearly documents that he did not have a system to describe brightnesses with numbers: He always uses terms like "big" or "small", "bright" or "faint" or even descriptions like "visible at fullmoon".[6]

In 1856, Norman Robert Pogson formalized the system by defining a first magnitude star as a star that is 100 times as bright as a sixth-magnitude star, thereby establishing the logarithmic scale still in use today. This implies that a star of magnitude m is about 2.512 times as bright as a star of magnitude m + 1. This figure, the fifth root of 100, became known as Pogson's Ratio.[7] The zero point of Pogson's scale was originally defined by assigning Polaris a magnitude of exactly 2. Astronomers later discovered that Polaris is slightly variable, so they switched to Vega as the standard reference star, assigning the brightness of Vega as the definition of zero magnitude at any specified wavelength.

Apart from small corrections, the brightness of Vega still serves as the definition of zero magnitude for visible and near infrared wavelengths, where its spectral energy distribution (SED) closely approximates that of a black body for a temperature of 11000 K. However, with the advent of infrared astronomy it was revealed that Vega's radiation includes an infrared excess presumably due to a circumstellar disk consisting of dust at warm temperatures (but much cooler than the star's surface). At shorter (e.g. visible) wavelengths, there is negligible emission from dust at these temperatures. However, in order to properly extend the magnitude scale further into the infrared, this peculiarity of Vega should not affect the definition of the magnitude scale. Therefore, the magnitude scale was extrapolated to all wavelengths on the basis of the black-body radiation curve for an ideal stellar surface at 11000 K uncontaminated by circumstellar radiation. On this basis the spectral irradiance (usually expressed in janskys) for the zero magnitude point, as a function of wavelength, can be computed.[8] Small deviations are specified between systems using measurement apparatuses developed independently so that data obtained by different astronomers can be properly compared, but of greater practical importance is the definition of magnitude not at a single wavelength but applying to the response of standard spectral filters used in photometry over various wavelength bands.

Limiting Magnitudes for Visual Observation at High Magnification[9]

Telescope aperture (mm)	Limiting Magnitude
35	11.3
60	12.3
102	13.3
152	14.1
203	14.7
305	15.4
406	15.7
508	16.4

With the modern magnitude systems, brightness over a very wide range is specified according to the logarithmic definition detailed below, using this zero reference. In practice such apparent magnitudes do not exceed 30 (for detectable measurements). The brightness of Vega is exceeded by four stars in the night sky at visible wavelengths (and more at infrared wavelengths) as well as the bright planets Venus, Mars, and Jupiter, and these must be described by negative magnitudes. For example, Sirius, the brightest star of the celestial sphere, has a magnitude of −1.4 in the visible. Negative magnitudes for other very bright astronomical objects can be found in the table below.

Astronomers have developed other photometric zeropoint systems as alternatives to the Vega system. The most widely used is the AB magnitude system,[10] in which photometric zeropoints are based on a hypothetical reference spectrum having constant flux per unit frequency interval, rather than using a stellar spectrum or blackbody curve as the reference. The AB magnitude zeropoint is defined such that an object's AB and Vega-based magnitudes will be approximately equal in the V filter band.

Measurement

Main article: Photometry (astronomy)

Precision measurement of magnitude (photometry) requires calibration of the photographic or (usually) electronic detection apparatus. This generally involves contemporaneous observation, under identical conditions, of standard stars whose magnitude using that spectral filter is accurately known. Moreover, as the amount of light actually received by a telescope is reduced due to transmission through the Earth's atmosphere, the airmasses of the target and calibration stars must be taken into account. Typically one would observe a few different stars of known magnitude which are sufficiently similar. Calibrator stars close in the sky to the target are favoured (to avoid large differences in the atmospheric paths). If those stars have somewhat different zenith angles (altitudes) then a correction factor as a function of airmass can be derived and applied to the airmass at the target's position. Such calibration obtains the brightnesses as would be observed from above the atmosphere, where apparent magnitude is defined.

Calculations

Image of 30 Doradus taken by ESO's VISTA. This nebula has a visual magnitude of 8.

Graph of relative brightness versus magnitude

The dimmer an object appears, the higher the numerical value given to its magnitude, with a difference of 5 magnitudes corresponding to a brightness factor of exactly 100. Therefore, the magnitude m, in the spectral band x, would be given by

${\displaystyle m_{x}=-5\log _{100}\left({\frac {F_{x}}{F_{x,0}}}\right),}$

which is more commonly expressed in terms of common (base-10) logarithms as

${\displaystyle m_{x}=-2.5\log _{10}\left({\frac {F_{x}}{F_{x,0}}}\right),}$

where F_x is the observed flux density using spectral filter x, and F_x,0 is the reference flux (zero-point) for that photometric filter. Since an increase of 5 magnitudes corresponds to a decrease in brightness by a factor of exactly 100, each magnitude increase implies a decrease in brightness by the factor ⁵√100 ≈ 2.512 (Pogson's ratio). Inverting the above formula, a magnitude difference m₁ − m₂ = Δm implies a brightness factor of

${\displaystyle {\frac {F_{2}}{F_{1}}}=100^{\frac {\Delta m}{5}}=10^{0.4\Delta m}\approx 2.512^{\Delta m}.}$

Example: Sun and Moon

What is the ratio in brightness between the Sun and the full Moon?

The apparent magnitude of the Sun is −26.74[11] (brighter), and the mean magnitude of the full moon is −12.74[12] (dimmer).

Difference in magnitude:

${\displaystyle x=m_{1}-m_{2}=(-12.74)-(-26.74)=14.00.}$

Brightness factor:

${\displaystyle v_{b}=10^{0.4x}=10^{0.4\times 14.00}\approx 398\,107.}$

The Sun appears about 400000 times brighter than the full moon.

Magnitude addition

Sometimes one might wish to add brightnesses. For example, photometry on closely separated double stars may only be able to produce a measurement of their combined light output. How would we reckon the combined magnitude of that double star knowing only the magnitudes of the individual components? This can be done by adding the brightnesses (in linear units) corresponding to each magnitude.[13]

${\displaystyle 10^{-m_{f}\times 0.4}=10^{-m_{1}\times 0.4}+10^{-m_{2}\times 0.4}.}$

Solving for ${\displaystyle m_{f}}$ yields

${\displaystyle m_{f}=-2.5\log _{10}\left(10^{-m_{1}\times 0.4}+10^{-m_{2}\times 0.4}\right),}$

where m_f is the resulting magnitude after adding the brightnesses referred to by m₁ and m₂.

Apparent bolometric magnitude

While magnitude generally refers to a measurement in a particular filter band corresponding to some range of wavelengths, the apparent or absolute bolometric magnitude (m_bol) is a measure of an object's apparent or absolute brightness integrated over all wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum (also known as the object's irradiance or power, respectively). The zeropoint of the apparent bolometric magnitude scale is based on the definition that an apparent bolometric magnitude of 0 mag is equivalent to a received irradiance of 2.518×10⁻⁸ watts per square metre (W·m⁻²).[14]

Absolute magnitude

Main article: Absolute magnitude

While apparent magnitude is a measure of the brightness of an object as seen by a particular observer, absolute magnitude is a measure of the intrinsic brightness of an object. Flux decreases with distance according to an inverse-square law, so the apparent magnitude of a star depends on both its absolute brightness and its distance (and any extinction). For example, a star at one distance will have the same apparent magnitude as a star four times brighter at twice that distance. In contrast, the intrinsic brightness of an astronomical object, does not depend on the distance of the observer or any extinction.

The absolute magnitude M, of a star or astronomical object is defined as the apparent magnitude it would have as seen from a distance of 10 parsecs (33 ly). The absolute magnitude of the Sun is 4.83 in the V band (visual), 4.68 in the Gaia satellite's G band (green) and 5.48 in the B band (blue).[15][16][17]

In the case of a planet or asteroid, the absolute magnitude H rather means the apparent magnitude it would have if it were 1 astronomical unit (150,000,000 km) from both the observer and the Sun, and fully illuminated (a configuration that is only theoretically achievable, with the observer situated on the surface of the Sun).

Standard reference values

Standard apparent magnitudes and fluxes for typical bands[18]

Band	λ (μm)	Δλ/λ (FWHM)	Flux at m = 0, Fx,0
			Jy	10^−20 erg/(s·cm^2·Hz)
U	0.36	0.15	1810	1.81
B	0.44	0.22	4260	4.26
V	0.55	0.16	3640	3.64
R	0.64	0.23	3080	3.08
I	0.79	0.19	2550	2.55
J	1.26	0.16	1600	1.60
H	1.60	0.23	1080	1.08
K	2.22	0.23	0670	0.67
L	3.50
g	0.52	0.14	3730	3.73
r	0.67	0.14	4490	4.49
i	0.79	0.16	4760	4.76
z	0.91	0.13	4810	4.81

The magnitude scale is a reverse logarithmic scale. A common misconception is that the logarithmic nature of the scale is because the human eye itself has a logarithmic response. In Pogson's time this was thought to be true (see Weber–Fechner law), but it is now believed that the response is a power law (see Stevens' power law).[19]

Magnitude is complicated by the fact that light is not monochromatic. The sensitivity of a light detector varies according to the wavelength of the light, and the way it varies depends on the type of light detector. For this reason, it is necessary to specify how the magnitude is measured for the value to be meaningful. For this purpose the UBV system is widely used, in which the magnitude is measured in three different wavelength bands: U (centred at about 350 nm, in the near ultraviolet), B (about 435 nm, in the blue region) and V (about 555 nm, in the middle of the human visual range in daylight). The V band was chosen for spectral purposes and gives magnitudes closely corresponding to those seen by the human eye. When an apparent magnitude is discussed without further qualification, the V magnitude is generally understood.

Because cooler stars, such as red giants and red dwarfs, emit little energy in the blue and UV regions of the spectrum, their power is often under-represented by the UBV scale. Indeed, some L and T class stars have an estimated magnitude of well over 100, because they emit extremely little visible light, but are strongest in infrared.

Measures of magnitude need cautious treatment and it is extremely important to measure like with like. On early 20th century and older orthochromatic (blue-sensitive) photographic film, the relative brightnesses of the blue supergiant Rigel and the red supergiant Betelgeuse irregular variable star (at maximum) are reversed compared to what human eyes perceive, because this archaic film is more sensitive to blue light than it is to red light. Magnitudes obtained from this method are known as photographic magnitudes, and are now considered obsolete.

For objects within the Milky Way with a given absolute magnitude, 5 is added to the apparent magnitude for every tenfold increase in the distance to the object. For objects at very great distances (far beyond the Milky Way), this relationship must be adjusted for redshifts and for non-Euclidean distance measures due to general relativity.[20][21]

For planets and other Solar System bodies, the apparent magnitude is derived from its phase curve and the distances to the Sun and observer.

List of apparent magnitudes

Apparent visual magnitudes of celestial objects

Apparent magnitude (V)	Object	Seen from...	Notes
−67.57	gamma-ray burst GRB 080319B	seen from 1 AU away
−40.07	star Zeta^1 Scorpii	seen from 1 AU away
−39.66	star R136a1	seen from 1 AU away
−38.00	star Rigel	seen from 1 AU away	It would be seen as a large very bright bluish disk of 35° apparent diameter.
−30.30	star Sirius A	seen from 1 AU away
−29.30	star Sun	seen from Mercury at perihelion
−27.40	star Sun	seen from Venus at perihelion
−26.74	star Sun	seen from Earth[11]	About 400,000 times brighter than mean full moon
−25.60	star Sun	seen from Mars at aphelion
−25.00	Minimum brightness that causes the typical eye slight pain to look at
−23.00	star Sun	seen from Jupiter at aphelion
−21.70	star Sun	seen from Saturn at aphelion
−20.20	star Sun	seen from Uranus at aphelion
−19.30	star Sun	seen from Neptune
−18.20	star Sun	seen from Pluto at aphelion
−16.70	star Sun	seen from Eris at aphelion
−14.20	An illumination level of 1 lux[22][23]
−12.90	full moon	seen from Earth at perihelion	maximum brightness of perigee + perihelion + full moon (mean distance value is −12.74,[12] though values are about 0.18 magnitude brighter when including the opposition effect)
−12.40	Betelgeuse	seen from Earth when it goes supernova[24]
−11.20	star Sun	seen from Sedna at aphelion
−10.00	Comet Ikeya–Seki (1965)	seen from Earth	which was the brightest Kreutz Sungrazer of modern times[25]
−9.50	Iridium (satellite) flare	seen from Earth	maximum brightness
−7.50	supernova of 1006	seen from Earth	the brightest stellar event in recorded history (7200 light-years away)[26]
−6.50	The total integrated magnitude of the night sky	seen from Earth
−6.00	Crab Supernova of 1054	seen from Earth	(6500 light-years away)[27]
−5.90	International Space Station	seen from Earth	when the ISS is at its perigee and fully lit by the Sun[28]
−4.92	planet Venus	seen from Earth	maximum brightness[29] when illuminated as a crescent
−4.14	planet Venus	seen from Earth	mean brightness[29]
−4	Faintest objects observable during the day with naked eye when Sun is high
−3.99	star Epsilon Canis Majoris	seen from Earth	maximum brightness of 4.7 million years ago, the historical brightest star of the last and next five million years
−2.98	planet Venus	seen from Earth	minimum brightness when it is on the far side of the Sun[29]
−2.94	planet Jupiter	seen from Earth	maximum brightness[29]
−2.94	planet Mars	seen from Earth	maximum brightness[29]
−2.5	Faintest objects visible during the day with naked eye when Sun is less than 10° above the horizon
−2.50	new moon	seen from Earth	minimum brightness
−2.48	planet Mercury	seen from Earth	maximum brightness at superior conjunction (unlike Venus, Mercury is at its brightest when on the far side of the Sun, the reason being their different phase curves)[29]
−2.20	planet Jupiter	seen from Earth	mean brightness[29]
−1.66	planet Jupiter	seen from Earth	minimum brightness[29]
−1.47	star system Sirius	seen from Earth	Brightest star except for the Sun at visible wavelengths[30]
−0.83	star Eta Carinae	seen from Earth	apparent brightness as a supernova impostor in April 1843
−0.72	star Canopus	seen from Earth	2nd brightest star in night sky[31]
−0.55	planet Saturn	seen from Earth	maximum brightness near opposition and perihelion when the rings are angled toward Earth[29]
−0.3	Halley's comet	seen from Earth	Expected apparent magnitude at 2061 passage
−0.27	star system Alpha Centauri AB	seen from Earth	Combined magnitude (3rd brightest star in night sky)
−0.04	star Arcturus	seen from Earth	4th brightest star to the naked eye[32]
−0.01	star Alpha Centauri A	seen from Earth	4th brightest individual star visible telescopically in the night sky
+0.03	star Vega	seen from Earth	which was originally chosen as a definition of the zero point[33]
+0.23	planet Mercury	seen from Earth	mean brightness[29]
+0.50	star Sun	seen from Alpha Centauri
+0.46	planet Saturn	seen from Earth	mean brightness[29]
+0.71	planet Mars	seen from Earth	mean brightness[29]
+1.17	planet Saturn	seen from Earth	minimum brightness[29]
+1.86	planet Mars	seen from Earth	minimum brightness[29]
+3.03	supernova SN 1987A	seen from Earth	in the Large Magellanic Cloud (160,000 light-years away)
+3 to +4	Faintest stars visible in an urban neighborhood with naked eye
+3.44	Andromeda Galaxy	seen from Earth	M31[34]
+4	Orion Nebula	seen from Earth	M42
+4.38	moon Ganymede	seen from Earth	maximum brightness[35] (moon of Jupiter and the largest moon in the Solar System)
+4.50	open cluster M41	seen from Earth	an open cluster that may have been seen by Aristotle[36]
+4.5	Sagittarius Dwarf Spheroidal Galaxy	seen from Earth
+5.20	asteroid Vesta	seen from Earth	maximum brightness
+5.38[37]	planet Uranus	seen from Earth	maximum brightness[29]
+5.68	planet Uranus	seen from Earth	mean brightness[29]
+5.72	spiral galaxy M33	seen from Earth	which is used as a test for naked eye seeing under dark skies[38][39]
+5.8	gamma-ray burst GRB 080319B	seen from Earth	Peak visual magnitude (the "Clarke Event") seen on Earth on 19 March 2008 from a distance of 7.5 billion light-years.
+6.03	planet Uranus	seen from Earth	minimum brightness[29]
+6.49	asteroid Pallas	seen from Earth	maximum brightness
+6.5	Approximate limit of stars observed by a mean naked eye observer under very good conditions. There are about 9,500 stars visible to mag 6.5.[3]
+6.64	dwarf planet Ceres	seen from Earth	maximum brightness
+6.75	asteroid Iris	seen from Earth	maximum brightness
+6.90	spiral galaxy M81	seen from Earth	This is an extreme naked-eyetarget that pushes human eyesight and the Bortle scale to the limit[40]
+7 to +8	Extreme naked-eye limit, Class 1 on Bortle scale, the darkest skies available on Earth[41]
+7.25	planet Mercury	seen from Earth	minimum brightness[29]
+7.67[42]	planet Neptune	seen from Earth	maximum brightness[29]
+7.78	planet Neptune	seen from Earth	mean brightness[29]
+8.00	planet Neptune	seen from Earth	minimum brightness[29]
+8.10	moon Titan	seen from Earth	maximum brightness; largest moon of Saturn;[43][44] mean opposition magnitude 8.4[45]
+8.29	star UY Scuti	seen from Earth	Maximum brightness; one of largest known stars by radius
+8.94	asteroid 10 Hygiea	seen from Earth	maximum brightness[46]
+9.50	Faintest objects visible using common 7×50 binoculars under typical conditions[47]
+10.20	moon Iapetus	seen from Earth	maximum brightness,[44] brightest when west of Saturn and takes 40 days to switch sides
+11.05	star Proxima Centauri	seen from Earth	2nd closest star
+11.8	moon Phobos	seen from Earth	Maximum brightness; brightest moon of Mars
+12.23	star R136a1	seen from Earth	Most luminous and massive star known[48]
+12.89	moon Deimos	seen from Earth	Maximum brightness
+12.91	quasar 3C 273	seen from Earth	brightest (luminosity distance of 2.4 billion light-years)
+13.42	moon Triton	seen from Earth	Maximum brightness[45]
+13.65	dwarf planet Pluto	seen from Earth	maximum brightness,[49] 725 times fainter than magnitude 6.5 naked eye skies
+13.9	moon Titania	seen from Earth	Maximum brightness; brightest moon of Uranus
+14.1	star WR 102	seen from Earth	Hottest known star
+15.4	centaur Chiron	seen from Earth	maximum brightness[50]
+15.55	moon Charon	seen from Earth	maximum brightness (the largest moon of Pluto)
+16.8	dwarf planet Makemake	seen from Earth	Current opposition brightness[51]
+17.27	dwarf planet Haumea	seen from Earth	Current opposition brightness[52]
+18.7	dwarf planet Eris	seen from Earth	Current opposition brightness
+19.5	Faintest objects observable with the Catalina Sky Survey 0.7-meter telescope using a 30 second exposure[53] and also the approximate limiting magnitude of Asteroid Terrestrial-impact Last Alert System (ATLAS)
+20.7	moon Callirrhoe	seen from Earth	(small ≈8 km satellite of Jupiter)[45]
+22	Faintest objects observable in visible light with a 600 mm (24″) Ritchey-Chrétien telescope with 30 minutes of stacked images (6 subframes at 5 minutes each) using a CCD detector[54]
+22.8	Luhman 16	seen from Earth	Closest brown dwarfs (Luhman 16A=23.25, Luhman 16B=24.07)[55]
+22.91	moon Hydra	seen from Earth	maximum brightness of Pluto's moon
+23.38	moon Nix	seen from Earth	maximum brightness of Pluto's moon
+24	Faintest objects observable with the Pan-STARRS 1.8-meter telescope using a 60 second exposure[56] This is currently the limiting magnitude of automated Astronomical surveys.
+25.0	moon Fenrir	seen from Earth	(small ≈4 km satellite of Saturn)[57]
+27.7	Faintest objects observable with a single 8-meter class ground-based telescope such as the Subaru Telescope in a 10-hour image[58]
+28.2	Halley's Comet	seen from Earth (2003)	in 2003 when it was 28 AU (4.2 billion km) from the Sun, imaged using 3 of 4 synchronised individual scopes in the ESO's Very Large Telescope array using a total exposure time of about 9 hours[59]
+28.4	asteroid 2003 BH91	seen from Earth orbit	observed magnitude of ≈15-kilometer Kuiper belt object Seen by the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) in 2003, dimmest known directly-observed asteroid.
+31.5	Faintest objects observable in visible light with Hubble Space Telescope via the EXtreme Deep Field with ~23 days of exposure time collected over 10 years[60]
+34	Faintest objects observable in visible light with James Webb Space Telescope[61]
+35	unnamed asteroid	seen from Earth orbit	expected magnitude of dimmest known asteroid, a 950-meter Kuiper belt object discovered by the HST passing in front of a star in 2009.[62]
+35	star LBV 1806-20	seen from Earth	a luminous blue variable star, expected magnitude at visible wavelengths due to interstellar extinction
See also: List of brightest stars

Some of the listed magnitudes are approximate. Telescope sensitivity depends on observing time, optical bandpass, and interfering light from scattering and airglow.

See also

• Luminosity in astronomy
• List of nearest bright stars
• List of nearest stars
• Surface brightness
• Distance modulus

References

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External links

• "The astronomical magnitude scale". International Comet Quarterly.